AP US History MIdterm review

Plans to further unify the U.S. economy, such as the American System, generated debates over whether such policies would benefit agriculture or industry, potentially favoring different sections of the country.

* American System promoted by Henry Clay and Whigs [and later, Lincoln, who enacted much of it during Civil War]; North largely in favor, as it promoted the kind of society they were building * South preferred a less nationalist approach, and one more supportive of slavery and agriculture * Jackson went out of his way to destroy the American System * Calhoun largely opposed to it, and only joined Whigs out of opposition to Jackson * Southerner John Tyler vetoed most of the Whig program when he became president

Liberal social ideas from abroad and Romantic beliefs in human perfectibility influenced literature, art, philosophy, and architecture.

* Fourierism brought a theory of social evolution to America, and applied here to free workers from capitalist employers * European Romanticism began driving in ideas about the beauty of nature, the goodness of mankind (the "noble savage" idea emerges here), the supernatural nature of the world, the models of history and myth, the importance of feeling, imagination, and intuition over reason * British example of abolition both inspired and frightened Americans on either side of the slavery issue * Emerson, Thoreau, Fuller, Whitman writing American Transcendentalism (American Renaissance / American versions of Romanticism) * Emerson: "Self-Reliance"; "The American Scholar" ; Nature; his poetry * Thoreau: "Civil Disobedience"; Walden * Fuller: edited The Dial, wrote Woman in the Nineteenth Century *Whitman: Leaves of Grass; "Song of Myself" [bit out of period] C) cont. * Hudson River School began painting these enormous canvases of scenes from nature in upstate New York and elsewhere (Thomas Cole followed the Erie Canal to do the first paintings of the area * Emerson and Thoreau's works double as philosophy and lit * Architecture: Greek Revival Style [columns], Gothic Revival [St. Patrick's Cathedral, NYC]m Italiante style [emphatic eaves and flat roofs]

The United States government forged diplomatic initiatives aimed atmdealing with the continued British and Spanish presence in North America, as U.S. settlers migrated beyond the Appalachians and sought free navigation of the Mississippi River.

* Jay's Treaty got the British to agree to abandon Northwest Territory Forts more than a decade after they were supposed to * Pinckney's Treaty secured the right to use the Mississippi from the Spanish

In the early 1800s, national political parties continued to debate issues such as the tariff, powers of the federal government, and relations with European powers.

* Jeffersonians dedicated to reducing the powers of the federal government (allowed Alien and Sedition Acts, Bank of the United States to lapse; removed forty of Federalist "midnight appointments"; abolished all internal taxes, including the dreaded Whiskey Rebellion tax; reduced size of army; Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin lowered national debt in half, cut ties with Hamiltonian elites) * Jeffersonians, somewhat hypocritically, expanded the power of the federal government through the disaster of the Embargo Act of 1807, and the smashing success of the Louisiana Purchase (which then drove the Federalists in New England and New York to ponder secession in the Essex Junto of 1804, which led to Aaron Burr joining them, and then dueling with Alexander Hamilton - got milk? - Federalists saw their power seriously threatened by new states in West and South that would almost certainly be Jeffersonian) * Jefferson was pro-French, until issue of New Orleans being blocked arose (Louisiana Purchase resolved this problem) * Embargo Act, then Non-Intercourse Act, tried to ban and/or limit trade with Britain and France to try and stop them from interfering with American trade, as well as British impressment * War of 1812 deeply opposed by Federalists, who wanted to keep trading with Britain, and definitely did NOT want war, despite interference with trade and impressment; Jeffersonian War Hawks were westerners who wanted the war to go grab Canada, kill western Indians (Tecumseh and his brother Temskwatawa), and grab Florida (voting records show it was a "western war with eastern labels") * Federalists blocked the War of 1812 in any way possible - refused to make loans to the government, refused to commit militias, refused to support tariffs to finance war, even celebrated British victories at times * Hartford Convention of 1814 toyed with secession, but instead proposed limiting the powers of the federal government (one term presidency, 60-day limit to trade embargoes, 2/3 vote to declare war, prohibit trade, or admit new states); Jackson's victory in New Orleans, and end of war, made them seem traitors * Hamiltonian idea of protective tariff resurrected by Henry Clay in the aftermath of War of 1812; Tariff of 1816 (textiles) * Second Bank of the United States created in 1816 by Henry Clay and James Madison because they'd realized without a national bank, federal government couldn't run a war or economy effectively (Federalists ran the biggest state banks) * Clay proposed internal improvements to expand infrastructure, but Madison vetoed on a strict interpretation, and suggested a constitutional amendment to allow them

Following the Louisiana Purchase, the United States government sought influence and control over North America and the Western Hemisphere through a variety of means, including exploration, military actions, American Indian removal, and diplomatic efforts such as the Monroe Doctrine.

* Louisiana Purchase acquired from Napoleon (loss of Haiti and desperate need for cash led him to sell it for $15 million) * Lewis and Clark sent to explore * Congress consistently lowered the price of land to encourage migration and yeoman status (Jeffersonian ideal) * William Henry Harrison defeated Temskwatawa at Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811 * War of 1812 fought, in large part, to assert control over West, because British were arming Native Americans and encouraging resistance to American hegemony; Andrew Jackson celebrated as much for his victory over the Creek at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend as he was for his victory over British at Battle of New Orleans * John Quincy Adams is the most important diplomat of the period: negotiated Treaty of Ghent, ending War of 1812; Rush- Bagot Treaty fixed the national boundary on the Great Lakes; he also negotiated the boundary of the Louisiana Purchase with Britain along Canadian border; Adams-Onis Treaty acquired Florida from Spain [Andrew Jackson had already invaded it, and Adams used Jackson to scare Spain into selling it] and ceded claims Texas to Spain * Monroe Doctrine, combined with position of neutrality, would drive most of American foreign policy well into the 20 th century; John Quincy Adams crafted the Monroe Doctrine as a response to the independence movements in central and South America: 1) New World now off limits to Europe; 2) promised to not interfere with European politics or wars [neutrality reinforced]; 3) Western hemisphere meant for republics, not aristocracies * Native Americans put under removal policy, to clear the way for white settlement; Jackson and others argued that it was best for the Native Americans, to protect them and their culture from alcohol and white exploitation; War of 1812 saw Creek forced to cede millions of acres; many Cherokee had assimilated to white ways, including African slavery, so they didn't think they had to remove [Sequoyah had created a Cherokee written language, and a constitution based on U.S. Constitution]; Georgia didn't care: they wanted Cherokee gone - and Jackson supported Georgia, removing federal troops protecting Cherokee, as well as passing A) cont. the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which created Indian Territory [Oklahoma] and "asked" Native Americans east of Mississippi River to move there; government "promised" Native Americans it would be theirs forever * Black Hawk War fought to push Native Americans out of Illinois and into Wisconsin, and then west of Mississippi [Lincoln participated] * Cherokee went to the Supreme Court twice to try and protect themselves from Georgia: Cherokee Nation v. Georgia ruled that the Cherokee were not a sovereign nation, but under the control of the federal government; Worcester v. Georgia rule against Georgia, saying a state had no right to tell Cherokee what to do, as this was a federal matter: Andrew Jackson openly defied the Supreme Court ruling: "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it." * Trail of Tears resulted in over 3,000 Cherokee dying when Martin Van Buren ordered army to move them in the middle of winter to Oklahoma * only Seminoles in Florida successfully resisted American attempts to remove them

Spanish efforts to extract wealth from the land led them to develop institutions based on subjugating native populations, converting them to Christianity, and incorporating them, along with enslaved and free Africans, into the Spanish colonial society.

* encomienda system * casta system * forced assimilation by Catholic priests * Native American labor replaced by African slavery

Innovations including textile machinery, steam engines, interchangeable parts, the telegraph, and agricultural inventions increased the efficiency of production methods.

* The U.S. was the second nation to industrialize, following in Britain's footsteps (and often engaging in serious industrial espionage in order to do so, as well as hiring British mechanics like Samuel Slater; American Francis Cabot Lowell toured British factories then went back to hotel and drew out plans) * outwork system replaced artisans (and then was replaced by the factory system in turn: good example was the "disassembly" of pigs in "Porkopolis" by a system of overhead rails) * American advantages: abundant natural resources, the fall line of the Appalachian mountains offered cheap water power, American inventiveness countered lack of cheap labor with technological innovations (British had cheap labor, so they didn't turn to tech as we did; British also had better banking and control of Atlantic trade; Lowell Mill girls and then Irish immigrants gave us cheaper labor); protective tariffs also aided us * Franklin Institute and other mechanics' associations provided education and support for technological innovation (patens went from 200 a year in 1820 to four thousand a year in 1860) * machine tools invented to create parts efficiently and exactly * Eli Whitney's invention of interchangeable parts pointed to more efficient way to make goods, and repair them, than artisans * machine tools led to better textile machines, which worked faster and better than British as a result * Market Revolution resulted when transportation networks were built in the 1820s to make delivery of supplies and goods faster, more efficient, and farther reaching * National Road built by federal government from Mayrland through Illinois * Erie Canal the great breakthrough, ending the transportation bottleneck over the Appalachian Mountains when it was finished in 1825 [tied together the Northeast to the Northwest, both politically and economically, tying New England manufactured goods and western food, and allowing massive migration west, especially for Puritan descendants who moved entire towns and churches west) * national canal boom resulted throughout the North * rivers linked together the West, but invention of steamboat by Robert Fulton critical, because steamboats could go upstream * water power eventually replaced by coal-driven steam engines, on both land and sea * railroads eventually became the dominant transportation network, eventually displacing canals and river travel * Cities and manufacturing spread across the North as a result (much less so than in the South, which stayed committed to slavery and agriculture) * Samuel F. B. Morse's invention of telegraph offered first rapid communication network, facilitating trade and exchange of information * Cyrus McCormick's reaper dramatically expanded a farmer's ability to reap grain - from 2 acres a day, to 12 acres a day * John Deere's steel plow allowed more production, and also let the Great Plains be farmed [dense mat of vegetation couldn't be cut easily with old iron plows) * New York City used the Erie Canal to seize the leadership in the American economy, and rapidly dominated foreign and domestic trade

Frontier settlers tended to champion expansion efforts, while American Indian resistance led to a sequence of wars and federal efforts to control and relocate American Indian populations.

especially Tippecanoe, Horseshoe Bend, Black Hawk War, Indian Removal Act, Trail of Tears * Tecumseh organized resistance with his brother the Prophet, Temskwatawa, but Americans defeated them

Describe some of the early abolitionists.

Abolitionist organizations rose up and there was a more increasingly sentiment for abolition. The American Colonization Society formed with the sole purpose of sending black people back to Africa. Liberia was formed in West Africa and it was former slaves,"fifteen thousand freed blacks were transported there over the next four decades." Many abolitionists would go around the North trying to get support for their cause by preaching, for example Henry Ward Beecher.

Was John Quincy Adams well suited to be president? Explain.

Absolutely. He was experienced and he has been involved in the American government for a long time. He was secretary of state during Monroes presidency. He had a brilliant record.

Was frontier fighting important in the outcome of the war?

Absolutely. The British were vulnerable in the frontier. Many natives sided with the British because they were afraid of the Americans taking their land if they won.

Explain the reasons for the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts.

Adams was afraid of French aliens and he was not liking the Dem Reps criticizing the government. Federalists were in power of the congress and executive branch. They didn't want the dregs of Europe. It was too soon for people to be speaking out against gov.

What caused the Panic of 1837, and what was done by the president to try and end it?

Financial sickness. Get rich schemes. Such speculation. Crops suffered. British banks failed. Pet Banks crashed which held government funds.

Antislavery efforts increased in the North, while in the South, although the majority of Southerners owned no slaves, most leaders argued that slavery was part of the Southern way of life.

"American Colonization Society tried to send Africans back to Africa * Garrison, Douglass, and others shifted to full on abolition (immediate uncompensated emancipation) * as the North began to cast slavery as a sin and un-Christian, South began to shift from a "necessary evil" argument to a "positive good" argument [cotton gin and profits drove defense, but they also went to the Bible: "Servants, obey thy masters"; tale of Ham's curse to be "hewers of wood and bearers of water"; Southerners began to argue that they took better care of their "workers" than the North did: cradle to grave care, whereas North dumped their labor force at a moment's notice when profits declined B) Cont. * Mexican-American war assaulted by abolitionists as a war to spread slavery (Henry David Thoreau wrote "Civil Disobedience" as a response to the war and slavery; in Walden, a runaway slave spends the night with Thoreau at his little cabin, suggesting Thoreau may have been a stop on the Underground Railroad)

During and after the American Revolution, an increased awareness of inequalities in society motivated some individuals and groups to call for the abolition of slavery and greater political democracy in the new state and national governments.

"All men are created equal." Massachusetts took that very seriously, becoming the first state to abolish existing slavery (North followed suit gradually) * Vermont abolished slavery from 1777 * Pennsylvania passed law in 1780 that said any child born afterwards could not be a slave (Quakers were first major group to oppose slavery, led by John Woolman; Franklin, who had owned at least one slave, became an abolitionist towards the end of his life * During war, British royal governor Lord Dunmore offered emancipation to Patriot-held slaves; raised the Ethiopian Regiment * Thousands of slaves fled to British to gain freedom * Jefferson tried to blame King George III for slavery, but passage was removed by South * Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware passed laws allowing for manumission, which gradually increased #s of free blacks * Northwest Ordinance of 1787 banished slavery there * international slave trade could be abolished after 1808 - and was, by Jefferson * Fugitive Slave clause * 3/5 Compromise * American Colonization Society (1817) wanted to free slaves, but send them back to Africa * Middle class and westerners pushed for more political control and equality with ruling merchant and planter elites - Paxton Boys, North Carolina Regulators, South Carolina Regulators, Shays' Rebellion, Whiskey Rebellion * Capitals often moved inland to put center of power nearer C) cont. poorer westerners (Albany, NY, for example) * "middling" classes gained political power; merchant and planter elites increasingly challenged; franchise for white males slowly lost the property requirement * the idea of deference to your social betters was destroyed * Abigail Adams, "Remember the Ladies" * Judith Sargent Murray, "On the Equality of the Sexes" * Massachusetts and other New England states created more education for women, and schooling spread in northeast * Women got the right to vote in New Jersey (until 1807) * "republican motherhood" / "companionate marriage" - in theory at least, women should receive an education, and be treated equally in marriage [largely theoretical] * Native Americans consistently denied rights; siding with the British in the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812 led to Americans assuming that the land was now theirs instead of the various tribes

The Constitutional Convention compromised over the representation ofmslave states in Congress and the role of the federal government in regulating both slavery and the slave trade, allowing the prohibition of the international slave trade after 1808.

* 3/5 Compromise (North got the raw end of this deal, since per capita taxation never came into play; south gained a substantial advantage in Electoral College and House) * international slave trade couldn't be touched until 1808 * Fugitive Slave clause in place

Enslaved blacks and free African Americans created communities and strategies to protect their dignity and family structures, and they joined political efforts aimed at changing their status.

* Adoption of English provided a common tongue for most slaves, helping to erode tribal thinking (Gullah dialect didn't travel to new areas) * Second Great Awakening saw a widespread adoption of Christianity, which gave a common religion, as well as a narrative for freedom (Moses and the Hebrews enslaved by the Egyptians, and their escape to freedom) and a message of equality with whites, as both white and black were children of God * African-American "ring shout" / call and response (later turned into the structure of jazz) transformed Christian services * African prohibitions against incest persisted * jumping the broom marriage ceremonies * fictive kinship for "aunts" and "uncles" preserved family * naming practices continued from Africa * black churches formed (free blacks also created a variety of institutions to help them survive, from churches to newspapers to schools to relief societies) * slaves learned to negotiate with masters for rewards and limits on work, through the task system and the right to be hired out for extra work and pay * passive resistance most effective response to slavery, but running away and violence not uncommon * Nat Turner's Rebellion the largest attempt to violently overthrow slavery in this period * David Walker wrote his Appeal to threaten violent response if slavery were not ended * 1830 national convention in Philadelphia called for free blacks to devise response to slavery: they wanted freedom and race equality * many free blacks joined the abolitionist movement, and whites and blacks together founded the American Anti-Slavery Society, as well as other groups * free blacks helped support William Lloyd Garrison and his newspaper, The Liberator * free blacks helped form and run the Underground Railroad (Harriet Tubman most famous conductor) * helped send petitions to Congress to end slavery * Frederick Douglass and other former slaves spoke on abolitionist circuit, wrote books, published articles and newspapers

As chattel slavery became the dominant labor system in many southern colonies, new laws created a strict racial system that prohibited interracial relationships and defined the descendants of African American mothers as black and enslaved in perpetuity.

* 1662 Virginia law made slave status dependent on who mother was * 1669 Virginia law made murder of a slave by owner not punishable by law * 1675-76 Bacon's Rebellion made African slavery the preferred labor force * 1692 interracial sex made illegal (widely ignored by white males, but a major infraction for black males) * 1705: Virginia made all Africans, by definition, slaves * other laws passed: Africans couldn't own guns, join militia, own white indentured servants, or be freed by religious conversion

Americans formed new voluntary organizations that aimed to change individual behaviors and improve society through temperance and other reform efforts.

* Second Great Awakening created new organized reform societies, which selected and trained missionaries and produced religious texts: American Education Society; Bible Society; Sunday School Union; Tract Society; Home Missionary Society * American Anti-Slavery Society organized abolitionist efforts (William Lloyd Garrison, The Liberator) * Benevolent Empire: series of organized attempts to stop alcoholism, adultery, prostitution, crime - and various groups formed for just that purpose [modern equivalent: M.A.D.D.] * American Temperance Society: temperance wildly successful: alcohol consumption fell from 5 gallons per capita in 1830 to 2 gallons in 1845 ("taking the pledge"; the "Cold Water Cure"; hundreds of thousands of children joined the "Cold Water Army"); Irish and German immigrants HATED temperance movement, as well as Sabbatarianism, which said they couldn't have fun on their one day off a week from work (Sabbatarianism tried to close down all businesses and transportation on Sundays [effects lasted well into the 20 th century, with most businesses remaining closed on Sundays as late as the Seventies]) * Dorothea Dix formed movements to reform the treatment of the insane and criminals * health food movements rampant throughout nineteenth century (minister Sylvester Graham invented the Graham cracker as a health food that would curb masturbation...he blamed cookies for the urge to sex...today's Graham cracker is full of sugar...) [out of period, but Kellogg's Corn Flakes began to be sold in the early twentieth century as a remedy for the ills Kellogg thought eating meat caused...] * Thoreau hated these groups, making fun of them in Walden: "If I knew for a certainty that a man was coming to my house with the conscious design of doing me good, I would run for my life." [He objected to any kind of forced behavior; the individual should make all choices for him or herself]

The Spanish developed a caste system that incorporated, and carefully defined the status of, the diverse population of Europeans, Africans, and Native Americans in their empire.

* The "casta" system had specifically labeled categories which placed every kind of person on a social hierarchy that pinned them to a specific status. * Top rank were pure Spaniards born in Spain, called peninsulares; in descending rank, creoles (pure Spaniards born in the Americas), mestizos (Spanish and Native American), mulattos (European and African), zambos (African and Native American), Native Americans, and enslaved Africans. *Catholicism was required, as was the Spanish language

In the face of economic shortages and the British military occupation of some regions, men and women mobilized in large numbers to provide financial and material support to the Patriot movement.

* women made homespun cloth * men joined Continental Army and state militias * paid taxes to Patriot governments * supported boycotts * closed courts to prevent land seizures * women joined army as "camp followers" to cook, clean, and nurse (Molly Pitcher is an amalgam of several women; she never existed) * donated supplies to army * women ran farms and businesses while men were away * slaves and free blacks fought for Continental Army

A women's rights movement sought to create greater equality and opportunities for women, expressing its ideals at the Seneca Falls Convention.

* women were supposed to remain at home, in a "separate sphere"; "cult of domesticity" celebrated them as wives and mothers, and magazines and books fed the image of a beautiful home and wife awaiting the husband and children's return (middle class respectability demanded a wife remain at home, and keep the house immaculate [in some sense, this hasn't changed: Martha Stewart, Good Housekeeping, continued disparity in chores being done at home by women more than men, etc] * through their churches, women got involved in reform movements and took up social involvement outside the home * Dorothea Dix reforming treatment of insane and criminals * Women widely supported Horace Mann and his educational reforms: teaching standards, longer school year, training, and most especially, women being hired as teachers (after Lowell Mill girls, the first major job outside the home for women) * involvement in abolition movement led to their own women's rights movement (also, writing became a potential outlet: Harriet Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl; Grimke sisters, abolitionist tracts; Harriet Beecher Stowe, Uncle Tom's Cabin [1852, so a bit out of period]) * women began to argue that their gender were treated just like slaves C) cont. * fight over legal rights began, beginning with successful fight to have married women maintain the right to own property (rich men supported this, as they wanted their daughters to control inheritance, not son-in- laws) * Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott organized the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848, which declared that "All men and women are created equal" - began fight for legal equality, particularly legal rights to sue, testify, have child custody, and control property: most importantly, the fight to vote! * Susan B, Anthony became the most effective crusader

Explain two ways that history may have been different if the French had not sold Louisiana to the United States.

1. There could have been war due to the French gaining deposit privileges. 2. Louisiana might have gone to the British in a treaty to end the war between them.

Explain the economic theory of mercantilism and the role of colonies.

A country's economic wealth would be measured by gold and silver. A country need to export more than it imported. The colonies could both supply the raw materials to England, and provide the market for the exports. American colonists were viewed as tenants. They were expected to furnish products for England, they couldn't make products, they had to buy imported good from Britain, and couldn't dream of economic self sufficiency. Basically the English were using the colonies for the raw materials and forcing them to buy them back in finished form.

George III "slammed the door on all hope of reconciliation. How and why?

After the Olive Branch, he proclaimed the colonies were in rebellion. Hired thousands of Hessian troops. Claimed the colonies were committing treason.

What evidence of nationalism surfaced after the War of 1812?

American literature. School textbooks. The Bank was revived. Handsome national capital.

he antebellum period was a time in which American art began to come of age. Assess.

American started to get it on. Things were happening. Free thinking allowed for development in creativity in literature and art.

Would an American Patriot, reading news of the war in 1780, have been happy about the way the war was going? Explain.

An American might have been suspicious of the decisions the American leadership was making. Getting with the French and hearing of Benedict Arnold as a traitor were not the best of news for many. Britain was taking lots of control in the South due to the loyalist population.

What was the importance of the state constitutions?

Authority of the people. Contracts that defined the power of the government. Bill of rights. Legislatures assumed major role. Sweeping powers.

Give evidence to show that slaves developed a separate, unique culture. What circumstances made this possible?

Black managed to sustain family life,"most slaves were raised in stable two-parent households." Their unique culture was visible in their religion,"blacks in slavery molded their own distinctive religious forms from a mixture of Christian and African elements." They also had their own style of preaching.

What change with Oregon from 1819 to 1844 caused the British to become more willing to negotiate a final boundary?

Britain had strong claims to Oregon due to,"prior discovery and exploration on treaty rights, and on actual occupation." America had strong claims, due to multiple reasons exploration and occupation. For example,"Captain Robert Gray in 1792 had stumbled upon the majestic Columbia River." In 1844 caused the British to become willing to negotiate a final boundary was the rising conflict,"seized hundreds of restless pioneers."

Why was foreign aid so important to the American cause?

Britain was not only fighting war in America, but in Europe also. France guaranteed guns,money,and naval strength. This foreign aid helped a poor country with little money to finance supplies. Without the foreign aid and the other war in Europe, all Britain's efforts would have been focused on America.

How and why did New England Federalists oppose the War of 1812?

British Canada was funding the Natives, giving them things to help fight against Americans. Trade with Britain was important to the NE. They were threatened by the Dem Republicans gaining more power in Canada. They discussed secession. Federalists even sent supplies and food to Canada. America had to fight England and New England.

How did British actions towards Native Americans and American merchant ships incite many Americans?

British agents were selling weapons to the Miami Confederacy. The Natives attacked all along the great lakes (NW). The British seized many American ships along the west indies. This sparked a revival of wanting to fight George III. But Hamilton needed his plan to work through British trade.

How did Aaron Burr demonstrate the weakness of the US government?

Burr firstly wanted the Northeast to secede from the United States. Hamilton revealed his plan which lead to a duel. Burr was trying to create a new country in the western america. The newly acquired land was not governed accordingly under the Constitution.

Explain the causes and effects of the Panic of 1819.

Cause: Overspeculation of frontier lands. Foreclosing on lands. Effects: Deflation, depression, bankruptcies, bank failures, unemployment. To the west, the Bank becomes EVIL!

What kinds of people were Loyalists?

Colonists loyal to the King. Tories (head is in England, but body is in America, and the neck is stretched). 16% of American people. Families would be split (Franklin never spoke to his son again). Education and wealth. They were satisfied. Mainly older generations. Anglican clergy. New York and Charleston.

What factors led to the settlement of the West in the years following the War?

Continuation of old westward movement. Cheap Land. Soil is rundown in the east. Crushing of Indians.

Using examples, explain the title of this section.

England would not even send foreign minister to America. Britain agents tried to annex area to Britain in Vermont. Britain maintained fur trade with natives. Spain controlled the Mississippi and held fort at Natchez. France demanded payback from Americans. North African states were attacking Americas merchant ships.

If the war did not end at Yorktown, then why was it important?

Cornwallis back was the Chesapeake as he was in Yorktown. It cut them off with supplies by land and sea. Cornwallis surrendered 7,000 men. Britain started suffering not only in America, but in their lands around the world.

What was it like to travel in early America?

Dirt roads were treacherously deficient. Travel was dangerous. Some would make a will before departure. River travel was cheap and pleasant. Coastal traffic. Taverns popped up along the routes which would lead to social classes mingling, and exchanges of information.

Explain Marshall's statement;Let the end be legitimate,...are constitutional.

Everything must end within the constitutional boundaries.

What were some key differences between Federalists and Democratic Republicans?

Feds- rule by wealthy and elite, powerful central government, loose constitution, Pro British for trade and growth, manufacture and trade. Dem Reps- ruled by educated masses, powerful state governments, strict constitution, Pro French Agriculture.

Who opposed the embargo and why?

First off it forbid the export of all goods from America. Docks would be deserted. It hurt the New England economy. Farmers could not export cotton, grain or tobacco. It seemed like the embargo act was punishing Americans more than the british or French. Lots of smuggling and black market trade occurred. Federalists gained more praise as the dem repubs did the embargo act. New England opposed it. Non intercourse act opened up trade with the rest of the world, just not Britain or france. The embargo did not really affect the British at all.

Why did the Americans win the battle of Saratoga? Why was it significant?

Firstly, it persuaded the French that the Americans had a chance at winning this thing. The British were very off point with communication when it came to their three pronged plan. Winter came and the British wanted to hunker down.

What was the cause of the Boston Tea Party, and what was its significance?

Firstly, the tea tax made legal tea cheaper than smuggled tea, so people were paying the tea tax. The British East India Company had a huge surplus of tea and was on the verge of bankruptcy. If they failed, the London government would lose lots of tax revenue. The granted the company a monopoly on selling to the colonists. In order for the tea act to work, the tea would need to be unloaded from the ships into the colonies- this never happened. Mass demonstrations led to ships leaving the harbors back to England. Also they would burn the cargo and the vessel to deny delivery. Mass governor Hutchinson enforced that the ships could not leave the harbors unless they were unloaded. It basically lead to a more corrosive attitude between the colonists and the King, which would lead to more troops and more resentment.

How did Parliament enact the theory of mercantilism into policy?

Firstly, they passed the Navigation Acts, which said only commerce flowing to and from colonies had to be on British vessels. Prices might be better elsewhere, but colonists had to ship tobacco to Britain. And they prohibited the colonists from printing their own currency. British crown could nullify any colonial laws passed by local assemblies. 469 vetoes.

What were the advantages and disadvantages of living in America during the colonial period?

Food was everywhere. Churches were not heated. NO running water. No plumbing. Night lights were candles and whale oil lamps (dimly lit). Garbage disposed by the buzzards and hogs. South- card playing, horse racing, fox hunting. Lotteries used to fund churches and colleges.

What political liabilities existed for Adams and for Jefferson in 1800?

For Adams, the alien and sedition acts provided many enemies to the federalists. Federalists split over how to react to France. Federalists wanted to fight with France. Jefferson was accused of robbing a widow of a trust fund. And having numerous children with his own slave. Jefferson did not want a blend of church and state. The orthodox clergy were not pleased with Jefferson views of religion.

Explain at least four causes of tension between the US and Great Britain in the 1830's and 1840's.

Four causes of tension were: bitter memories of two wars fought between the Us and Great Britain, Britain ridiculed and mocked Americans,"British travelers, sniffing with aris- autocratic noses at the crude scene, wrote acidly of American tobacco spitting, slave auctioneering,lynching, eye gouging, and other unsavory features of the rustic Republic,"British lending practices,"well-heeled creditor is never popular," and U.S.A supporting Canada independence movement.

How did French defeat lead to westward expansion and tension with Native Americans and the British?

France hoped it would lead to Britain's demise in America. Spain was eliminated from Florida. Treaty of Paris was important in finishing the war. France leaves the continent. Britain gets Florida. Spain gets Louisiana. Indians gave it another shot to remove Britain's from Ohio. Pontiac led the rebellion. Blankets infected with Smallpox killed this rebellion. Land hungry colonists were looking westward. Proclamation of 1763 prohibited colonial settlement west of Appalachian mountains. It was meant to assist the natives, not limit the colonists. The colonists didn't see it that way. Colonists were in no mood to be restrained and had a new sense of identity.

What did America gain and what did it concede in the Treaty of Paris?

France wanted to control the American independence. Formally recognized as independent. Generous boundaries. Fisheries in Newfoundland still shared. Loyalists were to be treated properly. Loyalist property should be restored. British creditors could pursue money owed to them.

How was the colony of New France different from the British North American colonies?

France was a latecomer. Lots of internal turmoil caused the delay. The French had friendly relations with the Natives. He joined them in battle against other tribes. The government would be autocratic with little individual rights. Population grew slowly.

How did George Washington spark the French and Indian War?

France was trying to link their Canadian holdings with the lower Mississippi valley. British want Ohio Valley because it is the inevitable next step in penetration. The colonists were aware of the French with their land-grabbing and fur trade. Washington and other VA families had legal rights to 500,000 acres in Ohio Valley. Virginia being the most powerful colony, they were on the forefront of this war. French is erecting forts for claims and protection. Washington led a Virginian militia too Fort Duquesne. Washington won the first battle, but the French returned hastily for revenge.

Describe the status of women in the first half of the 19th century.

Gender differences were strongly emphasized. Women could not vote. Hey were viewed as physically and emotionally weak. Cult of domesticity.

Why was George Washington chosen as general of the American army?

Gifted with outstanding powers of leadership. Patience, courage, self discipline. He represented the largest wealthiest colony of Virginia, and people were not trusting the people of New England.

What made Texas so appealing to Americans?

Greedy for land.

What kind of men gathered in Philadelphia for the sole and express purpose of revising the old government?

Hamilton called for a convention after a failed meeting of the states to amend the Articles. Each state chose representatives. Rhode Island. Most were lawyers, wealthy people. Washington Franklin Madison Hamilton. Most of the original crew was not present.

How did the issue of the Bank of the United States reveal a difference in understanding about the Constitution between Jefferson and Hamilton?

Hamilton viewed since the Congress had the right to borrow money, print currency, and tax that it inferred they had the power to create a national bank. Jefferson viewed it as the constitution doesn't say it, then you cant do it. Jefferson said the powers belonged to the states hence the 10th amendment.

What happened to Loyalists during the war?

Handled roughly. Imprisoned, and hanged. 80,000 were driven out or fled. Estates were confiscated and sold. 50,000 had beared arms for Britain.

What handicaps did John Adams face as he became president?

He had a cabinet that did not like him. His VP was someone of opposite party. He inherited the French problem. And he is following in GWs footsteps.

As president, Thomas Jefferson acted more like a Federalist than like a Democratic Republican. Assess.

He pardoned people using his executive power. He used his power to lower requirements for naturalization. Jefferson let the Hamiltonian system stay intact. Jefferson did use big government ideas during his presidency.

Why did Paine want a democratic republic?

He wanted power to flow from the people. All government officials should derive their power from popular consent. HE did not want a hereditary aristocracy of government. He believed in civic virtue.

Defend Andrew Jackson's use of the Spoils System.

He wants to surround himself with people who share his views and sentiment.

John Marshall was the most important Federalist since George Washington.

He was able to influence government for over 30 years of SC service.

What were the long term effects of the War of 1812?

Other nations developed a new respect for America. America would fight back. A bigger sense of nationalism. Manufactured began to prosper.

What was there about Andrew Jackson which made him a man of the people?

He was an orphan. He survived many duels. He was from the west. He rose up from the masses.

Why did political parties develop during George Washington's presidency? Were they good or bad?

His cabinet was filled with members who had different beliefs (Jefferson v. Hamilton). It was not good. People started to lose track of patriotism and what was only best for their party.

What setbacks did the British suffer in the early years of the French and Indian War?

Heavy artillery hard to move. French took care of them easily. Washington had two horses shot from under him. Braddock, wild man, bullheaded, mortally wounded. The early years was along the ohio valley. The troops were too barren in both locations (ohio and Canada). Didn't plan strategically enough.

Ideas about national identity increasingly found expression in works of art, literature, and architecture.

Ideas about national identity increasingly found expression in works of art, literature, and architecture. * Phyllis Wheatley; first African-American poet * Monticello, D.C. - Roman-style architecture

What role was played by African-Americans in the Revolution?

Initially barred from the war. Over 5,000 had enlisted. Blacks fought everywhere. They also fought for the British. Britain promised to free the blacks if they fought for the british.

How could a militarily weak nation like the United States make such a bold statement ordering European nations to stay out of the Americas?

Intimidation of what could be.

What effect did the Second Great Awakening have on organized religion?

It caused for religious diversity. The more prosperous and educated aligned with epsicopalians, presbs, congregatioanlists, and Unitarians. The less prosperous people were Methodists, and Baptists. Lots of division in organized religion. Different sects.

Did John Jay betray American interests in Jay's Treaty?

It depends on which side you are with. It was basically a pact between Britian and America, which many thought would lead to a bigger alliance.

How did the French and Indian War affect the relationship between the colonies and with the mother country?

It didn't help the relationship. Colonists gained experience. British didn't like how Americans were thinking they could be ranking members of military. Americans thought they deserved credit for the victory. Britain knew the Americans were dealing illegally with the Spanish and French West Indies. Britain forbid exports from New England and middle colonies. Americans wanted same rights as Englishmen.

Was the United States a leader in the world in scientific pursuits? Explain.

It is a toss up. Lets say yes though. Birds, chemisty, geoogy, biology were all furthered with the exploration of our American inventors and scientists. Many of them were first generation Americans. We were the first to employ medical chemical assistance.

Why does the author say that the American Revolution began when the first settlers stepped ashore?

It nurtured ideas about the nature of society, citizen, and government. People didn't dare to challenge their social status. The new world was theirs to make anew. Threat of the monarchy to peoples liberties.

What economic factors were involved in leading colonists to be displeased with the British government?

It placed a dependency on the British. They felt used and abused.

How did the Townshend Acts lead to more difficulties?

It placed an import duty on glass, white lead, paper, paint, and tea. These duties would be used to pay the royal governors and judges in America. This lead to sending more troops to the colonies for control. These troops were wild and ravenous people. This lead to the Boston Massacre, indirectly.

What does the Declaration of Independence say?

It says a lot. The Explanation of Independence. He discusses natural rights granted to man by God, human rights. He made a long list of grievances that were directly pointed at the King. Imposing taxes without our consent, dispensing trial by jury, military dictatorship, cutting off trade, burning towns. All men are created equal, yet he owned slaves. It inspired others to declare independence too in history. If anytime a government becomes despotic of protecting natural rights, it is the right of the people to abolish government and create a new one.

What does your text mean when it says that the Constitution,"elevated the ideals of the Revolution even while setting boundaries to them?"

It took the idea of what they fought for and made it realistic, yet independence is a contradiction.

What did the Hartford Convention do?

It united the New England states. They wanted to discuss the grievances and seek to redress their wrongs. It demanded financial assistance to compensate the loss of trade, etc.

Neither the North nor South was acutely displeased, although neither was completely happy; Explain.

It was a compromise that was kind of inevitable.

Why was the jury verdict in the Zenger case important?

It was a huge victory for the freedom of press. It opened up public discussion. True statements about public officials could not be prosecuted as libel (writing falsehoods of someone).

In what ways did religion in the United States become more liberal and more conservative in the early decades of the 19th century?

More liberal: The Age of Reason- deism, Unitarian movement appealed to intellectuals who had rationalism and optimism. More conservative: camp meetings caused the spread. Hell fire gospel. Methodists and Baptists gained many converts.

Was the Treaty of Ghent advantageous to the United States? Explain.

It was a stalemate agreement. British made many requests. They simply agree to stop fighting. I think any time fighting is stopped it is advantageous to everyone involved.

What was unusual about John Quincy Adams's victory in the presidential election of 1824?

It was decided by the House of Representatives because nobody got the majority of electoral votes. The Speaker of the House was actually a candidate in the election.

In what ways was the south "basically undemocratic?"

It was due to aristocracy, some called it oligarchy. This is due to the fact,"1850 only 1,733 families owned more than 100 slaves each." The planter aristocrats were now able to send their kids to the best schools. It meant the wealth gap increased. It was creating a more feudal society. It also was shaping lives of southerners.

Why was Missouri's request for statehood so explosive?

It was going to offset the balance of Congressional power.

How did Alexander Hamilton's economic plans lead to the District of Columbia?

It was made as a compromise. If the south agreed to the plan of letting the federal gov accrue all state debts and pay it off as a nation, then the capitol would be placed along the Potomac river which is in the south (virginia).

In what ways were utopian communities different from mainstream America?

It was very communistic in the sharing sphere. A communal society. Democracy free enterprise and land is the mainstream America.

How revolutionary was the Revolution of 1800?

It was very revolutionary. It was an attempt to go back to the common man and the lack of elite status. Jefferson at dinners would sit wherever he and others wanted. It marked the first party overturn in American history. Jefferson was something else. He was moderate and did not rock the boat like federalists did.

How democratic was the Constitution as originally written?

It wasn't all that democratic as people would like to believe. The excess of the mob would be limited. Consent of the governed though.

How did avoiding war with France hurt John Adams political career?

It went against his party the federalists. He put patriotism over party. He needed to avoid war because the country was still young and frail. Adams attempted to get peace one more time with a new minister.

Did the fighting go well for Americans before July of 1776? Explain.

It went so-so. The American men were being forced to eat dogs and leather. The British were burning towns. In Canada, the invasion didn't go as well as hoped, especially when the Americans claim they were on the defensive, yet clearly were on the offensive. Montreal was captured, yet Quebec was not.

Would it have been better to be a free Black in the North or in the South? Explain.

It would be a lot better to be free in the North than the South, this because free blacks were subject to massive amount of racism,"people were prohibited from working in certain occupations and forbidden from testifying against whites in court." It was also a higher probability of being captured and made a slave in the South than the North,"they were always vulnerable to being hijacked back into slavery by unscrupulous slave traders."

How did Committees of Correspondence work?

Its purpose was to spread the spirit of resistance by interchanging letters and thus keeping the opposition alive. Colonies might create a committee in their legislative body to focus on the writings and exchanges of information. The committees would eventually lead to a more organized committee where representatives from colonies would meet.

Describe the development of the second party system from 1828-1836.

Jackson had his Democrats and the Whigs rose up against the Democrats and Jackson.

What circumstances led to the passage of the Tariff of Abominations?

Jackson wanted to mess with President Adams presidency and make it look bad. Yankees started to buy into the tariff because prosperity would flow from the factories, not the seas.

How did Jefferson deal with the extortion of the Barbary States?

Jefferson decreased the size of the military. Barbary pirates would blackmail and plunder merchant ships in Mediterranean sea. Federalists had paid tribute for protection to the barabary states. Tripoli wanted more money. Tripoli also captured some of our men. Jefferson wound up making a treaty for $60,000 for the ransom of the men. They were released. He was a pacifist but realized he had to do something of force here.

What positive consequences resulted from the Louisiana Purchase?

Jefferson gained lots of respect. Laid foundation for a future major power. Scientific observations. Relationships with natives. More use of Mississippi river. Overland route discovery to the Pacific.

"Yet Tyler...should never have consented to run on the ticket." Explain this quote from your text.

John Tyler ran on the Whig ticket of Harrison Presidency. He was viewed as a,"figurehead," to get the votes out. Harrison died of pneumonia early on in his Presidency and so Tyler became President. However, Tyler was no whig. Tyler only became whig because he disliked Andrew Jackson. His opponent accused him as a,"being a Democrat in Whig clothing." John Tyler should've never consented to run on the ticket, because he disagreed on every major issue.

What happened to Loyalists after the war?

Lots fled to Britain and Canada. Basically they weren't accepted anywhere. Arrest, exile, loss of rights and property. They had to reinvent themselves.

In what ways did higher education become more modern in the antebellum years?

Lots of higher education institutions took off. Educate without religion and politics.

What advances were made in the field of education from 1820 to 1850?

Lots of reading lesson books, Websters dictionary. Reform into expanded curriculum.

How did Napoleon take advantage of American policy?

Macons Bill No. 2 would allow America to trade with either Britain or france depending on who would restore trade with us first. It basically said America could not survivie without trading with one of them. Napoloen wanted america to keep embargo with Britain.

What was the main purpose of John Marshall as Chief Justice? How can this be seen in the Marbury v.Madison decision?

Marshall was Jefferson's cousin. He was well liked by people who knew him. The main purpose was for the federalists to maintain power over at least one of the branches. It stems from the midnight judges case. Marshall became a federalist due to his experience at valley forge, where the lack of central authority never helped them. Marshall then in his ruling gave the judicial branch the power of determining constitutionality.

How did Mexico view Texas from 1836 to 1845?

Mexico refused to recognize Texas independence and viewed it still part of Mexico. Mexico attacked multiple times,"raids that, though ineffectual, foreshadowed more fearsome efforts."

What social changes resulted from the American Revolution?

Mr and Mrs. Separation of church and state. Virginia Statue for religious freedom. Anti slavery society. Slavery abolished in some northern states. Women wanting to be treated equal. Mothers were responsible for raising the families with civic virtue Republican motherhood.

Why was the end of the war difficult on the national government?

Natural rights were most important and creating any type of government might have seem suspicious of going against those rights. Experimentation.

Entrepreneurs helped to create a market revolution in production and commerce, in which market relationships between producers and consumers came to prevail as the manufacture of goods became more organized.

New transportation systems and technologies dramatically expanded manufacturing and agricultural production.

What were some of the flaws of General William Howe?

No military genius. He was in love with his mistress. More focused on his lifestyle.

What do historians agree on about slavery? Disagree about?

North and Southerners disagreed on slavery. The Southerners romanticized the past,"South conveyed through popular literature, myth, and, increasingly, scholarship." They argued that it was unprofitable, treated slaves kind, and blacks didn't dislike being slaves. Northern historians disputed this.

Explain the importance of the Land Ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance.

Northwest Ordinance- important because it provided acreage of the northwest to be sold and helped pay off national debt. Helped create public schools. Land Ordinance- the new land would temporarily then fully become a state. 60,000 people. No slavery in northwest. They needed to not treat those lands as colonies like the British did.

Was Washington an important president? Explain.

Of course. He would be the one to set precedent on many matters. He did not angle his way into the office (according to record, of course). He would create the cabinet and much more.

Evaluate the importance of the Monroe Doctrine in subsequent American history.

One of the most important doctrines in the history of America. It allows us to focus on our country's needs and not worry about foreign influence. This will eventually lead us to sectionalism instead of nationalism.

Who was more important to American territorial expansion, Andrew Jackson or John Quincy Adams? Explain.

Opinion. Adams was able to assist as Secretary of State.

What was the result of the Ashburton-Webster Treaty?

People and Maine and Canadians had a border dispute, both sides claiming they had the right to the no-man's land. This caused a clash, called "Aroostook War.'' The treaty results were,"the Americans were to retain some 7,000 square miles of the 12,000 square miles of wilderness in dispute. The British got less land but won the desired Halifax-Quebec route."

Did Americans distinguish themselves in the arts during the colonial period? Explain.

People had to go to England for arts training. Certain people tried to distinguish themselves, but the architecture was adapted from the Old World to accommodate the new terrain. Literature became stronger after Poor Richards Almanac.

Explain some of the opposition to ratification of the Constitution?

People were frightened of powerful government.

What was the significance of the British victory in the French and Indian War?

Pitt decided to focus on Canada. Battle of Quebec was most significant. 1763- end of war. French was thrown out of North American continent. French were allowed to maintain sugar islands in West Indies. Spain had helped France and had to be compensated for their assistance. They received Louisiana. Great Britain emerged as the leading naval power.

What were Polk's four goals? Assess his degree of success.

Polk's four goals were lower tariffs, which happened and was extremely successful, second tried to restore independent treasury, which happened in 1846, third was the acquisition of California in which he managed to achieve, and fourth the acquisition of oregon, in which he succeeded.

What characteristics of the Mormons caused them to be persecuted by their neighbors?

Polygamy. Building militia for defense. Voting as a group.

Did America appear to have a bright future in 1789 Explain.

Population was growing so fast. Cities are blossoming. 90% rural. With the growth in population, yes it had a bright future.

What were the positive and negative effects of the war on America?

Positive: Economic independence. Free trade. Yankee ships ventured far east to trade. Negative: States seizing control of former crown lands. American ships barred from Britain and islands. Fisheries disrupted. Runaway inflation.

The imperial struggles of the mid-18th century, as well as new British efforts to collect taxes without direct colonial representation or consent and to assert imperial authority in the colonies, began to unite the colonists against perceived and real constraints on their economic activities and political rights.

Revenue Act of 1762 * Proclamation Line of 1763 denied colonists the spoils of war and expansion westward * Currency Act of 1764 (hit South particularly hard; resentments lasted for years, because colonial economics more difficult without paper money; postwar recession also fed discontent) * Sugar Act of 1764 (lowered taxes to try to "trick" colonists into paying them; vice-admiralty courts would be used to try violators without a jury trial; writs of assistance would allow searches of private property to seek violations; ) * Stamp Act of 1765 (colonies given a year to produce alternate taxes if they didn't want Stamp Act; attempted to directly tax colonists, by putting tax on anything that might be printed, including newspapers, land tiles, slave sales, legal documents, books, dice [celluloid wrappers], diplomas, liquor licenses, every advertisement, every almanac, every deck of cards - if Parliament had TRIED to find a way to anger every colony and every social class, they couldn't have done a better job; James Otis: "One single act of Parliament set the people a'thinking in six months more than they had done in their whole lives before") * Quartering Act of 1765 (colonial assemblies would be required to house and feed British troops stationed in their colonies - wartime measure colonies had always resisted, but now it's peacetime) * resistance to Stamp Act (Patrick Henry compares George III to Charles I, who lost his head; James Otis calls for Stamp Act Congress, which issue the Stamp Act Resolves demanding only assemblies could tax their own colonies; Franklin's call for direct representation vs. virtual representation; BOYCOTT; Sons of Liberty use threats and intimidation against officials, led by John Hancock and Samuel Adams; Stamp Act largely dead before it even took effect ) [Stamp Act called the "first step to rivet the chains of slavery upon us forever"; John Adams called it "That enormous Engine, fabricated by the British Parliament, for battering down all the Rights and Liberties of America"] * Stamp Act repealed (largely due to boycott, so British merchants got the act repealed because their profits were gone) * Declaratory Act of 1766 (Parliament has the right to tax and A) cont. legislate for the colonies) * Townshend Act of 1767 (taxes on paper, paint, glass and tea - and the money would go to pay salaries of governors and judges, to make them independent of colonial control, as well as paying for troops) * Revenue Act of 1767 (new customs officials, who could now receive 1/3 of profits from catching smugglers, which colonists saw as incentive to be less than honest about who was smuggling...) * Restraining Act of 1767 (NY assembly dissolved by Parliament when they refused to comply with Quartering Act) * resistance to Townshend Act )(Franklin had argued that the problem with the Stamp Act was that they were internal taxes, rather than external taxes - he said Americans had no trouble with taxes on trade; Franklin was wrong...John Dickinson argued in Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania that the intent of the legislation was true division - and Townshend Act clearly intended to raise money, NOT regulate trade) (Massachusetts sent a "Circular Letter" to other assemblies condemning Townshend Act and arguing no taxation without representation; British send more troops to Boston as a result) (new BOYCOTT - best tool!; Sons of Liberty enforced it) * repeal of Townshend Act, except for tax on tea (again, largely due to boycott - like Declaratory Act, tax on tea was kept to show Parliament had right to tax) (Franklin called again for his Albany Plan, to divide sovereignty; Thomas Hutchinson said the idea of dividing sovereignty was ridiculous) * Boston Massacre of 1770 (colonists provoked the soldiers, who accidentally fired; soldiers put on trial, and Sam Adams got his cousin John Adams to defend them, to show British trial by jury was essential right of ALL British citizens; Sam Adams kept a yearly parade every March 5 th to keep resistance going) * Gaspée Affair of 1772 (customs ship went aground; local Patriots went out and burned the British ship down to the waterline; British wanted culprits caught and sent back to Britain for trial) * Committees of Correspondence (created by Sam Adams as a means of keeping resistance going; spread to other colonies after Tea Act; led fight against Tea Act) * Tea Act of 1773 (match thrown into the tinder pile - Parliament wasn't trying to tax Americans - they were trying to rescue the British East India Company, but Patriots saw this as a bribe to get them to surrender principles) * Boston Tea Party (Gov. Hutchinson insisted on landing the tea and selling it; Sam Adams organized the Tea Party, which peacefully dropped all the tea in the harbor, and even replaced the lock they broke; they caught one guy stuffing tea in his pockets, stripped him naked, and threw him in the harbor...; Boston Tea Party infuriated George III and Parliament, and convinced the British it was time to bring out the hammer and punish the colonials) * Coercive Acts of 1774 (Intolerable Acts) (designed to punish Massachusetts and make an example - failed, as the other colonies backed them up: four parts 1) Port Bill closed down Boston Harbor until tea was paid for; 2) Government Act annulled Massachusetts charter and banned town meetings; 3) Quartering Act required building of barracks or housing of soldiers; 4) Administration of Justice Act allowed British officials accused of crimes to be tried in Britain, not Massachusetts) * Quebec Act of 1774 (not a part of Coercive Acts, but seen as such - French Canadians given Ohio Valley, which infuriated Virginians and Pennsylvanians, and Catholicism protected, which angered New England) [actually a landmark in toleration, but not seen as such in America) * First Continental Congress of 1774 called in response to Coercive Acts (Calloway Plan considered and rejected - largely a revival of Franklin's Albany Plan) (passed Declaration of Rights and Grievances, which called for repeal of Coercive Acts and Declaratory Act; called for new boycott, and also threatened to stop exporting for the first time * Lexington and Concord of 1775 (General Gage sent in to crush dissent in Boston; went out to Lexington and Concord to seize arms and arrest Hancock and Sam Adams; Paul Revere and two other riders went to warn them; accidental firing led to Lexington, and then minutemen assaulted British all the way home from Concord ) * Second Continental Congress (creates Continental Army, puts George Washington in charge; Olive Branch Petition; Declaration of the Causes and Necessities of Taking Up Arms; votes for independence) * Invasion of Canada (failed) * Thomas Paine published Common Sense in 1776 (shifted argument away from Parliament to monarchy itself; ridiculed idea of an island ruling a continent; catalyst for convincing substantial numbers of Americans that independence was a good idea) * Declaration of Independence (Jefferson wrote most of it, but he cribbed the ideas from John Locke; he also tried to blame king for slavery, but South insisted that be removed)

What was the goal of the First Continental Congress?

September 1774- To consider ways of redressing colonial grievances. It was more of a consultative body. It accomplished the declaration of rights. They would meet again in May 1775 if the the grievances were not addressed.

What were the American strengths and weaknesses at the outset of the war?

Strengths- Outstanding leadership. Foreign aid. Self sustaining with agriculture. Moral advantage. Weaknesses- poorly organized. Not much unity at first. Money. Little supplies.

How and why did Dorthea Dix participate in the reform movements?

She traveled around to all different institutions. She witnessed thins firsthand.

What were British strengths and weaknesses at the outset of the war?

Strengths- Population 3 to 1. Naval power. Professional army. Had treasury to hire more soldiers (Hessians). Weaknesses- Other global worries. 2 nd rate generals. Brutal treatment of soldiers. Operating away from home base. Communication took forever from England.

Thomas Jefferson once said that having slaves was like holding a wolf by the ears, you didn't like it but you couldn't let go. How does this section help to explain this statement?

Slavery was awful thing and it was terrible to be a slave,"slavery was intolerably degrading to the victims." Slaves were denied education, very few could read. Slaves would never work hard,"often slowed the pace of their labor to the barest minimum that would spare them the lash." Slaves would consistently try to hamper profit and even sometimes deliberately hurt the master,"poison the master's food."

"...planters regarded slaves as investments [like a mule]...." Explain what was positive and what was negative about this situation for slaves.

Slaves was a primary wealth in the South and treated them as assets. They were spared any work that could seriously hurt them,"spared dangerous work." Also, sold at auctions, they were treated like cattle and every aspect of the slave was inspected.

What considerations motivated the war hawks to call for war with Great Britain?

They detested how the British were impressing our men. They also thought the British were nourishing the Natives.

In what way did the French Revolution expose the differing views of Democratic-Republicans and Federalists?

Some people are with the French and believe we should help them due to our alliance in 1778 (Dem-reps). Others think they should align with the British due to economic partnerships (Federalists). France did not have a government ready to go which caused many to reconsider aligning with France. Hamilton claims the alliance is over because the King is dead.

How democratic was colonial America?

Somewhat democratic. Only two colonies selected their governors under self government. Taxes were placed through legislative votes. The Royal governors were under direct order of the King. Voting depended on land ownership and religious qualifications. Democratic ideals were becoming more prevalent around the colonies by 1775. Democratic seeds- free speech, free press, tolerance, education, equality of opportunity, freedom of assembly.

Describe the nullification crisis.

Southern states wanted to nullify federal laws that had to do tariffs. States joined union voluntarily and they can nullify if they want, they claim. They thought the tariff discriminated against the southerners.

What weaknesses plagued the Articles of Confederation? What was good about it?

States claiming land west of mountains. Articles of Confusion. No executive branch. All 13 states needed to amend the document. 9 states to pass a law. Purposely made weak. King left a bad taste. No regulate trade. No tax people. Jefferson thought it was an amazing document. Allowed states to maintain sovereignty.

Why were the colonists so upset over relatively mild taxes and policies?

Sugar Act of 1764- first tax to raise revenue in the colonies for the crown. Sugar import taxes increased from the West Indies. Stamp tax was passed to support the new military force provided by the Quartering Act. There was to be distinction made between legislation and taxation-- -the Parliament had the right to legislate for the entire empire, but they did not have right to tax the colonists. They felt the Parliament was pinching at their pocketbooks and liberties. They claimed only colonial legislatures could tax, which they did.

What were the sources of the strained relationship between the U.S. and Mexico?

THe sources of the strained relationship were that U.S.A claimed Mexico for three million dollars in damages to U.S citizens. Texas was causing friction. Mexico wouldn't even enable an offer to buy California.

Why did some hesitate to annex Texas? Why was it finally admitted to the Union?

Texas became a leading issue in Presidential campaign. There were vocal supporters who supported pro-expansion, however, some criticized worried it will make America more slavery oriented,"nourish the lusty slave power.'' Some also worried it would aggravate their border counterparts Mexico. It managed to finally got admitted into the U.S.A as a state due to compromise,"joint resolution."

What forces served to unify the separate states during the war?

The 2nd Continental Congress. Articles of Confederation.

What was meant by the statement, "America was conquered in Germany?

The French committed so much to troops in Germany during the 7 years war, that they were unable to fulfill the numbers needed to put up an effective fight in America.

Describe the compromises that were achieved by the delegates to the Constitutional Convention.

The Great Compromise: House of Represenatives based on population, Senate equal for each state. 3/5 Compromise: 5 slaves would equal 3 people for census count. (North said might as well count our horses.) Electoral College- if candidates does not receive majority it would trickle to the House of Reps Slave trade would continue until at least 1807.

What part did Manifest Destiny play in the 1844 election?

The Manifest Destiny played a huge part in 1844 election. This is because the majority of americans advocated Manifest Destiny,"Countless citizens in the 1840s and 1850s, feeling a sense of mission, believed that Almighty God had "manifestly'' destined the American people for a hemispheric career." Democrats believed in annexing Texas and Oregon. It caused them to win.

How did the Californios gain and then lose power?

The Spanish came in California in the mid 1700s and settled. They were overwhelmed by Americans looking for gold and after California was annexed to U.S.A many went back to Mexico.

What were the weaknesses of the South's dependence on cotton?

The South was becoming increasingly monopolistic, becoming more dependent on cotton was creating massive problems,"many small farmers sold their holdings." It was making the South less financially, secure,"financial instability of the plantation system." The dependence of the cotton meant that,"price level was at the mercy of world conditions." It also meant there was a increase of diversification between agriculture and manufacture, as well as increasing rift between north and south causing conflict.

What was particularly unfair about the treatment of the Cherokee Tribe?

The Supreme Court was overruled by Jackson. He went against the order of the court.

What factors led to the French settlement of New France?

The beaver was a huge advantage. Euro settlers used it for warmth and fashion. The beaver trade was the end all be all for the French. The colonization of Canada and along the Mississippi. Whether it was for trade, religious, or empire reasons, the French was trying to make a push for land in the new world.

Explain Hamilton's overall economic plan for America.

The debt was $75 million. The more creditors who were owed money would be more invested in the success of the country. Hamiltons plan would rely on a strong process of imports to put tariffs on to pay off debt. He wanted investment in manufacturing. The debt would be paid by excise tax, customs duties, and misc.

Why did some people oppose the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo?

The details of the treaty are,"confirmed the American title to Texas and yielded the enormous area stretching westward to Oregon and the ocean and embracing covered California.This total expansion, including Texas, was about one-half of Mexico. The United States agreed to pay $15 million for the land and to assume the claims of its citizens against Mexico in the amount of $3,250,000." The Whigs were against war and threatened to vote down it, on the other hand, some people wanted more land and the treaty they viewed didn't go far enough.

What was so intolerable about the Coercive (Intolerable) Acts?

The massacre of American liberty. It closed the harbor of Boston. No more town meetings. It basically was meant to punish Boston and cut them off from the rest of the colonies.

What is so alluring about being associated with "the common man?"

The masses were common men. It meant you were more in touch with basic people of society.

What battles were fought to defeat Mexico?

The main battles fought to defeat Mexico, after capturing California,"in 1846 General Stephen W. Kearny led a detachment of seven- teen hundred troops over the famous Santa Fe Trail from Fort Leavenworth to Santa Fe." After victories on February 23rd, they won easily and managed to get all the way to Mexico city.

Explain some of the reasons Congress declared war on Mexico.

The main reasons were the unpaid claims, Slidell's rejection and Mexican troops fired killing sixteen americans on american soil. This caused anger, which caused Congress to declare war.

In what ways did colonists resist the Stamp Act?

The stamp act congress which brought together 9 colonies in 1765. This was the first instance in seeing the different colonial players meeting together. Non-importation agreements- they home spun their own wool garments, making eating lamb a thing not to do. Boycotts is going to be the most effective method of protest. Violence did arise through mobs. Stamp act officials resigned before the law even took effect. Just because the stamp act would be repealed, didn't mean it was time to celebrate. The Declaratory act was put into effect to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever. The King George statue would eventually be melted into bullets.

Describe the tone and tactics used in the 1828 election.

The tone was tense. Mudslinging reach record lows. Jackson was painted as a frontier farmer, when he was really a wealthy planter. Adams was far from corrupt, but painted as such. The tactics were dirty.

How did the geographic background of early historians affect the history they wrote?

Their life experiences had everything to do with their writings. Being in different parts of the country led to different views and beliefs. Different aspects of the story from different locations.

Why do you think Poe and Melville were not appreciated as much in America at the time as they were in other times and places?

Their writings were way past their time.

To what extent was James Monroe's presidency an Era of Good Feelings?

There was only one political party. Monroe took a country tour.

What important steps were taken by the first congress?

They had to ratify a bill of rights. It also created the judiciaty act of 1789. It organized the Supreme Court and federal courts.

What French actions brought America close to war in the closing years of the 18th century?

They began to seize defenseless American vessels. They also did not accept the new American envoy. They demanded money in order for our reps to meet with them. $250,000 for mere talk.

How did Great Britain help support American desires regarding Latin America?

They decided to link up. Joint declaration renouncing any interest in acquiring Latin American land. And warned Europeans to keep hands off Latin American republics.

Who were the anti-federalists and why did they oppose the Constitution?

They opposed the stronger federal government and wanted a Bill of Rights to secure individual rights. The revolutionaries. States rights over federal. They saw it as a way for the upper crust to steal power from the common.

How did the South defend itself against the attacks of abolitionists?

They tightened their slave code,"moved to prohibit emancipation of any kind." To defend itself it increased,"jailings, whippings, and lynchings." They defended their slavery and claim the Bible supported it. They also claimed it resembled a family and the black people were servants and they were happy.

Evaluate the success of the US navy in the fight for Canada.

They tried to capture Montreal. America found more success on water than land.

Why did the French help America win independence?

They wanted revenge against Britain. France supplied lots of supplies to Americans. France didn't want Britain and colonies to reconcile. They were afraid if Britain won they would regain the sugar rich French West Indies. This alliance was great for the Americans now, but crumby for the French later on.

If the Federalists had power for such a short time, were they really that important? Explain.

They were extremely important. They are the reason the Constitution is the way it is. They had much influence on the future precedents set by the country.

How did Northerners view abolitionists? Did they have any success?

They were hugely unpopular in some parts of the North, this is because the Northerners had a huge stake in the cotton industry and,"revere the Constitution and to regard the clauses on slavery as a lasting bargain." Tongue lashings were given to abolitionists.

Assess the successfulness of the temperance reformers.

They were successful for short term, but were fought out in the long-term. Many laws would be declared unconstitutional.

Describe the early wars between France and Britain.

They would both recruit as many Indian allies as possible. In the early wars, they didn't think large amounts of troops were necessary. Indian allies of French would conduct bloody violence. Britain won early on. Spain was very much involved. France held on to their claims.

What two things were unique about the election of 1832?

Third party was active. National nominating conventions. The Bank supported Clay by giving 50,000 dollars.

What positive and negative outcomes resulted for the United States from the Mexican-American War?

Thirteen thousand american lives died. It caused expansion, America expanded by one-third. It caused military experience for generals for the future in civil war. It also hurt relations.

Was the 1800 election more or less important than the 1796 election? Explain.

This election brought forth the constitutional conditions of an electoral tie. This election proved that the people were not wanting a strong government over them. It was a direct connection to the alien and sedition acts and President adams and federalists abuse of power. This election was more important because we are starting to see the political party nightmare that will engulf America for many years to come. A peaceful transfer of power from party to party in 1800.

What is meant by "Cotton is King?" How did its sovereignty extend beyond the South? What implications did its rule have?

This is because the majority of the South planted cotton. This due to the cash crop got quick profits. This meant that more land was needed to plant it, causing it to extend beyond the South. This is due to the fact it was to plant, only needs the,"the soil was still vigorous." Furthermore, Northerners benefited because they would transform the cotton and made a nice profit. The implications it had was that it meant there was an increase of slaves,"brought more slaves" It also made the South become the world's main cotton producer,"South produced more than half of the entire world's supply of cotton."

Why did many whites who did not own slaves support slavery?

This is because they always dreamed and always aspired to own a few slaves. In the textbook it supports this stating,"american dream of upward social mobility." Unfortunately, a lot were racist,"took fierce pride in their pre-sumed racial superiority, which would be watered down if the slaves were freed."

Which was more dangerous to the US Constitution: the Alien and Sedition Acts or the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions? Explain.

This is opinion. It could have been both. The resolutions tested the strength of the federal gov and its power over states. And if states had right to nullify. The Acts went against peoples individual rights that was promised in the bill of rights.

Why was Common Sense important

Thomas Paine was an actual British man who moved to America in 1775. It sold 120,000 copies within a few months. He described how a potential republic had no room for a King.

Which of the transcendentalists mentioned here best illustrated the theory in his life and writings? Explain.

Thoreau. He studied meditation. His findings influenced many in the future.

What proof can you give of Tyler's unpopularity? What did Tyler do that made Whigs so angry with him?

Tyler was unpopular because he vetoed a abundance of his parties bills. Especially in financial reforms. This angered Whig supporters and the leaders of the Whig party alike. Mobs formed protesting,"a drunken mob gathered late at night near the White House and shouted insultingly." There were burning effigies of him.

In what ways could nationalism be seen in the politics and economics of the post-war years?

United the states with roads and canals. Protecting American industry by enacting tariffs. The American System and investing in American manufacturing.

In the early 1800's American writers emerged, who were recognized world-wide for their ability. What made them uniquely American?

War of 1812 caused it. Lots of themes embedded in America and in the New World.

How does George Washington,"We have, probably, had too good an opinion of human nature in forming our confederation," help to explain the purposes of our founding fathers.

Washington realizes that loose confederation is not going to benefit the public, common good. They wanted to preserve and strengthen the young republic.

Explain the reasoning for and against Washington's Neutrality Proclamation.

Washington thought we were too young a nation to get involved in such a war. It was the beginning of isolationism.

In what ways did the mercantilist theory benefit the colonies?v=

When it was not enforced, it allowed easier opportunities for colonists to smuggle. London paid heavily to colonial producers of ship parts. Virginia tobacco planters had a monopoly on the British market. British navy also protected.

Was the Whiskey Rebellion a victory for freedom, order, or both? Explain.

Whiskey was a form of currency to some. It was a victory for order. It proved that washington's government would be respected. But many felt he was unfair.

In what way did the struggle between France and Britain affect the United States?

Who were we to trade with? Britain passed Orders in Council to prevent French ships from using European ports. This included American ships unless they stopped at British ports first. Napoleon called for seizing all ships including American. British continued to use impressment. America was being torn between Britian and France. 6,000 were impressed between 1808-1811.

How were the attitudes of William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass different? When dealing with an issue that is moral and political, how rigid should a person be?

William Lloyd Garrison launched a abolitionist newspaper. Garrison was extremely principled compared to Douglas who was more flexibly practical. Garrison wanted the North to secede from the South Douglas thought politics was the way to end slavery.

Why was Martin Van Buren unpopular?

Wizard of Albany. He had no control. Jackson rammed MVB down the throats of the delegates. He was basically appointed. The panic of 1837 happened under his watch.

Did Americans get favorable terms in the Treaty of Paris? Explain.

Yes absolutely. Britain wanted to lure American from French interests and interaction. Britain was in turmoil yet They reopened trade channels. France wound up going bankrupt.

Did most of the states approve of the Constitution? Why?

Yes eventually all states would approve of it. It took 2.5 years for all states to amend. Some needed the bill of rights.

Were the United States of America in danger of falling apart under the Articles of Confederation? Explain.

Yes. King Congress. States are refusing to pay anything. Nations credit was evaporating abroad. State quarrels over boundaries. States were levying goods: firewood from Connecticut, cabbages from New Jersey. Shays Rebellion. Farmers losing land from not paying state taxes. Mobocracy was starting to frighten the propertied class.

What kind of education could a young person expect in colonial times?

Bible reading. Make good Christians more than good citizens. Private schools and public schools. Focus was on religion and classical languages (greek and latin). Independence of thinking was discouraged. Severe discipline. Instruction was poor compared to today. Franklin helped launch a college not focused on denominations.

Africans developed both overt and covert means to resist the dehumanizing aspects of slavery and maintain their family and gender systems, culture, and religion.

* 1739 Stono Rebellion the major slave rebellion prior to the Revolutionary War * cooperation the most common response, as it was the easiest, and carried rewards * passive resistance common as well, working slowly, or poorly, or "accidentally" breaking things * theft or sabotage * violence and murder * running away, intermarry with Native Americans, or flee to towns and hiding as a free man * Chesapeake slaves often managed to marry and form families, and passed on family names, traditions, and knowledge * African ritual scarring persisted as "country markings" * African hairstyles, motifs in carving and pottery, wooden mortars and pestles, house designs, musical instruments, music, Muslim and animist beliefs all passed down * Congo dances * rejection of marriage between cousins / incest taboo * jumping over the broomstick * older slaves called aunts and uncles / fictive kinship * slaves negotiated labor requirements through the task system in South Carolina rice plantations

French and Dutch colonial efforts involved relatively few Europeans and relied on trade alliances and intermarriage with American Indians to build economic and diplomatic relationships and acquire furs and other products for export to Europe.

* Both Dutch and French traded European goods for furs * French sent in Jesuit missionaries to convert Indians and create working relationships; Jesuits learned languages and culture * French fur traders intermarried with Indians to form alliances * Dutch allied with Iroquois, whom the French opposed * Dutch took land and wampum trading network from the Algonquians, who then struck back and almost wiped out Dutch, who then allied with Mohawks to strike back

Societies in the Northwest and present day California supported themselves by hunting and gathering, and in some areas developed settled communities supported by the vast resources of the ocean.

* California had little surplus, so tribes remained small, hunter- gatherer groups * Pacific Northwest had tremendous abundance from fishing, using large dugout canoes * Pacific Northwest had large populations, with status determined by giving away wealth at potlatch feasts

Colonists' resistance to imperial control drew on local experiences of self-government, evolving ideas of liberty, the political thought of the Enlightenment, greater religious independence and diversity, and an ideology critical of perceived corruption in the imperial system.

* Colonists had a long tradition of running their own affairs through their representative assemblies (House of Burgesses, New England town meetings) * Pilgrims were religious separatists * Puritans insisted their charter granted them political independence [removed from them by King James II and William and Mary] * Puritans "City upon a Hill" the ideal church - independent congregations * Virginia planters controlled salaries of Anglican ministers * Maryland was Catholic, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and New Jersey were Quaker, with Scots-Irish Presbyterians and German dissenters allowed to practice their own religions * New York had a Jewish community, and their temple still exists today * Colonists asserted control over taxation and laws through their colonial assemblies, which controlled royal governors by controlling their salaries * Locke's theory of government encouraged colonists to believe they were the font of political power * Enlightenment and Great Awakening both encouraged anti- authoritarianism * New churches and colleges further eroded authority of British * experiences in W.A.G. the French and Indians reinforced colonists' belief that the British didn't understand them (especially the French and Indian War, which shocked many Americans serving with British regulars - British brutal, authoritarian, and highly disdainful of Americans * Real Whigs [conspiracy drives American Revolution] * Salutary neglect encouraged Americans to develop their own way of doing things * defying Navigation Acts through bribery and smuggling became a way of life for many

Extended contact with Native Americans and Africans fostered a debate among European religious and political leaders about how non-Europeans should be treated, as well as evolving religious, cultural, and racial subjugation of Africans and Native Americans.

* Columbus seizing Native Americans and enslaving them, on the model of African slavery from Portugal * Spanish forcibly assimilating Native Americans into Catholicism * French Jesuits living among Natives to convert them gently * Bartolome de las Casas demanding Native Americans were Christians and shouldn't be treated as slaves; suggested switching to African slaves

Mutual misunderstandings between Europeans and Native Americans often defined the early years of interaction and trade as each group sought to make sense of the other. Over time, Europeans and Native Americans adopted some useful aspects of each other's culture.

* Columbus thought Native Americans were Indians * Moctezuma thought Cortés was the god Quetzlcoatl * Native Americans didn't understand the concept of owning the land; when they "sold" the land, they didn't think it was permanent (Manhattan sold to the Dutch); Europeans insisted the sales were permanent * Plains Indian fought by counting coup, while Europeans fought to kill * Native American men hunted, while women often did the farming; Europeans appalled by this division of labor * Europeans adopted the Three Sisters, particularly in New England and the Chesapeake, which allowed them to stay alive * Native Americans adopted European technology, including knives, pots, and weapons * Native Americans often learned European languages and converted to Christianity, particularly in the Spanish empire

The Columbian Exchange brought new crops to Europe from the Americas, stimulating European population growth, and new sources of mineral wealth, which facilitated the European shift from feudalism to capitalism.

* Corn and potato caused European population explosion, which then led to increased migration, colonization, and imperialism * Gold and silver created enough surplus to allow for the development of capitalism in Europe and China, facilitating a global trading network - first true money supply since Roman Empire

As overcultivation depleted arable land in the Southeast, slaveholders began relocating their plantations to more fertile lands west of the Appalachians, where the institution of slavery continued to grow.

* Cotton gin made slavery profitable again, and Louisiana Purchase and War of 1812 opened up Old Southwest to expansion of slavery and cotton plantations * Louisiana (1812), Mississippi (1817), and Alabama (1819) added as slave states; entire plantations moved to new areas from South Carolina and Georgia * Florida added area for cotton slavery * Texas sought for cotton planters along gulf coast * Virginia and Maryland (and other border states) profited by selling surplus slaves "down south"

European nations' efforts to explore and conquer the New World stemmed from a search for new sources of wealth, economic and military competition, and a desire to spread Christianity.

* Crusades connected Europe to Asia, for silks, spices, tea, china * Mediterranean trade networks dominated by Arabs and Italy * Portugal began slowly moving down and around African coast * Spain completed Reconquista, began inquisition, and supported a crazy, mathematically challenged Italian named Christopher Columbus in his desire to sail West to find the orient * Columbus' discovery unleashed a slew of explorers * Portugal's acquisition of slaves, gold, ivory, and trade with India led to other countries challenging them for control * Cortés' and Pizarro's successes over Aztecs and Incas drove desire to copy them, both for gold and to convert natives to both Protestant and Catholic faiths * Spain and Philip II tried hard to prevent competition, especially with the Spanish Armada and the Counter-Reformation

Spanish exploration and conquest of the Americas were accompanied and furthered by widespread deadly epidemics that devastated native populations and by the introduction of crops and animals not found in the Americas.

* Disease was the single most important factor allowing Cortés and Pizarro to conquer vast Aztec and Incan empires, making resistance to invasion very difficult * Approximately 90% of Native Americans died from European diseases, especially smallpox * Horses and large dogs were used as weapons against Native Americans * Pigs were set loose; they devoured Native American crops * European weeds infested Native American fields, making agriculture more difficult * Cattle also destroyed native vegetation, and eventually replaced bison

Interactions between European rivals and American Indian populations fostered both accommodation and conflict. French, Dutch, British, and Spanish colonies allied with and armed American Indian groups, who frequently sought alliances with Europeans against other Indian groups.

* Dutch armed the Iroquois, who warred against allies of French; French eventually went to war against Iroquois, who allied themselves with the British over time, or played French and British off against each other * Puritans in Connecticut waged genocidal Pequot War to seize land * John Eliot / "praying Indians" / written language created by Eliot, who translated the entire Bible * John Smith / Pocahontas / Powhatan / Opechancanough's 1622 and 1644 attacks (Opie was killed by Native Americans allied with English) * Bacon's Rebellion / slaughter of frontier Native Americans * King Philip's War / Metacom tried to drive English back into sea, but other Native American groups sided with English * King William's War / Queen Anne's War / King George's War all had Native American groups on both the French and British side * George Washington's 1754 expedition into the Ohio Valley saw Native Americans on both sides playing their own political games * Resulting French and Indian War saw Native Americans forced to take sides as British drove French out of North America * Spanish war on Aztecs involved conquered tribes allying with Spanish, then becoming conquered themselves

Increasing Southern cotton production and the related growth of Northern manufacturing, banking, and shipping industries promoted the development of national and international commercial ties.

* Eli Whitney's cotton gin rescued slavery from economic decline and made cotton King; Alabama and Missisippi rapidly settled by cotton planters * cotton production fed not only the textiles mills of Britain, but also New England; New England and the North's economy linked to slavery (which is one reason why abolitionists were often assaulted in the North, as they threatened economic prosperity for many) * British financing fed the transportation revolution; South kept trading with Britain, selling them cotton and buying goods, which is why they hated tariffs so much * New York City linked to Latin American trade, and European trade (Erie Canal tied them to rest of country) * Northeast and Northwest deeply connected by railroads and canals, as well as commercial ties

A new national culture emerged that combined American elements, European influences, and regional cultural sensibilities.

* Emphasis on individualism, social mobility, and democracy encouraged new approaches to politics, religion, literature, and society (particularly in the North) * Ralph Waldo Emerson took American religious beliefs [Anne Hutchinson, Quakers, Unitarianism] and melded it with European Romanticism [Carlyle, Goethe, Wordsworth, Swedenborg] and Asian religious beliefs [Hinduism and Zen Buddhism, which were B) cont. available in English translation for the first time] to create American Transcendentalism: each one of us holds a piece of God, which is our true self; Nature is also a mask for God, and we enter most fully with the divine when we are alone and out in the wilds; each of us has a duty to that unique piece of divinity in us, and we need to rely on that piece of the self, or risk becoming less than we are meant to be ["Envy is ignorance...imitation is suicide...Trust thyself; every heart vibrates to that iron string...whoso would be a man, must be a nonconformist]. Speaker at our school once said a very Emersonian thing: "All of us are born originals; most of us die copies"] * Thoreau, Margaret Fuller, Walt Whitman all followed Emerson's lead; Emerson was the most successful thinker and lecturer and writer of the next half-century, until Twain; at the turn of the 20 th Century, most literate households had a copy of the Bible, and a set of his essays * Sentimentalism / Romanticism imports European Romanticism * Urban culture increasingly open sexually (prostitution; homosexuality); popular culture emerged (minstrelsy, melodrama, popular songs [Stephen Foster]; immigrants added more languages and foods * belief in Manifest Destiny widespread in North and South * cheap newspapers, steam printing presses, railroads, steamboats, canals all began spreading ideas on a national scale * reform became a common aspect of American culture, although less so in the South; temperance, abolition, women's rights, social reforms, utopian communities all significant aspects of new culture * Northeast and Northwest merged into a common culture and political/economic alliance through the Erie Canal (trade, New England migration west) * slavery bound together the South * North and South growing further apart

English colonization efforts attracted a comparatively large number of male and female British migrants, all of whom sought social mobility, economic prosperity, religious freedom, and improved living conditions. These colonists focused on agriculture and settled on land taken from Native Americans, from whom they lived separately.

* English focused on settler colonies predominantly * Pilgrims and Puritans came to establish their own churches, as well as acquiring substantial amounts of land for farming [Pilgrims, separatists, William Bradford, Thanksgiving] [Puritans, John Winthrop, City Upon a Hill/errand into the wilderness, predestination, conversion experience, Roger Wiliams, Anne Hutchinson, English Civil War, Halfway Covenant, Salem witch trials] * Jamestown attracted settlers through the profits from tobacco, self-government with the House of Burgesses, and the headright system, which offered the chance to grow wealthy * Pennsylvania offered land and religious toleration * Maryland was a Catholic refuge, although Protestants outnumbered Catholics and rejected Act of Toleration * Rhode Island offered religious toleration

George Washington's Farewell Address encouraged national unity, as he cautioned against political factions and warned about the danger of permanent foreign alliances.

* Farewell Address established American foreign policy until WWII, but it failed completely to prevent the rise of political parties

The Spanish, supported by the bonded labor of the local American Indians, expanded their mission settlements into California; these provided opportunities for social mobility among soldiers and led to new cultural blending.

* Father Junipero Serra set out to build missions, using the encomienda system of forced labor * land grants would also be available * missions were intended to secure California against possible American claims * in the nineteenth century, Mexico freed Native Americans and granted large ranchos; Native Americans intermarried, as did Yankee traders in leather

By the 1820s and 1830s, new political parties arose — the Democrats, led, by Andrew Jackson, and the Whigs, led by Henry Clay — that disagreed about the role and powers of the federal government and issues such as the national bank, tariffs, and federally funded internal improvements.

* Federalists collapse after War of 1812, but Republicans split into two groups: the Jeffersonians morph into the Democratic- Republicans, which eventually become the Democrats, and the Nationalist Republicans, which eventually become the Whigs * Nationalist Republicans adopt many of the Federalist positions, with Henry Clay and his American System (national bank, protective tariffs, internal improvements) being very Hamiltonian; Whigs stand on the concept of a meritocracy, the self-made man of Franklin, the man of talent rising * "Corrupt Bargain" of 1824 drove a wedge between supporters of John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson (and turned Henry Clay into a widely reviled figure for a certain segment of the population) * Jacksonian Democrats stand for the common man (as long as he's white), hostility to banks and federal power (usually), as well as Henry clay and his American System; tend to be pro-slave and states' rights * Second Party System fully emerged in 1834 over hostility towards "King Andrew": Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun organized the Whig Party * Tariff issues drove much of their disagreements: 1824 tariff had raised protections on textiles above 1816 tariffs, but the 1828 tariff (promoted by Jacksonians so Jackson could win some New England and northern votes in 1828 election) became a trigger event, as South Carolina called it the Tariff of Abominations, because they bought British goods and thus paid a bigger chunk of taxes; South Carolina proceeded to threaten secession and C) cont. declared the Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 null and void, and refused to allow collection of duties. John C. Calhoun had resurrected Jefferson's states' rights position from the Virginia and Kentucky Resolves * The Nullification Crisis exploded on the national scene; the Webster-Payne Debate of 1830 pitched the nationalist Daniel Webster ("Liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable!") against Calhoun's stand-in, Robert Payne; Jackson declared South Carolina to be in violation of the Constitution, and threatened to invade with the Force Bill; at the same time, he and Clay worked out a deal to lower the tariff; SC backed down * Prior to the 1832 election, Henry Clay and Daniel Webster were looking for a campaign issue to attack Jackson over, and chose to push Nicholas Biddle to ask for an early recharter of the Second Bank of the United States (not due to expire until 1836; Clay and Webster badly underestimated popular support for the Bank, which was widely hated, as were most banks); Jackson, as expected, vetoed it; Clay then ran on that issue, accusing Jackson of inappropriate use of veto power; Jackson then ran to a landslide attacking the Bank as an instrument of "special privilege" that served the rich; after winning re-election, Jackson claimed he had a mandate to destroy the Bank, and he proceeded to pull all federal funds out of the national bank, depositing them instead in the state banks (known as "pet banks"), which were far less careful with their practices; the "pet banks" helped contribute to the causes of the Panic of 1837 * Henry Clay's endorsement of federally funded internal improvements was halted by Andrew Jackson vetoing the extension of the National Road into Clay's home state of Kentucky; Jackson vetoed it claiming it was entirely in one state, but the so-called Maysville Road Veto was more than likely a personal attack on Clay than a constitutional stand (after Jackson successfully brought the national debt to ZERO, Clay talked him into releasing the federal surpluses to the states for the purposes of internal improvements, which created a canal- and road- building boom that contributed to the Panic of 1837 by creating inflation) [Jackson hated Clay, and Clay's American System, and effectively destroyed all three parts of it] * Jackson instituted a new trend towards what would become the "spoils system" by using government jobs as political rewards; while Jackson himself didn't fire competent government appointees, his successors would shortly fire everybody they could and hand out the jobs as political plums, thus building political machines * 1840 election saw Whig party trying to capitalize on resentments over Panic of 1837 to destroy Martin Van Buren's chances of re-election ["Martin Van Ruin" / "Van, Van, Van is a used up man"](Whigs chose a Jackson clone and ran a very- populist style election - "Log Cabin and Hard Cider" to win, only to see Harrison die; Democrat John Tyler was on the ticket as an anti-Jackson man, but he vetoed the Whig program once in office, leading the entire cabinet except Secretary of State Webster to jump ship)

In the debate over ratifying the Constitution, Anti-Federalists opposing ratification battled with Federalists, whose principles were articulated in the Federalist Papers (primarily written by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison). Federalists ensured the ratification of the Constitution by promising the addition of a Bill of Rights that enumerated individual rights and explicitly restricted the powers of the federal government.

* Federalists were better organized and prepared from the start, including the name, which sounds like they support a group of equals, and forced opponents to be Antifederalists [which sounds vaguely Satanic and un-American] * Federalists controlled many newspapers * Federalist Papers (Jay, Hamilton, Madison) well-argued defenses of Constitution (checks and balances, separation of powers, worth of a large republic) * Antifederalists all worried about tyranny and rule by elites * Promise of Bill of Rights won the day * Rhode Island had to be threatened with being treated as foreign country if they didn't ratify, which they did after Washington was in office * Bill of Rights protects individuals and states from federal government (First: freedom of speech, press, assembly; separation of church and state; 2 nd : gun ownership; 4 th ; no illegal searches and seizures; 5 th : no double jeopardy; no self- incrimination; no deprivation of life, liberty, or property without due process of law; eminent domain; 6 th : right to trial by jury; 8 th : no cruel or unusual punishments; 9 th and 10 th , reserved powers to states and the people

The American Revolution and the ideals set forth in the Declaration of Independence reverberated in France, Haiti, and Latin America, inspiring future independence movements.

* French Revolution heavily inspired by American Revolution * Lafayette and Thomas Paine were both in the forefront * Haitian slave rebellion inspired by American and French Revolutions * widespread independence movements in Latin America often replicated language of Declaration of Independence

Britain achieved a major expansion of its territorial holdings by defeating the French, but at tremendous expense, setting the stage for imperial efforts to raise revenue and consolidate control over the colonies.

* French and Indian War - French kicked out of North America (begun when George Washington sent into Ohio to tell the French to get out / forced to surrender / Braddock's defeat / Pitt takes over as Prime Minister and transforms war into Great War for Empire in order to kick out French / Pitt spends vast amounts of money reimbursing colonies for their military expenses in order to win / victories in Quebec and Montreal) * Treaty of Paris * Pontiac's Rebellion * Proclamation Line of 1763 * enormous debt, new empire, and decision to assert control led to end of salutary neglect, and attempts to tax the colonies * Revenue Act of 1762 tried to end colonial bribery of customes officials and rampant smuggling, which had defied Navigation Acts for generations * stationing of troops in America * Currency Act of 1764 banned colonies from using paper money, to prevent worthless paper from paying debts * a few British began to suspect that without French there, nothing would prevent American independence

Political leaders in the 1790s took a variety of positions on issues such as the relationship between the national government and the states, economic policy, foreign policy, and the balance between liberty and order. This led to the formation of political parties-most significantly the Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, and the Democratic-Republican Party, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison.

* Hamilton's assumption of the national and state debts served his desire for a strong national government that would be more powerful than the states, as well as creating a permanent debt that would tie the upper classes to the national government through his interest bearing loans * Hamilton's creation of a national bank created a constitutional crisis over the issue of strict vs. loose construction. Those like Jefferson and Madison who wished to keep the federal government relatively weak believed in strict construction (you can only do what the Constitution specifically says you can do. Those like Hamilton who wanted a strong national government asserted a loose construction, in which, so long as the ends are mentioned in the Constitution, the means are wide open (elastic clause / "necessary and proper" clause). Hamilton won, getting his bank, but driving J & M to leave the Federalists and create the Democratic-Republican party, thus forcing Hamilton to protect his own interests by creating the Federalist party. * Hamilton's vision of the future was of a strong federal government and strong presidency, serving the rich mercantile elites in forming an urban, mercantile, manufacturing nation like Britain, as opposed to Jefferson's vision of a weak national government and strong local governments, serving the common man in an agricultural future of independent educated yeoman farmers * Hamilton and Adams were pro-British; Jefferson and Madison were pro-French; the French Revolution drove them further apart, due to the adoption of atheism, the execution of the king, and the reign of terror. Hamilton feared a French Revolution here (he would have been a prime target). When the Whiskey Rebellion adopted some of the language of the French Revolution, he and Washington rode out to crush it. * Jay's Treaty infuriated Jeffersonians, who went on a rampage burning effigies and protesting what they saw as a pro-British, anti-French bias which allowed the British to continue blocking American shipping (even though Jay also got the British to abandon the western forts and stop arming Native Americans) * Pinckney's Treaty calmed down the Republicans, by getting the rights to use New Orleans, which Western farmers desperately B) cont. needed * 1796 election saw Adams win the presidency, but his political opponent Jefferson became his VP due to the election rules of the time. * XYZ Affair exploded between the two parties under Adams, as the French demanded bribes, and Adams publicly embarrassed Jeffersonians by printing the letters asking for a bribe; war fever raged, as an undeclared naval war with France resulted, and the Federalists won big in the congressional midterms in 1798. Shamefully, Adams and the Federalists then used their increased power to pass laws that have remained notorious: the Naturalization Act made immigrants wait 14 years to become citizens, instead of 5 (and was aimed at the immigrants who were joining Jeffersonians); the Alien Act allowed the deportation of foreigners (again, Jeffersonians); the worst of them all was the Sedition Act, which violated the First amendment's guarantees of freedom of speech and press by allowing the jailing of anyone who criticized the president or Congress) * Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions: because the Supreme Court had not yet declared a federal law unconstitutional, no precedent for how to handle the federal government violating the Constitution yet existed. So Jefferson and Madison went to the states, and argued that the states had created the Constitution, so they had the right to decide what was constitutional. This states' rights position has reappeared over time, including the Nullification crisis and the Civil War. * 1800 election became a referendum on these acts, and Jefferson won in what he called "the Revolution of 1800." The Acts were quickly overturned in his administration.

Distance and Britain's initially lax attention led to the colonies creating self-governing institutions that were unusually democratic for the era. The New England colonies based power in participatory town meetings, which in turn elected members to their colonial legislatures; in the Southern colonies, elite planters exercised local authority and also dominated the elected assemblies.

* House of Burgesses the first self-government; most other colonies followed their example * Royal governors or proprietors had to work with these representative assemblies if they wanted to get anything done * Massachusetts based franchise on church membership, while others based it largely on property ownership * New England town meetings allowed most adult white males to participate in making laws for their local communities * Planter class in the South either required substantial property to vote or hold office, or they partied with their voters to get their votes * Domestic politics and/or salutary neglect allowed American colonies to control the legislative process, especially taxation; occasional British efforts to re-assert control (Navigation Acts, Dominion of New England, Glorious Revolution) generally failed or were avoided

The rise of democratic and individualistic beliefs, a response to rationalism, and changes to society caused by the market revolution, along with greater social and geographical mobility, contributed to a Second Great Awakening among Protestants that influenced moral and social reforms and inspired utopian and other religious movements.

* In the wake of the American Revolution, and accelerating towards the rise of the Jacksonian Democrats, the franchise spread out to almost all white males, while appointed offices increasingly became elected (after 1830, most states rewrote their constitutions to move towards Jacksonian ideals of democracy, as well as moving towards a more laissez-faire approach to the economy) * religious revivals began to move away from predestination, opening up salvation to everybody who wanted it (more democratically-oriented religions like Baptists and Methodists proved more popular than hierarchical faiths like Episcopalians) * sentimentalism and romanticism began to replace Enlightenment values, as feelings became more important than reason A) cont. * Market Revolution and Industrial Revolution made more and more luxury goods affordable and available to individuals, raising the standard of living (also creating a class-based society in the North, including urban poor, who were often recent immigrants) * More and more (white) Americans were able to climb up the economic ladder, either through education or migrating west to new farmlands; also, widening of the franchise to almost all white males increased political power * Second Great Awakening interacted extensively with economics, politics, and social demands, creating a white Christian society that expected Christianity to be the norm, in both public and private life; unlike First Great Awakening, churches did not split into factions or become hostile to each other; rather, they began friendly competitions to help make a better society (unless the Christians in question were Catholic, in which case, violence, mob actions, and institutionalized discrimination were more the norm, as in public schools refusing to use the Catholic Bible, Samuel F.B. Morse writing an anti- Catholic tract that was widely read, the Order of the Star- Spangled Banner [the Know-Nothings] and other anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic Nativist groups) * Charles Grandison Finney and the Rochester Revival [in the "burned-out district" along the Erie Canal, which generated many utopian and religious experiments, including the Mormons] * Second Great Awakening generated organized reform groups [the Benevolent Empire] that used revivalist tactics to spread their influence and membership: temperance, sabbatarianism, anti-prostitution, prison reform [moving from punishment to rehabilitation], insane asylums [getting the crazy family members out of basements and attics and into hospital like settings for healing], orphanages, abolitionists, and feminism * Because churches started these reforms, which were often led by ministers, women could become involved under their guidance, this affording a pathway to activity outside the home and social callings * Utopian, perfectionist experimentation went rampant, as the drive to create a more ideal society generated dozens of communes and new religions [Transcendentalism, including Emerson, Thoreau, Margaret Fuller, and Walt Whitman; Brook Farm; the Oneida community [John Humphrey Noyes and plural marriage], the Shakers, the Mormons [polygamy], the Millerites, Fourierism, and many more]

Large numbers of international migrants moved to industrializing northern cities, while many Americans moved west of the Appalachians, developing thriving new communities along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers.

* Irish Catholics largest group of immigrants between the Revolutionary War and the Civil War, followed by Germans (often Catholic) [biggest groups before Rev: Scots-Irish and Germans; largest ethnic group in America in 2010: German- Americans] * Irish filled Boston and New York City; Germans came to New York and Western cities; Catholics fought for their own churches and schools (parish school system the result) * Eric Canal and railroads accelerated internal migration to Ohio and Mississippi River valleys, as farmers sought new lands; Puritans migrated in entire towns and churches; white yeoman farmers fled South into Ohio to escape economic limitations of slave society (Lincoln's father moving them from Kentucky to Indiana then Illinois, for example) * expansion of manufacturing to Cleveland, Chicago, and Midwest drew more immigrants to fill jobs * slavery moved into Old Southwest, rapidly filling up Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, as well as Arkansas and Missouri to a lesser degree

The effort for American independence was energized by colonial leaders such as Benjamin Franklin, as well as by popular movements that included the political activism of laborers, artisans, and women.

* James Otis (early Patriot; fought writs of assistance, called for Stamp Act Congress) * Patrick Henry (threatened King George III; later, "give me liberty or give me death!" * Samuel Adams (organized Sons of Liberty and Committees of Correspondence) * John Dickinson (moderate who opposed taxation on general principles, wrote Olive Branch Petition, Articles of Confederation) * John Adams (defended British soldiers in Boston Massacre trial, major force for independence) * Benjamin Franklin (primary diplomat in England, and then France; moderate who was driven to the Patriot side by his treatment in England) * George Washington (military commander; kept the Army going throughout major losses in Revolution; his surrender of power after victory was a worldwide stunner nobody expected) * Thomas Jefferson (Declaration of Independence) * Richard Henry Lee (proposed independence) * Abigail Adams (Remember the Ladies! Also, ran farm while John was gone) * Mercy Otis Warren (patriot, first historian of the Revolution) * Sons of Liberty (laborers and artisans; effigies burned, Thomas Hutchinson's house burned down, boycott supported, mobs attacked non-compliant merchants; danced around Liberty Tree; serenaded Patriot merchants; wore liberty caps)

Colonial leaders based their calls for resistance to Britain on arguments about the rights of British subjects, the rights of the individual, local traditions of self-rule, and the ideas of the Enlightenment.

* John Adams and James Otis argue that Americans are being deprived of rights of British citizens (in reality, British had vice- admiralty courts too) * Otis argued writs of assistance were unconstitutional * Adams defended John Hancock in smuggling case by saying common law mandated a jury trial * argued Parliament couldn't overturn common law * English Bill of Rights cited, which said king couldn't pass taxes without Parliament's consent; colonists argued their own taxes had to go through their own assemblies, and right was the same * Enlightenment taught Americans to question the past and appeal to reason - Locke taught them that man had natural rights to life, liberty, and property, and gov't's duty was to protect those rights, which Parliament (to them) clearly wasn't doing * Montesquieu argued against arbitrary use of power * Real Whigs a MAJOR influence: 1) beware of DEBT (British had high debt), because rich will be the ones the government borrows money from; 2) beware of TAXES (British were trying to tax colonists), because the rich now have to be paid back, so they won't be the ones getting taxed; 3) beware of government getting bigger (British were expanding the customs office, and increasing size of government), because the rich will use that expansion to fill government with their flunkies; and 4) beware of a STANDING ARMY (British were posting troops in America, especially Boston), because in peacetime, the only use for an army is take away your liberties! * Real Whigs thus provided Americans with a conspiracy theory which drove their paranoia; common argument was Parliament was trying to enslave them; amount of taxes wasn't the point - it was the principle, the wedge into their freedoms * salutary neglect had allowed the Americans to develop extensive self-government, especially on issues of taxation, and their control of the royal governors by controlling their salaries

Enlightenment ideas and philosophy inspired many American political thinkers to emphasize individual talent over hereditary privilege, while religion strengthened Americans' view of themselves as a people blessed with liberty.

* John Locke taught that human beings were essentially good, and that as individuals, we came together to create government, to protect our rights to life, liberty, and property; if government (King George III) didn't protect those rights, we had the right to revolt and create a new government * Thomas Paine's Common Sense taught monarchy was ridiculous * Montesquieu taught about separation of powers * Constitution bans noble titles * John Winthrop's "City upon a Hill" emphasized American exceptionalism, as did their "errand into the wilderness" * Pilgrims, Puritans, Maryland Catholics, Quakers, German pietists, and others all came to America to pursue religious freedom * Great Awakening emphasized individual salvation, and a rejection of Church of England and other religions that rejected the right of an individual to choose his own path to God * Great Awakening's conversion of African-Americans led them to emphasize the figure of Moses and the path to freedom

The colonists' belief in the superiority of republican forms of government based on the natural rights of the people found expression in Thomas Paine's Common Sense and the Declaration of Independence. The ideas in these documents resonated throughout American history, shaping Americans' understanding of the ideals on which the nation was based.

* John Locke's theory of government and popular sovereignty * colonial self-government going back to the House of Burgesses, Massachusetts Assembly, New England town meetings, etc. * English Bill of Rights creating limited monarchy also established idea that the powers of government could be limited by the people, and written down * Constitution based on popular sovereignty: "We the People" * Federalism balancing the national and state governments in the Constitution is a unique blending of popular sovereignty * John Adams' promotion of bicameralism reflected in the Great Compromise, with checks and balances of the idealized British government in the three branches, as well as between both houses of Congress (lower house is closest analog to colonial representation; upper house is more Hamiltonian and Romanesque) * Lincoln used the Declaration of Independence in his Gettysburg Address, emphasizing equality and government for the people * Seneca Falls Convention rewrote the Declaration: "All men and women are created equal."

Various American Indian groups repeatedly evaluated and adjusted their alliances with Europeans, other tribes, and the U.S., seeking to limit migration of white settlers and maintain control of tribal lands and natural resources. British alliances with American Indians contributed to tensions between the U.S. and Britain.

* Kentucky and Tennessee had been filling up with squatters (they had attempted to form the state of Franklin, but Congress rejected it to maintain control of the process) (squatters were often Scots-Irish and other poor immigrants, while the speculators tended to be English descendants) * speculators bought up huge tracts, which put them into conflict with the squatters (in Ohio as well) * Pennsylvania, New York, and Connecticut were fighting over conflicting land claims out west until they ceded all land claims to the national government * Shays' Rebellion and Whiskey Rebellion are both frontier rebellions, defying political controls back east (many frontiersmen were Scots-Irish, who resented authority of almost any kind, but they were particularly hostile to "revenue hounds") B) cont. * fears that the West and Southwest would join the Spanish, due to control of the Mississippi River * Yazoo land fraud (Georgia sold huge tracts of land it may not have owned, sometimes multiple times; resolved by Fletcher v. Peck) / Pine-Barrens scandal sold three times the amount of land that was available [past 1800, but this one may be aimed at the Louisiana Purchase, then the Wilkinson/Burr secessionist plot]

The British government increasingly attempted to incorporate its North American colonies into a coherent, hierarchical, and imperial structure in order to pursue mercantilist economic aims, but conflicts with colonists and American Indians led to erratic enforcement of imperial policies.

* King James I and takeover of Virginia as a royal colony * English Puritans and Navigation Acts * Restoration colonies showed King Charles II carving up "his" continent * King James II and the Dominion of New England * Glorious Revolution and re-chartering of many colonies with new restrictions [church of England established, royal governors] * Salutary neglect led to decades of lax enforcement * W.A.G. the French and Indians! [many British politicians feared Americans would defy them, as they had during these wars, once France was gone]

The goals and interests of European leaders and colonists at times diverged, leading to a growing mistrust on both sides of the Atlantic. Colonists, especially in British North America, expressed dissatisfaction over issues including territorial settlements, frontier defense, self-rule, and trade.

* King James I took over Virginia as a royal colony, and ordered House of Burgesses abolished; royal governor discovered he couldn't rule without it * Lord Baltimore and Catholic minority often at odds with Protestant majority in Maryland, as can be seen in passage - and dismissal - of Toleration Act designed to protect Catholic minority * New England unhappy with Oliver Cromwell for ignoring their "City upon a Hill" / Navigation Acts widely defied with smuggling and bribery over the next century * Louis XIV refused to allow French Huguenots to emigrate, fearing they would rebel, so New France choked off from French settlers (French peasants also refused to emigrate, as they had more rights than English peasants displaced by enclosure) * Spanish never allowed their colonies any degree of self-rule, nor did they allow any Spanish creoles born in New Spain any kind of significant power * British colonies often at odds with each other over western lands, which the British kings had granted with conflicting claims * New England furious with Restoration of King Charles II * Bacon's Rebellion put colonists under Nathaniel Bacon at war with royal governor William Berkeley * King James II took away self-government in New England, putting all of New England, New York, and New Jersey into Dominion of New England * Glorious Revolution met with acclaim in America, even though William and Mary altered colonial charters and created others *W.A.G. the French and Indians! Colonies annoyed by treaties

Increasing numbers of Americans, especially women and men working in factories, no longer relied on semi-subsistence agriculture; instead they supported themselves producing goods for distant markets.

* Lowell Mill girls (given parental-style chaperones, taken to church, watched over for moral behavior) - our first factory labor force * replaced by poor Irish immigrants * outwork system engaged many farmers and wives in helping in production process, or in making cheeses for sale * workers begin working for pay instead of living off their own production * early unionization efforts resulted from dissatisfaction with employer treatment (Lowell Mill girls even struck) and from Panic of 1937 * typically, courts ruled against unions and strikes, but Commonwealth v. Hunt, from the Massachusetts Supreme Court, was an exception in ruling unions had right to strike

Supreme Court decisions established the primacy of the judiciary in determining the meaning of the Constitution and asserted that federal laws took precedence over state laws.

* Marbury v. Madison (1803) established the principle of judicial review over presidential or congressional actions (judicial review over states already established, but Marbury firmed up the right) (next use on a federal level: 54 years later in the Dred Scott decision) * Fletcher v. Peck (1810) ruled that states could not overturn contracts previously agreed to (limits state power, protects investors from other states , encouraged investment from one state to another in a national economy) * Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819) refused to allow New Hampshire to overturn charter for Dartmouth, to turn it into public university (a contract is a contract) * McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) denied the state of Maryland the right to tax a national institution (affirmed supremacy of national government; affirmed loose construction of the Constitution as the correct one, not strict interpretation Maryland wanted)

Gender and family roles changed in response to the market revolution, particularly with the growth of definitions of domestic ideals that emphasized the separation of public and private spheres.

* Men and women separated during the day, as men went to work somewhere else, and women remained at home * separate sphere / cult of domesticity [see 1.1.III.C above]

Southern business leaders continued to rely on the production and export of traditional agricultural staples, contributing to the growth of a distinctive Southern regional identity.

* South remained linked to cotton and slavery, and with rare exception, never tried to shift to manufacturing * railroads and transportation far less in South * Schooling and education rudimentary at best, except for planter class, who relied on tutors * South increasingly isolated from changes in rest of country, and the political strengths that had led to Virginia Dynasty began slipping away as West tended to join North instead * Essentially, South trapped in the past while the North created the future

An Atlantic economy developed in which goods, as well as enslaved Africans and American Indians, were exchanged between Europe, Africa, and the Americas through extensive trade networks. European colonial economies focused on acquiring, producing, and exporting commodities that were valued in Europe and gaining new sources of labor.

* Mercantilism (colonies export raw materials, mother country sells back finished goods) * Navigation Acts enforced trade only with British (bribery and smuggling undercut these for decades) * Salutary neglect set the pattern * South Atlantic System / Triangle Trades (food from New England sold in Caribbean, molasses taken back, turned into rum, which was then sold for other commodities, including slaves) * Dutch, then British, went to war to seize control of slave trade * Sugar islands the main source of imperial profits * British went to war against Dutch and seized New Amsterdam / New York in order to enforce mercantilism * northern American colonies used loophole in Navigation Acts to build trading vessels and control trade between North America and Caribbean * New England exported food and rum; Middle colonies exported wheat; Chesapeake exported tobacco; North Carolina exported timber; South Carolina exported rice and indigo and later cotton

Congressional attempts at political compromise, such as the Missouri Compromise, only temporarily stemmed growing tensions between opponents and defenders of slavery.

* Missouri Compromise an attempt to replicate compromises from Constitutional Convention that had kept the country together over the issue of slavery (Missouri asked for entry as a slave state, but Tallmadge Amendment blocking Missouri slavery and Northern-controlled House blocked it; Maine requested entry as a free state, but Southern-controlled Senate blocked it; South then tried three arguments: 1) new territories had "equal rights" with previous states, where no provisions blocking slavery applied; 2) Constitution guaranteed a state control over its internal affairs, including slavery; 3) Congress had no right to interfere with property owners) * Henry Clay (The Great Compromiser) worked out the deal: 1) Missouri and Maine both admitted; 2) future state admissions would be in pairs, one free and one slave; and 3) no future slavery north of the southern boundary of Missouri (36∘ 30') * Gag Rule and censorship of mails followed in 1830s [Elijah Lovejoy's murder at the hands of an abolitionist mob; Garrison burning Constitution as a "covenant with death" and "an agreement with hell" Garrison almost lynched later by anti- abolitionist mob in Boston]; Texas annexation and Mexican American War in 1840s [heading towards Compromise of 1850 in Period

War between France and Britain resulting from the French Revolution presented challenges to the United States over issues of free trade and foreign policy and fostered political disagreement.

* Neutrality Proclamation by Washington designed to allow American commerce to continue with both sides; American economy recovering from Revolution and being locked out of British trading system due to high price of farming produce * French were officially our allies, and tried to enact the alliance, but Hamilton and Washington insisted that was with the king whose head they had chopped off (which upset Jefferson who was pro-French) * British and French both stopping American shipping, but British had the larger navy and were also impressing American sailors * Federalists hated atheism of French Revolution, as well as the Reign of Terror, and the fear that the poor would rise up against them in America * Jeffersonians hated British, because of the Revolution * Jay's Treaty infuriated Jeffersonians, who saw it as a de facto alliance with British * XYZ Affair drove Federalists and Republicans further apart

The middle colonies supported a flourishing export economy based on cereal crops and attracted a broad range of European migrants, leading to societies with greater cultural, ethnic, and religious diversity and tolerance.

* New York began as New Amsterdam, welcoming a variety of ethnic groups, including the first Jewish community in America * Pennsylvania was Quaker, whose pacifism and belief in an Inner Light meant welcoming all, and treating Indians relatively fairly * Scots-Irish and Germans came to Pennsylvania in large numbers * Middle colonies heavily focused on wheat * Middle colonies remained diverse and tolerant throughout their existence

Abolitionist and antislavery movements gradually achieved emancipation in the North, contributing to the growth of the free African American population, even as many state governments restricted Antislavery efforts in the South were largely limited to unsuccessful slave rebellions.

* North largely outlawed slavery, albeit slowly, after the Revolutionary War - completely gone by 1840; South refused to, and continued to enforce their control of slavery (War of 1812 saw attempts to get British to pay for slaves they freed during war; Congress upheld slavery in D.C.); * American Colonization Society established to end slavery, but only to return them to Africa; president of society was James Monroe, for whom the capital of the American-founded state of Liberia in Africa named their capital after: Monrovia * Argument shifted from 1800 to 1830: slavery went from being anti-republican to being a sin (accompanying shift in South went from slavery being a "necessary evil" to a "positive good") * Among free black communities, efforts shifted from "racial uplift: (become respectable through hard work to gain equality) to a more strident abolitionism, particularly with David Walker B) cont. and his Appeal, which threatened violence * free blacks faced racism in the North and South; kept in low- paying jobs, rarely owned land; rarely had right to vote in the North, or right to testify in court (only MA); a few rose to prominence: Benjamin Banneker helped design D.C.; Joshua Johnson was a painter; Paul Cuffee was a wealthy businessman. * free blacks in North created churches, schools, mutual aid societies; free blacks in South often formed working class in towns and as skilled laborers * Nat Turner's Rebellion had a terrible backlash: when Virginia failed to pass a gradual emancipation bill, the South instead passed tougher slave codes, clamped down on black freedom to travel, banned the right to read, and on the national level, instituted a Gag Rule in Congress to prevent even the discussion of abolition or emancipation, while Jackson instituted censorship in the U.S. mails to ban abolitionist literature * white and black abolitionists worked together to form societies in the north, publish newspapers (Garrison, The Liberator; Frederick Douglass, The North Star), create the Underground Railroad, formed mobs to prevent runaway slaves from being retaken, and launched a petition crusade to Congress (which led to the Gag Rule) * Garrison demanded immediate, uncompensated emancipation, and burned the U.S. Constitution, but his insistence on pacifism, women's rights, and prison reform led to splitting of American Anti-Slavery Society in two (one branch formed the Liberty Party, which led to 1840 presidential campaign under James G. Birney)

As settlers moved westward during the 1780s, Congress enacted the Northwest ordinance for admitting new states; the ordinance promoted public education, the protection of private property, and a ban on slavery in the Northwest Territory.

* Ordinance of 1784 set up process to become state * Land Ordinance of 1785 set up grid surveying system * Northwest Ordinance of 1787 set up portion of land sales to finance public schools and banned slavery in Old Northwest * meant West would be equal partners, not colonies

American Indian resistance to Spanish colonizing efforts in North America, particularly after the Pueblo Revolt, led to Spanish accommodation of some aspects of American Indian culture in the Southwest.

* Our Lady of Guadalupe * Day of the Dead * The Day of the Holy Cross (May 3 rd ) [major Mexican holy day] * Maximón also called San Simón, is a folk saint venerated in various forms by Maya people of several towns in the highlands of Western Guatemala. The veneration of Maximón is not approved by the Roman Catholic Church. [source:Wikipedia] * Pueblo Revolt / Popé's Rebellion - Native Americans allowed to maintain their own territory and cut down on forced assimilation

Many new state constitutions placed power in the hands of the legislative branch and maintained property qualifications for voting and citizenship.

* Pennsylvania was the most radical, creating a unicameral legislature with no executive branch, and no property requirement to vote at all (only males could vote) * South Carolina was the most conservative, restricting the right to vote or even run for office to the wealthiest citizens * Most state constitutions were somewhere in the middle, but held popular sovereignty as a principle; generally speaking, the middling classes gained power in most states, while the elites generally lost ground * John Adams and the constitution he wrote for Massachusetts became the role model, creating a bicameral legislature, with a strong executive with veto power (the upper house retained a property requirement) and a higher property requirement to be allowed to vote

Societies responded to the aridity of the Great Basin and the grasslands of the western Great Plains by developing largely mobile lifestyles.

* Spanish introduction of the horse transformed Plains Indians, allowing them to become better warriors, raiders, and hunters * Comanche and Sioux exerted control over large territories as a result * Bison herds more easily hunted, increasing food and supplies

Colonial rivalry intensified between Britain and France in the mid-18th century, as the growing population of the British colonies expanded into the interior of North America, threatening French-Indian trade networks and American Indian autonomy.

* Period from 1689 through 1815, Second Hundred Years War between Britain and France * King William's War / Queen Anne's War / King George's War * wars were largely stalemates that ended with most territories restored to original owners * New France and New England competing with each other, and Native Americans, to control areas like the Ohio Valley and the Great Lakes * Native Americans caught between these two imperial powers, although many preferred the French due to the ever-rising numbers of British colonists who wanted their land more than their furs and trade (French goal) *diseases and wars forced Native Americans to remake themselves repeatedly in process of tribalization, where new tribes were pieced together from old tribes * after being nearly assaulted by French, Iroquois moved away from English alliance and played French and English off against each other, while Iroquois tried to remain neutral (they accepted gifts, or formed covenant chain with individual colonies) * Franklin's Albany Plan tried to organize colonies; rejected

After the British victory, imperial officials' attempts to prevent colonists from moving westward generated colonial opposition, while native groups sought to both continue trading with Europeans and resist the encroachments of colonists on tribal lands.

* Pontiac's Rebellion * Neolin called for all Indians to reject white ways, and white goods, especially rum * Proclamation Line of 1763 * troops stationed in frontier forts to prevent another Pontiac's Rebellion / keep colonists from violating Proclamation Line * Iroquois attempts to remain neutral and sustain control over European trade goods / furs

Improvements in maritime technology and more organized methods for conducting such international trade, such as joint-stock companies, help drive changes to the economies in Europe and the Americas.

* Portuguese developed the caravel, using a triangular sail called a lateen to allow for tacking into the wind * Adapted Muslim astrolabe for better navigation, by calculating latitude, and Chinese compass * Development of cash crops like sugar drove the desire to expand exploration and trade * African slave trade provided capital and labor source * Granting of monopolies provided profit incentive to companies * Creation of joint-stock companies decreased risk for individuals, and made colonization possible for English and Dutch (Jamestown, Plymouth, New Amsterdam, Boston, etc.)

European traders partnered with some West African groups who practiced slavery to forcibly extract slave labor for the Americas. The Spanish imported enslaved Africans to labor in plantation agriculture and mining.

* Portuguese replaced Arabs in the slave trade (and were in turn replaced by the Dutch and then the English) * West Africans willingly captured other Africans to sell them to the Europeans, thus leading to widespread devastation of several cultures and kingdoms * When Native Americans proved to be particularly susceptible to disease, Spain shifted to Africans who were immune to most European and tropical diseases (at the urging of Bartolomé de las Casas in particular, who thought using African slaves would protect Native Americans from exploitation)

The presence of different European religious and ethnic groups contributed to a significant degree of pluralism and intellectual exchange, which were later enhanced by the First Great Awakening and the spread of European Enlightenment ideas.

* Puritan hostility towards Quakers and Catholics * Roger Williams / banished by Puritans / creation of Rhode Island * Anne Hutchinson's heresy trial / rejection of patriarchy / antinomianism / fled to Rhode Island * New York - Dutch heritage and multi-ethnic community * Quakers in Pennsylvania - religious and ethnic tolerance due to belief in pacifism and Inner Light - Germans and Scots-Irish came in large numbers and maintained cultural identities * Church of England largely in hands of local authority, particularly in Chesapeake, which undercut conformity * Great Awakening inspired by German pietism; Jonathan Edwards combined Locke's theory of the senses with his own revival of Puritan conversion experience; British George Whitefield then took Edwards' hellfire and brimstone style and sparked Great Awakening across the thirteen colonies, which sparked many conflicts between Old Lights and New Lights, who then set up their own churches and colleges (Baptists and Methodists especially, and most of the Ivy League schools were founded as a result) * Books brought European Enlightenment to America, where an entire generation of educated Americans adopted them - Franklin and all his inventions, his proof that lightning was electricity, his publication of Poor Richard's Almanack, his anonymous writings under assumed names, lending libraries, fire companies, hospitals; Jefferson and all his talents * Deism - God as the great watchmaker

The New England colonies, initially settled by Puritans, developed around small towns with family farms and achieved a thriving mixed economy of agriculture and commerce.

* Puritans "errand into the wilderness" to create a "City upon a Hill" demanded that all male settlers be treated roughly equally, so land was evenly distributed * Puritans migrated as church communities, and laws required them to live closely together, near churches and schools, with a communal need to enforce laws based on Bible and a national covenant that discouraged tolerance and diversity * Puritans required conversion experience for membership, which then allowed males to vote in Massachusetts * New England grew corn and beans, and fished, which they then sold to the South and Caribbean colonies; NE bought molasses and made rum; trade built them into shipping power

The colonies of the southernmost Atlantic coast and the British West Indies used long growing seasons to develop plantation economies based on exporting staple crops. They depended on the labor of enslaved Africans, who often constituted the majority of the population in these areas and developed their own forms of cultural and religious autonomy.

* South Carolina and Georgia based on rice and indigo, and later cotton * Caribbean colonies grew sugar, the most profitable of all crops * All of these colonies used Portuguese-based slavery, which was more cruel and destructive of human dignity, because the profits from sugar were so high, and the supply of slaves so close and so cheap, that they worked their slaves to death and bought more * African slaves merged African belief systems and Christianity, producing voodoo and Santeria

The expansion of slavery in the deep South and adjacent western lands and rising antislavery sentiment began to create distinctive regional attitudes toward the institution.

* The Articles granted the southern states control over the Old Southwest - they spread slavery rapidly into Alabama and Mississippi * The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 banished slavery from the Great Lakes states * The north had begun abolishing slavery after independence, and never had a substantial need for slavery in the first place * the cotton gin would accelerate the profitability of slavery * the North became an area of immigrants, who provided the cheap labor supply as the North industrialized * the South remained tied to slavery and agriculture * the Missouri Compromise revealed how far apart they were

The Articles of Confederation unified the newly independent states, creating a central government with limited power. After the Revolution, difficulties over international trade, finances, interstate commerce, foreign relations, and internal unrest led to calls for a stronger central government. Delegates from the states participated in a Constitutional Convention and through negotiation, collaboration, and compromise proposed a constitution that created a limited but dynamic central government embodying federalism and providing for a separation of powers between its three branches.

* The Articles of Confederation was a very weak central government with no executive or judicial branches and a Congress where every state had one vote * Two major weaknesses: 1) needed a unanimous vote to change the rules, so it proved to be impossible to fix; and 2) no power to tax, so all they could do was borrow, beg the states, or print money * Articles succeeded in raising army, winning the war, and establishing an orderly way to turn the West into equal states (also, Northwest Ordinance banished slavery and set a goal of publicly financed education) * Other problems couldn't be solved: postwar recession, failure to pay debts, interstate squabbles, lack of respect from foreign nations (Britain refused to abandon forts) * Shays' Rebellion waiting to happen in most states * Annapolis Convention (called to propose solutions to economic woes; Hamilton and Madison made connections, and pushed for a Constitutional Convention to revise the Articles more thoroughly) * Shays Rebellion convinced states (except Rhode Island) that they needed to fix the Articles; nationalists swarmed to Philly * Madison's Virginia Plan defeated the New Jersey Plan, with modifications * "We the People" was a deliberate attempt to reach beyond state governments and build popular sovereignty directly (state ratifying conventions was another trick, to sidestep the unanimous requirement) * Strong executive / legislative / judicial branches * Three branches / Separation of powers / checks and balances * Bicameral legislature / Great Compromise / equal representation in Senate, proportional representation in House * National government shares powers with states, but is supreme in most conflicts

As European encroachments on Native Americans' lands and demands on their labor increased, native peoples sought to defend and maintain their political sovereignty, economic prosperity, religious beliefs, and concepts of gender relations through diplomatic negotiations and military resistance.

* The Aztecs resisted Cortés and the Spanish by bribing them to go away, and then by fighting against them until disease wore them down * The Incas fought back against Pizarro and the Aztecs * Our Lady of Guadalupe shows a religious vision which insisted the Virgin Mary had visited, showing dark skin * Native American males refused to become farmers, choosing instead ranching or herding * Powhatan "adopted" John Smith [after 1607] * Pocahontas became Rebecca and married John Rolfe [after 1607] * Opechancanough arranged a sneak attack on Jamestown and the English in 1622, and almost succeeded in wiping them out [after 1607] * Squanto joined the Pilgrims, working with them to provide a diplomatic connection and preserve his own power [1620-1622] * Native Americans took advantage of the European desire for furs to gain European trade goods *Iroquois Confederacy played the French and British off against each other for over a century

In the encomienda system, Spanish colonial economies marshaled Native American labor to support plantation- based agriculture and extract precious metals and other resources.

* The encomienda system tried to replicate feudalism in the Americas, placing the Spanish at the top the social hierarchy, and forcing Native Americans to be peasants, grow crops, and tend animals in service to the Spanish lords * Native Americans were used as labor force in mines as well * The encomienda system was used by Father Junipero Serra to construct the chain of missions up the California coast

The spread of maize cultivation from present-day Mexico northward into the present-day American Southwest and beyond supported economic development, settlement, advanced irrigation, and social diversification among societies.

* Three Sisters - corn, beans, and squash * Corn provided starches, beans proteins, and squash vitamins * Allows for food surplus, which increases population and frees up people to be more than farmers - allows for artisans, soldiers, priests, kings, etc. * Without Three Sisters, little chance for anything above hunter- gatherer level * Supported Aztec and Mayan pyramid building, Mississippi Valley moundbuilders (Cahokia), Pueblo cultures of Chaco Canyon

In the Northeast, the Mississippi River Valley, and along the Atlantic seaboard some societies developed mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies that favored the development of permanent villages.

* Three Sisters allowed for moundbuilding (Cahokia) in Mississippi Valley * Eastern Woodlands tribes of Northeast didn't build mounds, and kept hunting and fishing as well (colder climates meant shorter, less productive growing seasons) * Food surpluses allowed for permanent villages and leaders, like Powhatan, or councils of sachems, like Iroquois Confederacy

Continuing trade with Europeans increased the flow of goods in and out of American Indian communities, stimulating cultural and economic changes and spreading epidemic diseases that caused radical demographic shifts.

* Value of European trade goods meant Native Americans went to war to control the trade with European colonies * fur trade caused massive environmental damage, as beavers were slaughtered, which ruined lake and wetland environments they helped maintain * Beaver Wars: Iroquois Confederation repeatedly went to war over neighbors to seize control of fur trade and European trade, pushing their neighbors to move, or to capture replacements for their lost tribe members in "mourning wars" * Diseases spread by traders, French fur trappers, Native Americans forced Native American tribes to remake themselves into new groups and forge new identities and ways of survival (tribalization)

In response to women's participation in the American Revolution, Enlightenment ideas, and women's appeals for expanded roles, an ideal of "republican motherhood" gained popularity. It called on women to teach republican values within the family and granted women a new importance in American political culture.

* Women argued that they needed an education to raise good republican sons * Women gained that education, particularly in the North * Women argued republicanism meant they should no longer be second-class citizens (Abigail Adams, "Remember the Ladies") * Rise of sentimentalism and marrying for love * companionate marriage between equals promoted * paradigm shift: women before the Revolution largely seen as the ones who were dangerous and had to be controlled; by 1800, men were being portrayed as sexual predators, and women had to be protected from their depredations; women now seen as morally innocent and purer than men * inheritance laws began to shift towards all children equally sharing inheritance, unless a will said otherwise * women got more respect, but the focus on being a mother kept them in the home (Lowell mill girls, teaching became first jobs outside home; Second Great Awakening got them into reforms)

Despite considerable loyalist opposition, as well as Great Britain's apparently overwhelming military and financial advantages, the Patriot cause succeeded because of the actions of colonial militias and the Continental Army, George Washington's military leadership, the colonists' ideological commitment and resilience, and assistant sent by European allies.

* militias throughout the states fought the British * Despite losing six out of 9 major battles, Washington kept the army together and kept fighting * Patriots stood firm to protect their rights and liberties * Dutch provided gunpowder and loans * After Saratoga, French offered alliance; French aid was the single most critical factor in gaining independence - loans, military aid, naval support (without the French, we would have lost at Yorktown) * Baron von Steuben; Marquis de Lafayette

Legislation and judicial systems supported the development of roads, canals, and railroads, which extended and enlarged markets and helped foster regional interdependence. Transportation networks linked the North and Midwest more closely than either was linked to the South.

* protective tariffs passed in 1816, 1824, and 1828 helped emerging American businesses to compete more effectively with British * New York building the Erie Canal (merchants and Governor De Witt Clinton agreed to use tax revenue to pay for it, with Irish immigrants doing the grunt work) * other states also financed canal building, especially in the North, which emerged as a political, cultural, and economic juggernaut as a result, replacing the South as the richest, most politically powerful area of the country [one could argue this is, along with slavery, the cause of the Civil War] * federal government building the National Road * federal government established Post Office, facilitating spread of information * Gibbons v. Ogden saw the Supreme Court expanding the definition of commerce, and securing control of interstate trade C) cont. for Supreme Court * states issued charters for railroads, helping to get them built, and further tying the Northern states together

All the British colonies participated to varying degrees in the Atlantic slave trade due to the abundance of land and a growing European demand for colonial goods, as well as a shortage of indentured servants. Small New England farms used relatively few enslaved laborers, all port cities held significant minorities of enslaved people, and the emerging plantation systems of the Chesapeake and the southernmost Atlantic coast had large numbers of enslaved workers, while the great majority of enslaved Africans were sent to the West Indies.

* slavery existed in every colony, although far fewer in the northern colonies, where there wasn't an economic need * Seaport colonies all participated in slave trade, by providing food, buying molasses / making and selling rum, and / or by transporting slaves from Africa * Sugar colonies drew the vast majority of slaves, but Chesapeake, South Carolina, and Georgia all bought slaves

The growth of manufacturing drove a significant increase in prosperity and standards of living for some; this led to the emergence of a larger middle class and a small but wealthy business elite but also to a large and growing population of laboring poor.

* standard of living rose for the middle class, but a new working class poor also emerged, along with an extremely wealthy class on top of the social ladder\ * Prior to Industrial Revolution, a common culture was typically shared by the entire social ladder; now, the rich lived away from means of production, and set themselves apart by their clothing, housing, neighborhoods, and pastimes * Middle class saw a substantial rise in income, allowing them to purchase luxuries only afforded by rich previously; they adopted genteel culture of books, art, pianos, servants, furnaces for heat and hot water, ovens, iceboxes, sewing machines, packaged goods; children were now educated through high school, and taught to pursue a career, a calling; Franklin's autobiography became huge bestseller, and a role model of the self-made man(the title everybody bought was the Way to Wealth) * Slaves and working class poor on the bottom of the social ladder, with little chance of escape; immigrants often filled this class * Poor barely survived, always living on the edge of economic failure; debt a common thing for the poor; manufactured goods not affordable, nor was education, since children had to go to work; they lived in overcrowded, unsafe conditions, and slums emerged in cities; alcohol consumption high, even on the job; crime rampant

The Chesapeake and North Carolina colonies grew prosperous exporting tobacco - a labor-intensive product initially cultivated by white, mostly male indentured servants and later by enslaved Africans.

* tobacco developed by John Rolfe * headright system brought in thousands of indentured servants * only half of indentured servants survived "seasoning" * overproduction of tobacco, enforcement of Navigation Acts, and decreasing attractiveness of available land and profits dried up pool of indentured servants * Chesapeake slowly began passing laws creating race-based slavery * Bacon's Rebellion was the trigger event shifting the Chesapeake from white indentured servants to African slaves * tobacco required large amounts of land to be profitable; only the ruling class of planters were able to squeeze out a profit * tobacco produced colonies with few towns

Regional interests often trumped national concerns as the basis for many political leaders' positions on slavery and economic policy.

* western War Hawks went to war over national interests in War of 1812 * Hartford Convention placed their interests over the national government, by demanding changes in the Constitution (particularly on economic issues of foreign trade) * John C. Calhoun's support for the doctrine of nullification placed the needs of one state over the national government (although an argument can be made he was delaying secession to keep the nation together by suggesting the stage of nullification before outright departure) * Calhoun resigned the VP and joined the Whigs to promote his own agenda (slavery, among other issues) rather than maintaining national unity (also, the Peggy Eaton sex scandal led the entire cabinet to resign as well) * Jackson vetoed the Maysville Road and other internal improvements largely as a personal attack on Clay * Clay manipulated the Senate into censuring Jackson as a personal attack * Jackson's stand on slavery led him to support censorship of the national mail and the Gag Rule in the House * John Quincy Adams spent his post-presidential career assaulting slavery through his position in the House, regardless of the consequences on national unity * Positions towards Texas often shifted with the political winds, as politicians flip-flopped over the issue of annexation, depending on which direction different areas were trending (Jackson, Clay, Tyler, Van Buren, Polk, all manipulated this issue) * political machines often favored local issues over national issues * Polk sacrificed his campaign slogan of "54' 40 or fight!" in favor of the Mexican-American war, which offered more of a chance to spread slavery than a war with Britain did

British conflicts with American Indians over land, resources, and political boundaries led to military confrontations, such as Metacom's War (King Philip's War) in New England.

1622 Virginia massacre by Opechancanough * Miles Standish's pre-emptive strike * Pequot War in Connecticut * King Philip's War / Metacom * Bacon's Rebellion (involved right to slaughter Native Americans) * W.A.G. the French and Indians - four wars, all involved conflicts with Indians, as well as the French * Paxton Boys

How did the denominations in America affect relations with Great Britain?

Believing in the Anglican Church meant you were more aligned with King. Relations with Great Britain will suffer due to the diverse modes of religion.

Assess the degree of social mobility in the colonies.

As wars occurred, people were able to use that as a way to make money by selling military supplies. War also created widows and orphans. It was difficult to find your way into the upper class. Usually the wealth was highly concentrated in a small percentage of people. Black slaves had it difficult as did indentured servants. As slavery grew, the divide between classes widened.

Describe some of the more important occupations in the colonies.

Farmers- helped nourish the people, and led to an extensive trade market.b Fishermen-stimulated shipbuilding, and exports for England. Skippers- helped facilitate trade between the colonies, West Indies, and Euro/Africa Carpenter- very integral, so much that a murderer was freed because his woodworking skills were needed

How was the religion encompassed in the Great Awakening different from traditional religion? What was important about the difference?

Damnation began to disappear with the idea of doing good could save you appeared. Individual free will would determine your fate. Edwards began to inflict fear in people to want to maintain good. Liberal ideas became more prevalent in the colonies. Sinners would convert. Traveling preachers began to pop up.

What was the significance of large numbers of immigrants from places other than England?

The significance of the large numbers shows that the America we know today is being created back then. Germans made up 6% of the population and fled persecution, similar to the first colonists. The different cultures led to different skills. AS they mingled it laid the foundation for a Euro-mix of people. "A strange mixture of blood, which you will find in no other country."

What was the significance of the tremendous growth of population in Britains North American colonies?

The significance of the tremendous growth is what it means for the British in England. While the British was able to maintain control with English subjects, by 1775 there were 3 english subjects to 1 colonist. As the population grew, the British were finding it harder and harder to control them with laws, which will lead to the King sending troops over which will lead to resentment and more conflict.

Why has the relative prestige of the professions changed from colonial times to today?

This is because of the focus on the importance of certain professions. Physicians were not trained properly and science was only on the horizon of further research and discovery. Clergymen were seen as the physicians, using prayer to help heal. Lawyers and Physicians perform integral services to us today which means they are in high demand.

An ambiguous relationship between the federal government and American Indian tribes contributed to problems regarding treaties and American Indian legal claims relating to the seizure of their lands.

Treaty of Greenville and other conflicts with Native Americans

During the presidential administrations of George Washington and John Adams, political leaders created institutions and precedents that put the principles of the Constitution into practice.

Washington: * created the cabinet: Jefferson at State, Hamilton at Treasury, Knox at War * established title of "Mr. President" * created U.S. Army * put an unofficial two-term limit into play * maintained right to fire any government appointee under him without Senate approval * president doesn't go to Congress [one time didn't work] * established neutrality as our foreign policy, until WWII * Washington used the veto twice * federal court systems established * oversaw Bill of Rights [he had no formal role] * oversaw first new states: Vermont (1791), Kentucky (1792), Tennessee (1796) * Assumed national and state debts / excise taxes to service debt / created Bank of the United States [Hamilton] * Selected site for national capitol on Potomac * Jay's Treaty and Pinckney's Treaty established foreign treaties * Farewell address warned about parties and foreign alliances Adams: * created U.S. Navy and Marines * XYZ Affair leads to undeclared naval war, which Adams ends with first peace treaty instead of further war * establishes Library of Congress * fires Hamilton's stooges from Cabinet, establishing president as head of party and government * decision to hand over power peacefully to Jefferson establishes precedent of peaceful transfer of power to political enemy * appointment of John Marshall creates a strong Supreme Court

The British colonies experienced a gradual Anglicization over time, developing autonomous political communities based on English models with influence from intercolonial commercial ties, the emergence of a trans-Atlantic print culture, and the spread of Protestant evangelicalism.

most colonies eventually became royal colonies, with the Church of England becoming standard, along with representative assemblies and royal governors * All colonies spoke English as main language * Upper classes - northern merchants and southern planters - all modeled their lives on upper class British, from houses to clothing to carriages to education of sons to reading to music * currency largely dependent on British bills of credit * every colony tied into the British trading networks * British books and literature widely read * Great Awakening spread Baptists and Methodists across colonies, as well as anti-authoritarianism * Enlightenment books also spread anti-authoritarianism (helped lay groundwork for Revolution) * political ideas heavily shaped by reading the Real Whigs, and their conspiracy theory forms the ideological backbone of the American Revolution, along with John Locke's theory of government and revolution [Real Whigs: Beware of DEBT, which leads to high TAXES, which leads to an expansion of GOVERNMENT, which then creates a STANDING ARMY to come take away your freedom!] [Locke: Government is created to protect rights to life, liberty, and property; if gov't fails to protect those rights, the people have a right to revolt and create a new government]