AP World Final; Big Questions

The integration of Buddhism into Chinese religious beliefs

The Primordial Beginning "Heaven is everlasting; Life itself is brief; The world is fleeting, but the Way eternal. 'Tis the road of meditation that begins the distant journey, While the sea of craving sets adrift the lighter crafts. Before the dust of bondage has been cleared away, How can the plantings of the mind be contemplated? Yet, what need is there to wash away the grime of passion? In the waters of the Truth there is a tranquil flow." Wang Jung, Chinese poet, "Songs of Religious Joy," fifth century C.E. The poem most clearly illustrates which of the following?

Innovations in previously existing transportation technologies, such as the caravan, allowed merchants to carry larger loads and protect themselves.

"A strongly held misconception about the Sahara, both in popular culture and in academia, is that this desert constitutes both a physical barrier and a fundamental cultural divide between northern Africa—a constituent part of the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern historical realms—and 'sub-Saharan' Africa, a world apart. . . . [I argue] that the Sahara has far more often served as a link than as a barrier. . . . Prior to the end of the 16th century c.e., [the Sahara] was essential to world trade as it afforded nearly continuous communication between China, the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, Russia, the Mediterranean and West Africa. Trade, travel and communications between these world regions was assured by a system of caravans. . . . The 12th through the 16th centuries mark the 'golden age' of this trade. Demand for West African gold was at its height as the economies of the Mediterranean Sea, the Middle East, Central Asia, the Indian Ocean and Ming China expanded. . . . [In addition], the rise of the Malian and then the Songhay empires [made] the trade routes and trading cities of the African continent relatively secure, and therefore prosperous." Eric Ross, Canadian historian, article included in a book, published in 2011 Which of the following best explains why trade along the trans-Saharan trade networks increased in the period 1200-1450 ?

The use of Islam to legitimize government policies

"All the world knows that since the first days of the Ottoman state, the lofty principles of the Qur'an and the rules of the Shari'a were always perfectly preserved. Our mighty sultanate reached the highest degree of strength and power, and all its subjects reached the highest degree of ease and prosperity. But in the last one hundred and fifty years, because of a succession of difficult and diverse causes, the sacred Shari'a was not obeyed nor were the beneficent regulations followed; consequently, the empire's former strength and prosperity have changed into weakness and poverty. It is evident that countries not governed by the Shari'a cannot survive. . . . Full of confidence in the help of the God, and certain of the support of our Prophet, we deem it necessary and important from now on to introduce new legislation in order to achieve effective administration of the Ottoman government and provinces." Mustafa Reshid Pasha, Ottoman Foreign Minister, imperial decree announcing the Tanzimat reforms, 1839 The decree best represents which of the following continuities in Ottoman government?

Mercantilism

"Americans . . . who live within the Spanish system occupy a position in society as mere consumers. Yet even this status is surrounded with galling restrictions, such as being forbidden to grow European crops, or to store products that are royal monopolies, or to establish factories of a type the Peninsula itself does not possess. To this, add the exclusive trading privileges, even in articles of prime necessity . . . in short, do you wish to know what our future held?-simply the cultivation of the fields of indigo, grain, coffee, sugarcane, cacao, and cotton; cattle raising on the broad plains; hunting wild game in the jungles; digging in the earth to mine its gold." Simón Bolívar, "Jamaica Letter," 1815 Bolívar was describing the effects of which of the following economic policies?

The expansion of the Islamic caliphates

"Between the eighth and tenth centuries Arabs brought back from India a variety of crops that they then began cultivating in the Middle East. These included staple crops such as hard wheat, rice, sugarcane, and new varieties of sorghum; fruits such as banana, sour orange, lemon, lime, mango, watermelon, and the coconut palm; vegetables such as spinach, artichoke, and eggplant; and the key industrial crop, cotton. From Iraq, many of these crops then spread westward all the way to Muslim Spain, which was transformed into a veritable garden under Muslim rule. Other crops passed by ship from southern Arabia to East Africa, while still others moved by caravan from northwest Africa across the Sahara to tropical West Africa. This was especially true for cotton, whose diffusion in Africa directly paralleled the spread of Islam itself." Richard Eaton, United States historian of South Asia, Islamic History as Global History, 1990. Which of the following political contexts most directly led to the developments in Afro-Eurasia described in the passage?

Commercial relationships between Muslims and non-Muslims were a key element of the flourishing Indian Ocean trade networks.

"Brother, you had written to me that you sent roughly 6,300 pounds of block iron to me from India in the ship of the Muslim captain Abu'l-Kata'ib. But when the ship arrived here, it only carried 5,100 pounds and the Muslim shipowner said that that was everything he had received from your Indian agent before setting sail. To compensate for the difference, I have charged you the Muslim captain's transportation fee for the above-mentioned iron that was sent to me here in Aden* and for pepper that was sent with it. I am also charging you the transportation fee for items that I am sending to you in India, including twenty-five pounds of copper bars, ten Berbera * mats in a package, cloth, a piece of lead weighing two hundred and forty-five pounds, two large boxes of sugar, and a package of the best Egyptian paper." *Aden and Berbera were prominent Indian Ocean port cities. Letter from Madmun ibn al-Hassan, a Jewish merchant in Aden, to his brother in India, circa 1133 C.E. The letter was written in Judeo-Arabic, a form of the Arabic language written in the Hebrew script. The relationships between the individuals mentioned in the passage best support which of the following conclusions about Indian Ocean trade in the period 600-1450 C.E.?

The increasing demand for high-value goods and manufactures in Afro-Eurasia

"Brother, you had written to me that you sent roughly 6,300 pounds of block iron to me from India in the ship of the Muslim captain Abu'l-Kata'ib. But when the ship arrived here, it only carried 5,100 pounds and the Muslim shipowner said that that was everything he had received from your Indian agent before setting sail. To compensate for the difference, I have charged you the Muslim captain's transportation fee for the above-mentioned iron that was sent to me here in Aden* and for pepper that was sent with it. I am also charging you the transportation fee for items that I am sending to you in India, including twenty-five pounds of copper bars, ten Berbera * mats in a package, cloth, a piece of lead weighing two hundred and forty-five pounds, two large boxes of sugar, and a package of the best Egyptian paper." *Aden and Berbera were prominent Indian Ocean port cities. Letter from Madmun ibn al-Hassan, a Jewish merchant in Aden, to his brother in India, circa 1133 C.E. The letter was written in Judeo-Arabic, a form of the Arabic language written in the Hebrew script. Trade in the items referred to in the second paragraph is best understood in the context of which of the following?

suppress resistance to their rule by co-opting local groups

"Colonel Robert Bennett, under the authority of the Governor of Jamaica, makes a treaty with the rebellious Blacks, today, June 23, 1739. Captain Quao, and several other Black officers under his command, surrendered under the following terms. 1. All hostilities on both sides shall cease forever, Amen. 2. Captain Quao and his people shall have a certain quantity of land given to them, in order to raise crops, hogs, fowls, goats, or whatsoever stock they may think proper, with sugarcanes excepted. 3. Four White men shall constantly live and reside with them in their town, in order to keep a good correspondence with the Black inhabitants of this Island. 4. Captain Quao and his people shall destroy all other rebellious Blacks in any part of Jamaica. They shall be paid to apprehend any runaway Blacks and return them to their respective owners. 5. If any White man shall disturb or annoy any of the people or property that may belong to the said Captain Quao and his people, they may complain to a magistrate and receive justice." Treaty between British colonial authorities and the Windward Maroons, Jamaica, 1739. The Windward Maroons were descendants of Africans brought to the Americas in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries who had fled to the mountainous regions of the island. Article 4 of the treaty is best explained as evidence of how states in the period 1450-1750 sought to

The consolidation of Muslim rule over long-distance trade networks in Eurasia

"Consider how in our time God has transferred the West into the East. He who was a Roman or a Frank is now an inhabitant of Palestine. We have already forgotten the places of our birth. Some already possess homes and servants here. Some have taken wives not merely of their own people, but Syrians, or Armenians, or even Muslims who have received the grace of baptism. Different languages, now made common, become known to both peoples, and faith unites those whose forefathers were strangers. Our parents and relatives from day to day come to join us, abandoning, even though reluctantly, all that they possess. For those who were poor there, here God makes rich. Those who had few coins, here possess countless riches. Those who did not have a home in the West, by the gift of God, already possess a city in the East. Therefore, why should one who has found the East so favorable return to the West? God does not wish those to suffer poverty who, carrying their crosses, have vowed to follow Him, even unto the end." Fulcher of Chartres, French clergyman, chronicle written in Jerusalem, early twelfth century C.E. Which of the following earlier developments best explains the difference in wealth between western Europe and the Middle East as observed by Fulcher in the passage?

The mixing of African and European cultures in the Americas

"During the reign of the Hebrew king Solomon, son of David, the Ethiopian Queen of Sheba, learning of his reputation for wisdom, came from Ethiopia to see and to hear him. Solomon, who had seven hundred queens as wives, received the Queen of Sheba into their number even though she was black. And when she later bore him a son in Ethiopia, she named him after his grandfather, David. This prince, wishing to receive the blessing of his father, came to Jerusalem when he was 22 years old. Solomon not only recognized him as his son, but had him anointed in the Temple, with all proper royal ceremony, as king of Ethiopia. This is the origin of the emperors of Ethiopia, one thousand years before the incarnation of the Son of God. Thus, when the Son of God became man and took the blood of the descendants of David, he had already given that same blood to the blacks of Ethiopia." Sermon delivered by Antonio Vieira, Portuguese Jesuit priest, to plantation workers in Bahia, Brazil, 1633 The sermon delivered by Vieira is best seen as evidence for which of the following?

The demographic makeup of Barbadian society and the structure of its economy make existing punishments for slaves justified.

"I admit that the punishments of the slaves on Barbados for all sorts of offenses are indeed very cruel, but one must consider before condemning the [White] inhabitants that they often have no choice but to set moderation aside and use punishment as a way to intimidate their slaves. The Whites need to impress fear and respect upon their slaves in order not to one day find themselves the victims of their fury. Unless the slaves are kept in a constant state of fear of punishment, they would always be ready to revolt, to take over everything, and to commit the most horrible crimes in order to liberate themselves. The plantations on Barbados are smaller than those in the French [Caribbean] islands. This is not surprising because although the island is small, its population is very large, and land is scarce and therefore very valuable. Nonetheless, the plantation owners are very wealthy and the houses on the plantations are even better built than those in the towns. The plantation houses are large in size, have numerous glass windows, and have fine rooms that are conveniently arranged. Nearly all plantation houses have rows of shade trees around them to keep them cool. One observes the wealth and good taste of the inhabitants in their furniture, which is very fine, and their silver, of which they have so large a quantity that if this island were to be sacked the silver utensils from the plantations alone would be worth more than the value of several Spanish galleons." Jean-Baptiste Labat, French clergyman and travel writer,account of his visit to the British Caribbean island of Barbados, 1690s Which of the following best describes the author's argument in the first paragraph?

Despite the small size of Barbadian plantations, the landowners on Barbados are very wealthy.

"I admit that the punishments of the slaves on Barbados for all sorts of offenses are indeed very cruel, but one must consider before condemning the [White] inhabitants that they often have no choice but to set moderation aside and use punishment as a way to intimidate their slaves. The Whites need to impress fear and respect upon their slaves in order not to one day find themselves the victims of their fury. Unless the slaves are kept in a constant state of fear of punishment, they would always be ready to revolt, to take over everything, and to commit the most horrible crimes in order to liberate themselves. The plantations on Barbados are smaller than those in the French [Caribbean] islands. This is not surprising because although the island is small, its population is very large, and land is scarce and therefore very valuable. Nonetheless, the plantation owners are very wealthy and the houses on the plantations are even better built than those in the towns. The plantation houses are large in size, have numerous glass windows, and have fine rooms that are conveniently arranged. Nearly all plantation houses have rows of shade trees around them to keep them cool. One observes the wealth and good taste of the inhabitants in their furniture, which is very fine, and their silver, of which they have so large a quantity that if this island were to be sacked the silver utensils from the plantations alone would be worth more than the value of several Spanish galleons." Jean-Baptiste Labat, French clergyman and travel writer,account of his visit to the British Caribbean island of Barbados, 1690s Which of the following best describes the author's claim in the second paragraph?

Coerced labor systems have allowed a minority of the population of Caribbean colonial societies to reap enormous economic benefits.

"I admit that the punishments of the slaves on Barbados for all sorts of offenses are indeed very cruel, but one must consider before condemning the [White] inhabitants that they often have no choice but to set moderation aside and use punishment as a way to intimidate their slaves. The Whites need to impress fear and respect upon their slaves in order not to one day find themselves the victims of their fury. Unless the slaves are kept in a constant state of fear of punishment, they would always be ready to revolt, to take over everything, and to commit the most horrible crimes in order to liberate themselves. The plantations on Barbados are smaller than those in the French [Caribbean] islands. This is not surprising because although the island is small, its population is very large, and land is scarce and therefore very valuable. Nonetheless, the plantation owners are very wealthy and the houses on the plantations are even better built than those in the towns. The plantation houses are large in size, have numerous glass windows, and have fine rooms that are conveniently arranged. Nearly all plantation houses have rows of shade trees around them to keep them cool. One observes the wealth and good taste of the inhabitants in their furniture, which is very fine, and their silver, of which they have so large a quantity that if this island were to be sacked the silver utensils from the plantations alone would be worth more than the value of several Spanish galleons." Jean-Baptiste Labat, French clergyman and travel writer,account of his visit to the British Caribbean island of Barbados, 1690s Which of the following is an implicit argument made by the author in the passage?

Various forms of peasant resistance, including armed revolts

"I, Edward, by the grace of God king of England, sent this decree to the sheriff of Kent (a region in southeastern England). A great portion of the people of our realm have recently died. Those who survive see that masters need servants, which are scarce, and the servants will not serve unless they receive excessive wages. After consulting with the nobles and clergy, we have decided that every man and woman of our realm of England shall be required to serve his or her lord at the wages that were provided in the year 1346. Merchants, those who belong to craft guilds, and those who own their land are exempt from this rule. The lords are entitled to keep their serfs. If any such serf, man or woman, who is required to serve their lord will not do so, they shall be immediately committed to jail." King Edward III of England, the Statute of Laborers, parliamentary decree, 1351 Imposing labor obligations such as those outlined in the decree often had which of the following short-term effects in medieval European societies?

The growth of scientific thought and innovation in Muslim Spain

"If it were asked, why do we accept the theory of contagion, when already the divine law has refuted the notion of contagion, we will answer: The existence of contagion has been proved by experience, deduction, the senses, observation, and by unanimous reports. And it is not a secret to whoever has looked into this matter or has come to be aware of it that those who come into contact with plague patients mostly die, while those who do not come into contact survive. And amidst the horrible afflictions that the plague has imposed upon the people, God has afflicted the people with some learned religious scholars who issue fatwas* against fleeing the plague, so that the quills with which the scholars wrote these fatwas were like swords upon which the Muslims died. In conclusion, to ignore the proofs of plague contagion is an indecency and an affront to God and holds cheap the lives of Muslims." *rulings on Islamic law Lisan al-Din Ibn al-Khatib, A Very Useful Inquiry into the Horrible Sickness, Granada, Spain, 1349-1352 The passage by al-Khatib best illustrates which of the following?

The influx of silver from the Americas into the Spanish economy

"In countries where there is a great scarcity of money, all other saleable goods, and even the labor of men, are given for less money than [in countries] where money is abundant. Thus we see by experience that in France (where money is scarcer than in Spain) bread, wine, cloth, and labor, are worth much less. And even in Spain, in [recent] times when money was scarcer than it is now, saleable goods and labor were given for much less." Martín de Azpilcueta Navarro, Spanish scholar, treatise, 1556 Navarro's economic observations expressed in the passage above are best understood in the context of which of the following?

use religious ideas to highlight their political legitimacy and attack the legitimacy of their enemies

"In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. The Holy Qur'an says, "Rise not up against me, but come to me in surrender." This letter has been graciously issued by me Sultan Selim, the most glorious sovereign, the Caliph of God Most High in this world, haloed in victory, slayer of the wicked and of the infidel, guardian of the noble and the pious, the warrior in the path of God, the defender of the Faith, the standard-bearer of justice and righteousness—and is addressed to you, prince Ismail, the ruler of the kingdom of the Persians, the possessor of the land of tyranny and wickedness, the captain of the vicious, the chief of the malicious, the usurper of the throne of the ancient Persian kings. I have heard repeatedly that you have subjected the upright Muslims under your rule to your devious will, that you have undermined the firm foundation of the Faith, and that you no longer uphold the commandments and prohibitions of the Divine Law, but have incited your heretical faction to commit abominable deeds in the lands that you possess. Be informed, then, that both the opinion of the learned Islamic scholars and the consensus of the Sunni community agree that it is my obligation to extinguish and extirpate the evil heresy that you represent. But should you take up a course of repentance, become like one blameless, and return to the sublime straight path of Muhammad (Prayers and salutations be upon him), and should you proclaim your lands and their people part of my Ottoman state, then you shall be granted my royal favor and imperial protection and patronage." Letter by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I to the Safavid Shah Ismail I, circa 1514 A historian would most likely interpret the rhetoric in the passage as evidence that rulers of imperial states in the period circa 1450-1750 continued to

Amerindians were killed in large numbers by diseases such as smallpox and measles.

"The inhabitants of the New World were bearers of no serious new infection transferable to the European and African populations that intruded upon their territory . . . whereas the abrupt confrontation with the long array of infections that European and African populations had encountered piecemeal across some four thousand years of civilized history provoked massive demographic disaster among Amerindians." William McNeill, world historian, 1976 Which of the following best illustrates the argument described in the passage above?

adherence to Shi'a Islam

"In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. The Holy Qur'an says, "Rise not up against me, but come to me in surrender." This letter has been graciously issued by me Sultan Selim, the most glorious sovereign, the Caliph of God Most High in this world, haloed in victory, slayer of the wicked and of the infidel, guardian of the noble and the pious, the warrior in the path of God, the defender of the Faith, the standard-bearer of justice and righteousness—and is addressed to you, prince Ismail, the ruler of the kingdom of the Persians, the possessor of the land of tyranny and wickedness, the captain of the vicious, the chief of the malicious, the usurper of the throne of the ancient Persian kings. I have heard repeatedly that you have subjected the upright Muslims under your rule to your devious will, that you have undermined the firm foundation of the Faith, and that you no longer uphold the commandments and prohibitions of the Divine Law, but have incited your heretical faction to commit abominable deeds in the lands that you possess. Be informed, then, that both the opinion of the learned Islamic scholars and the consensus of the Sunni community agree that it is my obligation to extinguish and extirpate the evil heresy that you represent. But should you take up a course of repentance, become like one blameless, and return to the sublime straight path of Muhammad (Prayers and salutations be upon him), and should you proclaim your lands and their people part of my Ottoman state, then you shall be granted my royal favor and imperial protection and patronage." Letter by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I to the Safavid Shah Ismail I, circa 1514 Based on the purpose of the letter, Selim's description of the followers of Shah Ismail I as a "heretical faction" can best be interpreted as a commentary of the Safavid Empire's

The Ottoman and Safavid empires fought numerous wars for control over Iraq, Syria, and other regions of the Middle East.

"In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. The Holy Qur'an says, "Rise not up against me, but come to me in surrender." This letter has been graciously issued by me Sultan Selim, the most glorious sovereign, the Caliph of God Most High in this world, haloed in victory, slayer of the wicked and of the infidel, guardian of the noble and the pious, the warrior in the path of God, the defender of the Faith, the standard-bearer of justice and righteousness—and is addressed to you, prince Ismail, the ruler of the kingdom of the Persians, the possessor of the land of tyranny and wickedness, the captain of the vicious, the chief of the malicious, the usurper of the throne of the ancient Persian kings. I have heard repeatedly that you have subjected the upright Muslims under your rule to your devious will, that you have undermined the firm foundation of the Faith, and that you no longer uphold the commandments and prohibitions of the Divine Law, but have incited your heretical faction to commit abominable deeds in the lands that you possess. Be informed, then, that both the opinion of the learned Islamic scholars and the consensus of the Sunni community agree that it is my obligation to extinguish and extirpate the evil heresy that you represent. But should you take up a course of repentance, become like one blameless, and return to the sublime straight path of Muhammad (Prayers and salutations be upon him), and should you proclaim your lands and their people part of my Ottoman state, then you shall be granted my royal favor and imperial protection and patronage." Letter by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I to the Safavid Shah Ismail I, circa 1514 Which of the following aspects of the international situation in early sixteenth-century southwest Asia is most relevant to understanding Sultan Selim's letter?

The Ottoman army increasingly relied on the contributions of the Janissary corps, which was mostly composed of soldiers of non-Turkic origin.

"In the context of the Ottoman Empire, toleration [ensured] that, as a rule, non-Muslims would not be persecuted. No doubt, as dhimmis,* according to Islam, they were second-class citizens . . . who endured a healthy dose of daily prejudice. [Nevertheless, the Ottomans tolerated religious and ethnic difference] because it had something to contribute. That is, difference added to the empire; it did not detract from it and, therefore, it was commended. Toleration had a [beneficial] quality; maintaining peace and order was good for imperial life, diversity contributed to imperial welfare. . . . The Ottoman Empire fared better than did its predecessors or contemporaries [in tolerating religious and ethnic difference] until the beginning of the eighteenth century, largely as a result of its understanding of difference and its resourcefulness in [administrative organization]. It maintained relative peace with its various communities and also ensured that interethnic strife would not occur." *Islamic law defines dhimmis as non-Muslim communities living under Muslim political rule Karen Barkey, Turkish-American historian and sociologist, Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective, published in 2008 Which would most strongly support Barkey's claim regarding the Ottoman state and toleration in the passage?

The Spanish conquered all Maya towns.

"In the course of the fifth year [1519] the terrible pestilence began. First there was a cough, then blood. The number of deaths at this time was truly terrible. In 1520 the pestilence spread. Truly, the number of deaths among the people was terrible and the people could not escape from the pestilence. In 1521 my father, King Hunyg, died. The elders and the priests died alike from the pestilence. Half the people threw themselves into the ravines to escape it. The oldest son of the king died at the same time as well as his young brother. Thus, our people became poor. In 1524 the Spanish arrived in our country and destroyed our people. The Spanish conquered all the towns. In 1542 Dominican friars arrived from Mexico, and they taught us the Doctrine of Christ in our language. Until that time we had been ignorant of the word and the commandments of God. In 1560 the pestilence that had formerly raged among the people returned again. It was truly terrible when this death was sent among us by the great God. Many families disappeared. All here were soon attacked, and I was also attacked with the disease." Historical chronicle of the Maya Kaqchikel people, composed and edited by different members of the Maya political elite in the Kaqchikel language, circa 1571-1604 Which of the following pieces of evidence does the author use to support his claim that the arrival of the Spanish "destroyed our people"?

The Maya were converted to Christianity.

"In the course of the fifth year [1519] the terrible pestilence began. First there was a cough, then blood. The number of deaths at this time was truly terrible. In 1520 the pestilence spread. Truly, the number of deaths among the people was terrible and the people could not escape from the pestilence. In 1521 my father, King Hunyg, died. The elders and the priests died alike from the pestilence. Half the people threw themselves into the ravines to escape it. The oldest son of the king died at the same time as well as his young brother. Thus, our people became poor. In 1524 the Spanish arrived in our country and destroyed our people. The Spanish conquered all the towns. In 1542 Dominican friars arrived from Mexico, and they taught us the Doctrine of Christ in our language. Until that time we had been ignorant of the word and the commandments of God. In 1560 the pestilence that had formerly raged among the people returned again. It was truly terrible when this death was sent among us by the great God. Many families disappeared. All here were soon attacked, and I was also attacked with the disease." Historical chronicle of the Maya Kaqchikel people, composed and edited by different members of the Maya political elite in the Kaqchikel language, circa 1571-1604 Which of the following pieces of evidence does the author use to support his implicit argument that Maya society underwent a dramatic cultural change in the sixteenth century?

European monarchs' continued use of religion to legitimize political authority

"The state of monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth; for kings are not only God's lieutenants upon earth, and sit upon God's throne, but even by God himself are called gods. In the Scriptures kings are called gods, and so their power after a certain relation compared to the divine power." King James I, speech to Parliament, England, 1610 The passage above is best understood in the context of which of the following?

Sufism

"Let the blessings of Allah be upon Muhammad and his companions universally. In the year 1640 C.E. I wanted to behold the mystics of every sect, to hear the lofty expressions of monotheism, and to cast my eyes upon many books of mysticism. I, therefore, examined the Book of Moses, the Gospels, and the Psalms. Among the Hindus, the best of their heavenly books, which contain all the secrets of pure monotheism, are called the Upanishads. Because I do not know Sanskrit, I wanted to make an exact and literal translation of the Upanishads into Persian*. For the Upanishads are a treasure of monotheism and there are few thoroughly conversant with them even among the Indians. Thereby I also wanted to make the texts accessible to Muslims. I assembled Hindu scholars and ascetics to help with the translation. Every sublime topic that I had desired or thought and had looked for and not found, I obtained from these most ancient books, the source and the fountainhead of the ocean of religious unity, in conformity with the holy Qur'an." *Persian was the primary language used at the Mughal court. Dara Shikoh, son of the Mughal ruler Shah Jahan, account of the translation of the Upanishads into Persian, 1657 C.E. Based on the passage, which of the following most strongly influenced Dara Shikoh's religious views?

The ways in which imperial states created centralized bureaucracies to increase their power

"Lu Hui's parents died when he was young and he was brought up in his mother's family. His uncle often encouraged him to take the imperial examination. Uprisings, however, prevented Lu from being able to take the examinations. Unable to make a living, Lu became a poor wandering student. One day, Zheng Xu, who was a high-ranking government official, offered to make arrangements that would allow Lu to bypass the exams and advance himself with Zheng's support. Zheng tried to tempt Lu to skirt the rules, saying 'How long can a man live? If there is a shortcut to riches and fame, why insist on going through examinations?' But Lu firmly refused the offer, saying, 'Our great nation has established the examination system for the outstanding and the talented. My uncle always encouraged me to take the examinations and I cannot bring myself to break our agreement. If I have to die as a mere student, it is my fate. But I will not change my mind for the sake of wealth.' When Zheng saw Lu's determination, he respected him even more than before. Another ten years passed before Lu finally passed the examination. He died as one of the highest officials in the whole empire." Wang Dingbao, government official in a regional state established after the collapse of the Tang Dynasty, Selected Stories From the Time of The Tang, a collection of biographies, written circa 940 C.E The use of the examinations referred to in the passage best illustrates which of the following continuities in world history?

Amerindians' long isolation from the rest of the world had placed them at a biological disadvantage.

"Migration of man and his maladies is the chief cause of epidemics. And when migration takes place, those creatures who have been in isolation longest suffer most, for their genetic material has been least tempered by the variety of world diseases. Among the major subdivisions of the species Homo Sapiens, the American Indian probably had the dangerous privilege of the longest isolation from the rest of mankind." Alfred Crosby, world historian, 1967 Which of the following best describes Alfred Crosby's argument in the passage above?

Confucianism

"Mulan weaves, facing the door. You only hear daughter's sighs. They ask daughter who's in her heart, They ask daughter who's on her mind. 'No one is in daughter's heart, No one is on daughter's mind. Last night I saw the draft posters, The Son of Heaven,*the great Khan,** is calling many troops, The army list is in twelve scrolls, On every scroll there's father's name. Father [is too old and] has no grown-up son, I have no elder brother. I want to buy a saddle and horse, And serve in the army in father's place.' At dawn she takes leave of the Yellow River, In the evening she arrives at Black Mountain. She doesn't hear the sound of father and mother calling, She goes ten thousand miles on the business of war...." Courtesy of Yale University Press The Ballad of Mulan, a Chinese epic poem, circa 500 C.E. Mulan's attitude toward her family and the ruler as illustrated in the ballad best exemplifies the values of which of the following east Asian traditions?

Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire faced considerable restrictions on their religious practices, legal rights, and social freedoms.

"Muslim-Christian relations were at a low ebb when the Ottomans arrived in the Arab lands [in 1516]. The Mamluk sultans of Egypt, the previous rulers of the area, had embarked on an ideological as well as a military campaign against the various Christian communities still living in the Middle East. . . . In the aftermath of this disaster, Christianity in the Arab east was in psychological and numerical decline. Jewish communities in the region fared somewhat better than their Christian neighbors but could hardly be characterized as flourishing on the eve of the Ottoman conquest. The Jews and Christians in the region were at first probably ambivalent, if not indifferent or hostile, to the change in the dynastic succession from Mamluk to Ottoman sultans who exercised sovereignty over their lives, but their fortunes were about to improve under the new regime. The Ottoman sultans were still winning victories against European armies on the battlefield, and the presence of Christians so distant from the war zone in Central Europe must not have felt particularly threatening or indeed important (beyond the collection of their taxes) to most Ottoman officials posted in the Arab lands. In the case of the Sephardic Jews,* the Ottoman sultans welcomed them into their realm as potentially revenue-producing subjects. Most importantly, the political tradition honored by the Ottoman sultans was to grant autonomy to the various religious groups of their empire. This afforded the Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Middle East fairly wide-ranging freedoms and allowed them to recover some of the losses they had endured under the Mamluks, including the right to repair damaged churches and synagogues and, in a few cases, permission to build new ones." *Jewish communities from the Iberian Peninsula who were forced to leaveafter the Christian reconquest of what became Spain and Portugal Bruce Masters, historian, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World, book published in 2001 All of the following statements are factually accurate. Which might best be used to undermine or modify the author's argument in the second paragraph?

Technological developments in cartography and navigation

"When we were in Canton, a port in southern China, we came across a woman who cried out in Portuguese 'Our Father, who art in Heaven, hallowed be thy name.' And because she could speak no more of our language, she very earnestly asked us in Chinese to tell her whether we were Christians. We replied that we were, and for proof we repeated all the rest of the Lord's Prayer which she had left unsaid. Being assured that we were Christians, she pulled us aside, and weeping said to us, 'Come along, Christians from the other end of the world, with your true sister in the faith of Jesus Christ.' Furthermore, she told us that she was named Inez de Leyria, and her father was a great ambassador from Portugal to the Emperor of China. The ambassador married her mother, a Chinese woman, and made her a Christian. Along with her, many were converted to the faith of Christ. During the five days we remained in her house, we made them a little book in Chinese, containing many good prayers." Account of Fernão Mendes Pinto, Portuguese explorer and merchant, circa The Portuguese presence in southern China as described in the passage was most directly enabled by which of the following?

The period of Mamluk rule in Egypt saw a high number of conversions to Islam and a considerable reduction in the percentage of Coptic Christians in the overall population of Egypt.

"Muslim-Christian relations were at a low ebb when the Ottomans arrived in the Arab lands [in 1516]. The Mamluk sultans of Egypt, the previous rulers of the area, had embarked on an ideological as well as a military campaign against the various Christian communities still living in the Middle East. . . . In the aftermath of this disaster, Christianity in the Arab east was in psychological and numerical decline. Jewish communities in the region fared somewhat better than their Christian neighbors but could hardly be characterized as flourishing on the eve of the Ottoman conquest. The Jews and Christians in the region were at first probably ambivalent, if not indifferent or hostile, to the change in the dynastic succession from Mamluk to Ottoman sultans who exercised sovereignty over their lives, but their fortunes were about to improve under the new regime. The Ottoman sultans were still winning victories against European armies on the battlefield, and the presence of Christians so distant from the war zone in Central Europe must not have felt particularly threatening or indeed important (beyond the collection of their taxes) to most Ottoman officials posted in the Arab lands. In the case of the Sephardic Jews,* the Ottoman sultans welcomed them into their realm as potentially revenue-producing subjects. Most importantly, the political tradition honored by the Ottoman sultans was to grant autonomy to the various religious groups of their empire. This afforded the Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Middle East fairly wide-ranging freedoms and allowed them to recover some of the losses they had endured under the Mamluks, including the right to repair damaged churches and synagogues and, in a few cases, permission to build new ones." *Jewish communities from the Iberian Peninsula who were forced to leaveafter the Christian reconquest of what became Spain and Portugal Bruce Masters, historian, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World, book published in 2001 All of the following statements are factually accurate. Which would best support the author's argument in the first paragraph of the passage?

The Ottoman millet system, an arrangement designed to utilize the economic contributions of non-Muslim groups within the empire while granting them limited autonomy to organize their communal affairs under their own religious leaders

"Muslim-Christian relations were at a low ebb when the Ottomans arrived in the Arab lands [in 1516]. The Mamluk sultans of Egypt, the previous rulers of the area, had embarked on an ideological as well as a military campaign against the various Christian communities still living in the Middle East. . . . In the aftermath of this disaster, Christianity in the Arab east was in psychological and numerical decline. Jewish communities in the region fared somewhat better than their Christian neighbors but could hardly be characterized as flourishing on the eve of the Ottoman conquest. The Jews and Christians in the region were at first probably ambivalent, if not indifferent or hostile, to the change in the dynastic succession from Mamluk to Ottoman sultans who exercised sovereignty over their lives, but their fortunes were about to improve under the new regime. The Ottoman sultans were still winning victories against European armies on the battlefield, and the presence of Christians so distant from the war zone in Central Europe must not have felt particularly threatening or indeed important (beyond the collection of their taxes) to most Ottoman officials posted in the Arab lands. In the case of the Sephardic Jews,* the Ottoman sultans welcomed them into their realm as potentially revenue-producing subjects. Most importantly, the political tradition honored by the Ottoman sultans was to grant autonomy to the various religious groups of their empire. This afforded the Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Middle East fairly wide-ranging freedoms and allowed them to recover some of the losses they had endured under the Mamluks, including the right to repair damaged churches and synagogues and, in a few cases, permission to build new ones." *Jewish communities from the Iberian Peninsula who were forced to leaveafter the Christian reconquest of what became Spain and Portugal Bruce Masters, historian, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World, book published in 2001 Which of the following would a historian most likely cite as evidence in support of the author's argument in the second paragraph of the passage?

The absence of dharma has caused nobleness and character to disappear.

"O King! The city of Madurai was famed for its sweet beauty, but has now become the city of wild animals since the Muslims conquered it [in 1335]. Its famed Hindu temple has been reduced to rubble. The mighty Kaveri River used to flow in its proper channels because our noble Hindu rulers of the past had curbed it with dams. But now, the river flows without discipline like her new Muslim lords because the dams have been damaged beyond repair. My Lord, it is hard to say whether we get more troubled by hearing the owls that now live in our abandoned gardens, or get more perturbed by the Persian language uttered by the pet-parrots from the houses of the Muslims. There is no agriculture left, as the angry Lord Indra* has stopped sending rains. My King! The Vedas have disappeared. With dharma gone, character and nobleness have disappeared. My king, this sword that you hold is now placed into your lotus-hands by divine providence. Take it and without further delay uproot from my lands this Muslim kingdom. Go forth my dear Lord, win your victory, and establish One Hundred Victory Pillars!" *the Hindu god of the heavens who brings thunder and rain Speech of a female petitioner from the South Indian city of Madurai made at the court of the king of Vijayanagara, a Hindu empire in South India. The speech is recorded in a fourteenth-century poem written by a princess of Vijayanagara describing Vijayanagara's conquest of the Muslim sultanate of Madurai in 1378. A historian would most likely cite which of the following claims made in the second paragraph to demonstrate that Hindu teachings influenced the development of South Asian societies?

Hindu rulers had constructed irrigation works to control the Kaveri River.

"O King! The city of Madurai was famed for its sweet beauty, but has now become the city of wild animals since the Muslims conquered it [in 1335]. Its famed Hindu temple has been reduced to rubble. The mighty Kaveri River used to flow in its proper channels because our noble Hindu rulers of the past had curbed it with dams. But now, the river flows without discipline like her new Muslim lords because the dams have been damaged beyond repair. My Lord, it is hard to say whether we get more troubled by hearing the owls that now live in our abandoned gardens, or get more perturbed by the Persian language uttered by the pet-parrots from the houses of the Muslims. There is no agriculture left, as the angry Lord Indra* has stopped sending rains. My King! The Vedas have disappeared. With dharma gone, character and nobleness have disappeared. My king, this sword that you hold is now placed into your lotus-hands by divine providence. Take it and without further delay uproot from my lands this Muslim kingdom. Go forth my dear Lord, win your victory, and establish One Hundred Victory Pillars!" *the Hindu god of the heavens who brings thunder and rain Speech of a female petitioner from the South Indian city of Madurai made at the court of the king of Vijayanagara, a Hindu empire in South India. The speech is recorded in a fourteenth-century poem written by a princess of Vijayanagara describing Vijayanagara's conquest of the Muslim sultanate of Madurai in 1378. Which of the following best describes a claim made in the first paragraph?

The king has the support of the gods in his efforts to drive Muslims out of Madurai.

"O King! The city of Madurai was famed for its sweet beauty, but has now become the city of wild animals since the Muslims conquered it [in 1335]. Its famed Hindu temple has been reduced to rubble. The mighty Kaveri River used to flow in its proper channels because our noble Hindu rulers of the past had curbed it with dams. But now, the river flows without discipline like her new Muslim lords because the dams have been damaged beyond repair. My Lord, it is hard to say whether we get more troubled by hearing the owls that now live in our abandoned gardens, or get more perturbed by the Persian language uttered by the pet-parrots from the houses of the Muslims. There is no agriculture left, as the angry Lord Indra* has stopped sending rains. My King! The Vedas have disappeared. With dharma gone, character and nobleness have disappeared. My king, this sword that you hold is now placed into your lotus-hands by divine providence. Take it and without further delay uproot from my lands this Muslim kingdom. Go forth my dear Lord, win your victory, and establish One Hundred Victory Pillars!" *the Hindu god of the heavens who brings thunder and rain Speech of a female petitioner from the South Indian city of Madurai made at the court of the king of Vijayanagara, a Hindu empire in South India. The speech is recorded in a fourteenth-century poem written by a princess of Vijayanagara describing Vijayanagara's conquest of the Muslim sultanate of Madurai in 1378. Which of the following is a claim made by the petitioner in the third paragraph?

The norms and expectations regarding women's roles in society were heavily dependent on class and social status.

"On the twentieth day of the year, I promoted one of my ladies-in-waiting to the position of Director of the Department of Buddhist Poetry.* In response she composed the following verse: 'Never has this flower been one to lead the way, nor has it bloomed from so high a branch.' Some weeks later, it was suggested to me that the lady-in-waiting whom I had previously appointed Director of the Department of Romantic Literature* might also serve jointly in the Department of Buddhist Poetry. Upon hearing that, she modestly wrote: 'I find it so hard to go on like this, referring to myself with all those high titles. I am rather undeserving of the honor.' In response, the lady-in-waiting whom I had appointed Director of the Department of Buddhist Poetry wrote this: 'Although it is true that we are not currently colleagues in the same Department, it would be hurtful to me if you were to refuse this appointment.' Then I commanded that they work together to make fresh copies of more Buddhist classics and distribute them among the ladies of the court for our discussions." Senshi, Japanese princess, Collected Poems, an account in verse of life in the Japanese court, circa 980 C.E. The activities described in the passage best exemplify which of the following continuities in social history during the period circa 600 c.e. to circa 1450 c.e.?

The Confucian emphasis on filial submission

"Seeing that it is a girl's destiny, on reaching womanhood, to go to a new home, and live in submission to her father-in-law and mother-in-law, it is even more incumbent upon her than it is on a boy to receive with all reverence her parents' instructions. Should her parents, through excess of tenderness, allow her to grow up self-willed, she will infallibly show herself capricious and thus alienate his affection." Kaibara Ekken, Japanese author, Greater Learning for Women, 1716 The excerpt above exemplifies the continued influence on eighteenth-century Japan of which of the following?

on the western coast of Africa

"Sir, many of our people, keenly desirous of the wares and things of your Kingdoms, which are brought here by your people, and in order to satisfy their voracious appetite, seize many of our people, freed and exempt men, and they kidnap even nobles and the sons of nobles, and our relatives, and take them to be sold to the Whites who are in our Kingdoms." © Basil Davidson, trans., [ital] The African Past[roman] (Curtis Brown, Ltd., 1964) The quotation above comes from a 1526 letter to a European monarch form a king located

Local elites successfully resisted attempts at state centralization and asserted their autonomy from central rule.

"The Cossack commander Bohdan Khmelnytsky and all his Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host,* humbly bowing to His Majesty Tsar Alexey Mikhaylovich, ruler of all Russia, pledge that they shall serve the Tsar's sovereign wishes forever, and in exchange for that they request that His Majesty grant them the following privileges: Firstly, that town and city officials in the territories controlled by the Zaporozhian Host be selected from the Cossacks' own ranks. These Cossack city officials shall endeavor to serve His Majesty's wishes in all their actions, collecting His tax revenues and administering His justice and punishments. In the past, His Majesty several times sent His royal appointees from Moscow, but those appointees habitually violated our Cossacks' rights and tried to impose this or that royal decree or regulation on our Host's people, which frustrated our people greatly. By contrast, if our Host's people are governed by their own, they are not going to resist or complain. So ordered. His Majesty approved this request, provided the Cossacks will not interfere with the collection of taxes nor will they impede royal acts of justice from being carried out. Secondly, that should rulers of foreign countries continue to send ambassadors to commander Khmelnytsky and the Zaporozhian Host directly, as they have done before, the Cossack commander can continue to receive and conduct business with those who come in peace. The commander should only inform His Majesty of those foreign ambassadors that come and express hostility toward Russia or seek to do it harm. So ordered. His Majesty approved this request, with the exception being ambassadors from the Polish king and the Ottoman Sultan—if such ambassadors arrive in the lands of the Zaporozhian Host, they should be apprehended regardless of their intentions, and the Cossacks should not release them until they hear back from His Majesty." *The Zaporozhian Host was an army of frontier soldiers and settlers (Cossacks) on thesouthern borders of the Russian state (present-day Central Ukraine). Agreement between the Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host and the tsar of Russia, 1654 As outlined in the passage, the provisions of the agreement can best be used to illustrate which of the following aspects of state building in Eurasia in the period circa 1450-1750 ?

Russia had encountered significant resistance to its plans for further territorial expansion from some of the established states in eastern and southern Europe.

"The Cossack commander Bohdan Khmelnytsky and all his Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host,* humbly bowing to His Majesty Tsar Alexey Mikhaylovich, ruler of all Russia, pledge that they shall serve the Tsar's sovereign wishes forever, and in exchange for that they request that His Majesty grant them the following privileges: Firstly, that town and city officials in the territories controlled by the Zaporozhian Host be selected from the Cossacks' own ranks. These Cossack city officials shall endeavor to serve His Majesty's wishes in all their actions, collecting His tax revenues and administering His justice and punishments. In the past, His Majesty several times sent His royal appointees from Moscow, but those appointees habitually violated our Cossacks' rights and tried to impose this or that royal decree or regulation on our Host's people, which frustrated our people greatly. By contrast, if our Host's people are governed by their own, they are not going to resist or complain. So ordered. His Majesty approved this request, provided the Cossacks will not interfere with the collection of taxes nor will they impede royal acts of justice from being carried out. Secondly, that should rulers of foreign countries continue to send ambassadors to commander Khmelnytsky and the Zaporozhian Host directly, as they have done before, the Cossack commander can continue to receive and conduct business with those who come in peace. The commander should only inform His Majesty of those foreign ambassadors that come and express hostility toward Russia or seek to do it harm. So ordered. His Majesty approved this request, with the exception being ambassadors from the Polish king and the Ottoman Sultan—if such ambassadors arrive in the lands of the Zaporozhian Host, they should be apprehended regardless of their intentions, and the Cossacks should not release them until they hear back from His Majesty." *The Zaporozhian Host was an army of frontier soldiers and settlers (Cossacks) on thesouthern borders of the Russian state (present-day Central Ukraine). Agreement between the Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host and the tsar of Russia, 1654 The fact that the Russian tsar insisted in the last paragraph that some ambassadors be treated differently from others best illustrates which of the following about international politics in the period circa 1650-1750 ?

internal challenges to state power could lead to the establishment of new state-like structures within existing states

"The Cossack commander Bohdan Khmelnytsky and all his Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host,* humbly bowing to His Majesty Tsar Alexey Mikhaylovich, ruler of all Russia, pledge that they shall serve the Tsar's sovereign wishes forever, and in exchange for that they request that His Majesty grant them the following privileges: Firstly, that town and city officials in the territories controlled by the Zaporozhian Host be selected from the Cossacks' own ranks. These Cossack city officials shall endeavor to serve His Majesty's wishes in all their actions, collecting His tax revenues and administering His justice and punishments. In the past, His Majesty several times sent His royal appointees from Moscow, but those appointees habitually violated our Cossacks' rights and tried to impose this or that royal decree or regulation on our Host's people, which frustrated our people greatly. By contrast, if our Host's people are governed by their own, they are not going to resist or complain. So ordered. His Majesty approved this request, provided the Cossacks will not interfere with the collection of taxes nor will they impede royal acts of justice from being carried out. Secondly, that should rulers of foreign countries continue to send ambassadors to commander Khmelnytsky and the Zaporozhian Host directly, as they have done before, the Cossack commander can continue to receive and conduct business with those who come in peace. The commander should only inform His Majesty of those foreign ambassadors that come and express hostility toward Russia or seek to do it harm. So ordered. His Majesty approved this request, with the exception being ambassadors from the Polish king and the Ottoman Sultan—if such ambassadors arrive in the lands of the Zaporozhian Host, they should be apprehended regardless of their intentions, and the Cossacks should not release them until they hear back from His Majesty." *The Zaporozhian Host was an army of frontier soldiers and settlers (Cossacks) on thesouthern borders of the Russian state (present-day Central Ukraine). Agreement between the Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host and the tsar of Russia, 1654 The privileges discussed in the last two paragraphs of the passage best demonstrate that in some instances in the period 1450-1750

Long-distance trade

"The East African coast was certainly known to the people of Arabia by the eighth century b.c.e. In fact, the ancient Southern Arabian state of Ausan traded extensively there and may have actually held a portion of the coast. Traders who reached the coast discovered a number of potentially valuable raw materials there. Among these were spices, tortoise shell, coconut oil, ivory, and later, gold and slaves. It was not until almost 1000 c.e., however, that the first important commercial city-states emerged along the coast. These city-states fluctuated in wealth and prestige as they competed for coastal hegemony. Because of their way of life, they tended to have a broad regional perspective. Their destinies and fortunes were at least partly determined in distant lands by foreign merchants and rulers. Information on early political aspects of East African states remains very limited. We know that they had kings or sultans, who wielded a good deal of power. Sultans were advised by councils of princes, elders, and members of the ruling household. It seems probable that the sultan and his close relatives controlled the religious and military offices of the state." Terry H. Elkiss, historian, "Kilwa Kisiwani: The Rise of an East African City-State," article published in African Studies Review, a scholarly journal, 1973. The interregional connections of states such as those on the East African coast can best be used as an illustration of the continued importance of which of the following?

The creation of a new political and economic elite in the immediate aftermath of the European conquest

"The Mexican city of Zacatecas is renowned for the enormous quantity of silver that has been extracted from it and continues to be extracted today. At the time of the discovery of the silver, there were many forests and woodlands in this rocky land, all of which have since vanished so that now except for some little wild palms, no other trees remain. Firewood is very expensive in the city because it is brought in carts from a distance of eighteen hours away. The silver was discovered in the year 1540, in the following way: after the fall of the Aztec Empire, Spanish soldiers remained, spread over the entire country. Since no more towns remained to conquer and since they had so many Indian slaves, they devoted themselves to seeking riches from silver mines. One of these soldiers was Juan de Tolosa, who happened to have an Aztec among his Indian slaves. The Aztec, it is said, seeing his master so anxious to discover mines and to claim silver, told him: 'If you so desire this substance, I will take you where you can fill your hands and satisfy your greed with it.' The city houses at least 600 White residents, and most of them are Spaniards. There are about 800 Black slaves and mulattoes*. There are about 1,500 Indians in the work gangs who labor in all types of occupations in the mines." Alonso de la Mota y Escobar, Bishop of Guadalajara, Mexico, geographical treatise, 1605 *a person of mixed European and African ancestry A historian could best use the passage as evidence for which of the following?

He was critical of the motivations of the Spanish conquistadors.

"The Mexican city of Zacatecas is renowned for the enormous quantity of silver that has been extracted from it and continues to be extracted today. At the time of the discovery of the silver, there were many forests and woodlands in this rocky land, all of which have since vanished so that now except for some little wild palms, no other trees remain. Firewood is very expensive in the city because it is brought in carts from a distance of eighteen hours away. The silver was discovered in the year 1540, in the following way: after the fall of the Aztec Empire, Spanish soldiers remained, spread over the entire country. Since no more towns remained to conquer and since they had so many Indian slaves, they devoted themselves to seeking riches from silver mines. One of these soldiers was Juan de Tolosa, who happened to have an Aztec among his Indian slaves. The Aztec, it is said, seeing his master so anxious to discover mines and to claim silver, told him: 'If you so desire this substance, I will take you where you can fill your hands and satisfy your greed with it.' The city houses at least 600 White residents, and most of them are Spaniards. There are about 800 Black slaves and mulattoes*. There are about 1,500 Indians in the work gangs who labor in all types of occupations in the mines." Alonso de la Mota y Escobar, Bishop of Guadalajara, Mexico, geographical treatise, 1605 *a person of mixed European and African ancestry Based on the description of the discovery of silver in Zacatecas in the second paragraph, which of the following conclusions about Mota y Escobar is best supported?

Portuguese merchants had established trading posts in southern China.

"When we were in Canton, a port in southern China, we came across a woman who cried out in Portuguese 'Our Father, who art in Heaven, hallowed be thy name.' And because she could speak no more of our language, she very earnestly asked us in Chinese to tell her whether we were Christians. We replied that we were, and for proof we repeated all the rest of the Lord's Prayer which she had left unsaid. Being assured that we were Christians, she pulled us aside, and weeping said to us, 'Come along, Christians from the other end of the world, with your true sister in the faith of Jesus Christ.' Furthermore, she told us that she was named Inez de Leyria, and her father was a great ambassador from Portugal to the Emperor of China. The ambassador married her mother, a Chinese woman, and made her a Christian. Along with her, many were converted to the faith of Christ. During the five days we remained in her house, we made them a little book in Chinese, containing many good prayers." Account of Fernão Mendes Pinto, Portuguese explorer and merchant, circa The ability of Portuguese merchants and explorers to communicate with the local population of Canton was most likely an effect of which of the following?

The introduction of European practices of resource extraction

"The Mexican city of Zacatecas is renowned for the enormous quantity of silver that has been extracted from it and continues to be extracted today. At the time of the discovery of the silver, there were many forests and woodlands in this rocky land, all of which have since vanished so that now except for some little wild palms, no other trees remain. Firewood is very expensive in the city because it is brought in carts from a distance of eighteen hours away. The silver was discovered in the year 1540, in the following way: after the fall of the Aztec Empire, Spanish soldiers remained, spread over the entire country. Since no more towns remained to conquer and since they had so many Indian slaves, they devoted themselves to seeking riches from silver mines. One of these soldiers was Juan de Tolosa, who happened to have an Aztec among his Indian slaves. The Aztec, it is said, seeing his master so anxious to discover mines and to claim silver, told him: 'If you so desire this substance, I will take you where you can fill your hands and satisfy your greed with it.' The city houses at least 600 White residents, and most of them are Spaniards. There are about 800 Black slaves and mulattoes*. There are about 1,500 Indians in the work gangs who labor in all types of occupations in the mines." Alonso de la Mota y Escobar, Bishop of Guadalajara, Mexico, geographical treatise, 1605 *a person of mixed European and African ancestry Based on the passage, it could be inferred that the high prices of firewood in seventeenth-century Zacatecas were a result of which of the following processes?

The emergence of the first truly global exchange networks

"The Mexican city of Zacatecas is renowned for the enormous quantity of silver that has been extracted from it and continues to be extracted today. At the time of the discovery of the silver, there were many forests and woodlands in this rocky land, all of which have since vanished so that now except for some little wild palms, no other trees remain. Firewood is very expensive in the city because it is brought in carts from a distance of eighteen hours away. The silver was discovered in the year 1540, in the following way: after the fall of the Aztec Empire, Spanish soldiers remained, spread over the entire country. Since no more towns remained to conquer and since they had so many Indian slaves, they devoted themselves to seeking riches from silver mines. One of these soldiers was Juan de Tolosa, who happened to have an Aztec among his Indian slaves. The Aztec, it is said, seeing his master so anxious to discover mines and to claim silver, told him: 'If you so desire this substance, I will take you where you can fill your hands and satisfy your greed with it.' The city houses at least 600 White residents, and most of them are Spaniards. There are about 800 Black slaves and mulattoes*. There are about 1,500 Indians in the work gangs who labor in all types of occupations in the mines." Alonso de la Mota y Escobar, Bishop of Guadalajara, Mexico, geographical treatise, 1605 *a person of mixed European and African ancestry The economic activities described in the passage contributed most directly to which of the following?

The dependence of colonial economies on coerced labor

"The Mexican city of Zacatecas is renowned for the enormous quantity of silver that has been extracted from it and continues to be extracted today. At the time of the discovery of the silver, there were many forests and woodlands in this rocky land, all of which have since vanished so that now except for some little wild palms, no other trees remain. Firewood is very expensive in the city because it is brought in carts from a distance of eighteen hours away. The silver was discovered in the year 1540, in the following way: after the fall of the Aztec Empire, Spanish soldiers remained, spread over the entire country. Since no more towns remained to conquer and since they had so many Indian slaves, they devoted themselves to seeking riches from silver mines. One of these soldiers was Juan de Tolosa, who happened to have an Aztec among his Indian slaves. The Aztec, it is said, seeing his master so anxious to discover mines and to claim silver, told him: 'If you so desire this substance, I will take you where you can fill your hands and satisfy your greed with it.' The city houses at least 600 White residents, and most of them are Spaniards. There are about 800 Black slaves and mulattoes*. There are about 1,500 Indians in the work gangs who labor in all types of occupations in the mines." Alonso de la Mota y Escobar, Bishop of Guadalajara, Mexico, geographical treatise, 1605 *a person of mixed European and African ancestry The ethnic makeup of Zacatecas, as described in the passage, can best be used as evidence of which of the following?

Peasants used religious beliefs to justify their resistance.

"The evil-disposed in these districts [of England] began to rise, saying, they were too severely oppressed; that at the beginning of the world there were no slaves, and that no one ought to be treated as such. . . . This they would not longer bear, but had determined to be free, and if they labored for their lords, they wanted to be paid for it. A crazy priest in the county of Kent, called John Ball, who for his absurd preaching, had been thrice confined in prison, inflamed those ideas. He would say: 'Are we not all descended from the same parents, Adam and Eve? and what can the lords show, or what reasons give, why they should be more the masters than ourselves?' " Jean Froissart, account of a peasant revolt in England, 1381 The description of the peasant revolt best supports which of the following conclusions?

hostile to the peasants

"The evil-disposed in these districts [of England] began to rise, saying, they were too severely oppressed; that at the beginning of the world there were no slaves, and that no one ought to be treated as such. . . . This they would not longer bear, but had determined to be free, and if they labored for their lords, they wanted to be paid for it. A crazy priest in the county of Kent, called John Ball, who for his absurd preaching, had been thrice confined in prison, inflamed those ideas. He would say: 'Are we not all descended from the same parents, Adam and Eve? and what can the lords show, or what reasons give, why they should be more the masters than ourselves?' " Jean Froissart, account of a peasant revolt in England, 1381 The point of view of the author can best be described as

sympathetic to the leaders of the revolt

"The evil-disposed in these districts [of England] began to rise, saying, they were too severely oppressed; that at the beginning of the world there were no slaves, and that no one ought to be treated as such. . . . This they would not longer bear, but had determined to be free, and if they labored for their lords, they wanted to be paid for it. A crazy priest in the county of Kent, called John Ball, who for his absurd preaching, had been thrice confined in prison, inflamed those ideas. He would say: 'Are we not all descended from the same parents, Adam and Eve? and what can the lords show, or what reasons give, why they should be more the masters than ourselves?' " Jean Froissart, account of a peasant revolt in England, 1381 The point of view of the author can best be described as

The mercantilist trade regulations enforced by Spanish colonial authorities

"There are one hundred and fifty households in Manila. The houses of the city are so suitable and those of the country so charming that life in those islands is altogether delightful. At one end of the city is the quarter for the Chinese merchants. There are about twenty thousand of them. It is a very curious place to see, because of the fine order in which the Chinese live. Every kind of merchandise has its own separate area, and those goods are so rare that they merit admiration. The Spanish merchants of Manila intermix with the Chinese and the Portuguese of Macao so that they may enjoy the freedom to participate in commerce with China. The Spanish do not attempt to hide the fact that they are acting as agents for the inhabitants of Mexico and lately they have sent a great quantity of merchandise to Peru and to Mexico from Asia. The emperor of China could build a palace with the silver bars from Peru that have been carried to his country because of that traffic, without their ships having been registered, and without taxes having been paid to the king of Spain." Jerónimo de Bañuelos y Carrillo, Spanish admiral, description of the trade of the Philippines, published in Mexico, 1638 The author's claim that the Spanish inhabitants of Manila act as agents for the inhabitants of Mexico can best be described as a reference to which of the following?

The Chinese emperor could build a palace from all the silver that arrives from Peru.

"There are one hundred and fifty households in Manila. The houses of the city are so suitable and those of the country so charming that life in those islands is altogether delightful. At one end of the city is the quarter for the Chinese merchants. There are about twenty thousand of them. It is a very curious place to see, because of the fine order in which the Chinese live. Every kind of merchandise has its own separate area, and those goods are so rare that they merit admiration. The Spanish merchants of Manila intermix with the Chinese and the Portuguese of Macao so that they may enjoy the freedom to participate in commerce with China. The Spanish do not attempt to hide the fact that they are acting as agents for the inhabitants of Mexico and lately they have sent a great quantity of merchandise to Peru and to Mexico from Asia. The emperor of China could build a palace with the silver bars from Peru that have been carried to his country because of that traffic, without their ships having been registered, and without taxes having been paid to the king of Spain." Jerónimo de Bañuelos y Carrillo, Spanish admiral, description of the trade of the Philippines, published in Mexico, 1638 Which of the following claims made in the second paragraph would a historian likely cite to demonstrate how European expansion created a truly global economy in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries?

Ideas about the role of divine providence in human affairs

"This spring, those Indians who lived in their trading house here fell sick with smallpox, and died most miserably. They fear smallpox more than any other disease because it is very common among them. The condition of this people was so lamentable, and they suffered so greatly from this disease that they were, in the end, not able to help each other, or make a fire, or fetch water to drink. Those of us in the English settlement, seeing their woeful and sad condition, took pity on the Indians and daily fetched them wood and water, and food. Nonetheless, very few of the Indians survived. But by the marvelous goodness of God, not one of the English colonists was stricken or infected by the disease at all, though many performed these favors for the Indians for weeks." William Bradford, English settler in the Plymouth Colony in North America, diary entry for the year 1633 The author invokes which of the following to support his claim that smallpox's impact on European settlers was different from its impact on Native Americans?

the English settlers tried to help the Native Americans who were afflicted with smallpox

"This spring, those Indians who lived in their trading house here fell sick with smallpox, and died most miserably. They fear smallpox more than any other disease because it is very common among them. The condition of this people was so lamentable, and they suffered so greatly from this disease that they were, in the end, not able to help each other, or make a fire, or fetch water to drink. Those of us in the English settlement, seeing their woeful and sad condition, took pity on the Indians and daily fetched them wood and water, and food. Nonetheless, very few of the Indians survived. But by the marvelous goodness of God, not one of the English colonists was stricken or infected by the disease at all, though many performed these favors for the Indians for weeks." William Bradford, English settler in the Plymouth Colony in North America, diary entry for the year 1633 The author uses all of the following as evidence to support his argument about the impact of smallpox on Native American populations EXCEPT

The author's statement that no English settlers fell ill, even though "many performed these favors for the Indians for weeks"

"This spring, those Indians who lived in their trading house here fell sick with smallpox, and died most miserably. They fear smallpox more than any other disease because it is very common among them. The condition of this people was so lamentable, and they suffered so greatly from this disease that they were, in the end, not able to help each other, or make a fire, or fetch water to drink. Those of us in the English settlement, seeing their woeful and sad condition, took pity on the Indians and daily fetched them wood and water, and food. Nonetheless, very few of the Indians survived. But by the marvelous goodness of God, not one of the English colonists was stricken or infected by the disease at all, though many performed these favors for the Indians for weeks." William Bradford, English settler in the Plymouth Colony in North America, diary entry for the year 1633 The passage implies that the author was aware of smallpox being an infectious disease. Which of the following can best be cited as evidence of that claim?

Political, religious, and economic rivalries shaped European colonial policies in Africa.

"To Your Highnesses of the States General:* We have been informed by our agent Joris Pietersen, who recently returned from the coast of Angola, that a war arose between the king of Kongo and the Portuguese. The war started because the Portuguese, according to their nature, attacked the region of Mpemba, which the king of Kongo also claims, without any reason but to enslave the inhabitants and conquer the entire country. In this war, the king of Kongo's armies performed so well that all of the Portuguese were driven out of the conquered region with many losses. After this victory, the king took the hats and shoes of all captured Portuguese soldiers as a sign of contempt and took the sails and rudders off their two ships that were anchored off Mpemba. Then the king of Kongo, being of the opinion that all the Portuguese should be driven off his lands forever, sent letters to Joris Pietersen, our agent in Angola, requesting to enter into an alliance with the Dutch state and asking your Highnesses to provide them with four or five warships as well as five or six hundred soldiers for assistance on the water as well as the land, in order that he might secure the coasts from the Portuguese and their supporters. The king is offering to pay for the ships and the monthly wages of the soldiers with gold, silver, or ivory. If successful, he promises to put into your hands the fort and city of Luanda—a place so useful to the king of Spain that more than twenty-four thousand Africans are shipped annually from there to the West-Indies and other places in the Americas. Your Highnesses, it is the Company's judgment that the king of Kongo's proposal will likely bring harm to our enemies and increase our commerce. Therefore, if the king's proposal is accepted, the Company will contribute according to its capacity." *a legislative body of the Dutch Republic, comprising representativesof the various provinces of the Netherlands Letter from the directors of the Dutch West India Company to theStates General of the Netherlands, 1623 The contents of the letter are best understood in the context of which of the following aspects of the historical situation in sub-Saharan Africa in the early 1600s?

seeking to steer the States General representatives into taking action that would benefit the company financially

"To Your Highnesses of the States General:* We have been informed by our agent Joris Pietersen, who recently returned from the coast of Angola, that a war arose between the king of Kongo and the Portuguese. The war started because the Portuguese, according to their nature, attacked the region of Mpemba, which the king of Kongo also claims, without any reason but to enslave the inhabitants and conquer the entire country. In this war, the king of Kongo's armies performed so well that all of the Portuguese were driven out of the conquered region with many losses. After this victory, the king took the hats and shoes of all captured Portuguese soldiers as a sign of contempt and took the sails and rudders off their two ships that were anchored off Mpemba. Then the king of Kongo, being of the opinion that all the Portuguese should be driven off his lands forever, sent letters to Joris Pietersen, our agent in Angola, requesting to enter into an alliance with the Dutch state and asking your Highnesses to provide them with four or five warships as well as five or six hundred soldiers for assistance on the water as well as the land, in order that he might secure the coasts from the Portuguese and their supporters. The king is offering to pay for the ships and the monthly wages of the soldiers with gold, silver, or ivory. If successful, he promises to put into your hands the fort and city of Luanda—a place so useful to the king of Spain that more than twenty-four thousand Africans are shipped annually from there to the West-Indies and other places in the Americas. Your Highnesses, it is the Company's judgment that the king of Kongo's proposal will likely bring harm to our enemies and increase our commerce. Therefore, if the king's proposal is accepted, the Company will contribute according to its capacity." *a legislative body of the Dutch Republic, comprising representativesof the various provinces of the Netherlands Letter from the directors of the Dutch West India Company to theStates General of the Netherlands, 1623 The point of view expressed by the Dutch West India Company's directors in the letter can best be described as

secure profits from the rapidly expanding trans-Atlantic slave trade

"To Your Highnesses of the States General:* We have been informed by our agent Joris Pietersen, who recently returned from the coast of Angola, that a war arose between the king of Kongo and the Portuguese. The war started because the Portuguese, according to their nature, attacked the region of Mpemba, which the king of Kongo also claims, without any reason but to enslave the inhabitants and conquer the entire country. In this war, the king of Kongo's armies performed so well that all of the Portuguese were driven out of the conquered region with many losses. After this victory, the king took the hats and shoes of all captured Portuguese soldiers as a sign of contempt and took the sails and rudders off their two ships that were anchored off Mpemba. Then the king of Kongo, being of the opinion that all the Portuguese should be driven off his lands forever, sent letters to Joris Pietersen, our agent in Angola, requesting to enter into an alliance with the Dutch state and asking your Highnesses to provide them with four or five warships as well as five or six hundred soldiers for assistance on the water as well as the land, in order that he might secure the coasts from the Portuguese and their supporters. The king is offering to pay for the ships and the monthly wages of the soldiers with gold, silver, or ivory. If successful, he promises to put into your hands the fort and city of Luanda—a place so useful to the king of Spain that more than twenty-four thousand Africans are shipped annually from there to the West-Indies and other places in the Americas. Your Highnesses, it is the Company's judgment that the king of Kongo's proposal will likely bring harm to our enemies and increase our commerce. Therefore, if the king's proposal is accepted, the Company will contribute according to its capacity." *a legislative body of the Dutch Republic, comprising representativesof the various provinces of the Netherlands Letter from the directors of the Dutch West India Company to theStates General of the Netherlands, 1623 The report's position on the proposed transfer of Luanda to the Dutch is best understood in light of the authors' goal to

had become corrupted by power

"To the count of Katzenellenbogen, Ziegenhain, and Nidda, my gracious lord. Pope Leo X, in the bull in which he put me under the ban, condemned my statement that 'to fight against the Turk is the same thing as resisting God, who visits our sin upon us with this rod.' I still confess freely that this statement is mine. The popes and bishops called for war against the Turks in the name of Christ. Yet because Christ taught that Christians shall not resist evil with violence or take revenge, it is against His name. In how many wars against the Turks have the bishops and clergy prevented Christians from enduring heavy losses? Indeed, the king of Hungary and his bishops were beaten by the Turks at Varna* and more recently a German army would perhaps have fought with more success, if it had not contained priests. If I were an emperor, a king, or a prince in a campaign against the Turks, I would encourage my bishops and priests to stay at home and mind the duties of their office, praying, fasting, saying mass, preaching, and caring for the poor, as not only Holy Scripture, but their own canon law teaches and requires. To this I say Amen, Amen." *a reference to a failed Christian Crusade launched against the Ottoman Turks in 1444 Martin Luther, German theologian, sermon addressed to a German prince, 1528 A historian could best explain the arguments made in the passage regarding the pope and the clergy in the context of Protestant claims that the Catholic Church

political support from the German nobility aided in the development of the early Protestant community

"To the count of Katzenellenbogen, Ziegenhain, and Nidda, my gracious lord. Pope Leo X, in the bull in which he put me under the ban, condemned my statement that 'to fight against the Turk is the same thing as resisting God, who visits our sin upon us with this rod.' I still confess freely that this statement is mine. The popes and bishops called for war against the Turks in the name of Christ. Yet because Christ taught that Christians shall not resist evil with violence or take revenge, it is against His name. In how many wars against the Turks have the bishops and clergy prevented Christians from enduring heavy losses? Indeed, the king of Hungary and his bishops were beaten by the Turks at Varna* and more recently a German army would perhaps have fought with more success, if it had not contained priests. If I were an emperor, a king, or a prince in a campaign against the Turks, I would encourage my bishops and priests to stay at home and mind the duties of their office, praying, fasting, saying mass, preaching, and caring for the poor, as not only Holy Scripture, but their own canon law teaches and requires. To this I say Amen, Amen." *a reference to a failed Christian Crusade launched against the Ottoman Turks in 1444 Martin Luther, German theologian, sermon addressed to a German prince, 1528 A historian interpreting the passage would most likely explain that the audience of the sermon is an illustration of the fact that

reform Christian society by adhering more closely to Biblical teachings

"To the count of Katzenellenbogen, Ziegenhain, and Nidda, my gracious lord. Pope Leo X, in the bull in which he put me under the ban, condemned my statement that 'to fight against the Turk is the same thing as resisting God, who visits our sin upon us with this rod.' I still confess freely that this statement is mine. The popes and bishops called for war against the Turks in the name of Christ. Yet because Christ taught that Christians shall not resist evil with violence or take revenge, it is against His name. In how many wars against the Turks have the bishops and clergy prevented Christians from enduring heavy losses? Indeed, the king of Hungary and his bishops were beaten by the Turks at Varna* and more recently a German army would perhaps have fought with more success, if it had not contained priests. If I were an emperor, a king, or a prince in a campaign against the Turks, I would encourage my bishops and priests to stay at home and mind the duties of their office, praying, fasting, saying mass, preaching, and caring for the poor, as not only Holy Scripture, but their own canon law teaches and requires. To this I say Amen, Amen." *a reference to a failed Christian Crusade launched against the Ottoman Turks in 1444 Martin Luther, German theologian, sermon addressed to a German prince, 1528 A historian interpreting the views expressed in the passage would likely explain that those views were most strongly influenced by Protestant desires to

Buddhism

"Unconscious of its violent power, the moth flies into a flame. The unwary fish through ignorance bites the baited hook. And likewise we, men who perceive the tangled net of ruin Which the passions cast, do not avoid it. O beneficent Shiva,* behold a solitary man Free from desire, tranquil Drinking from his hands, wearing the sky as his clothing. When shall I master the way to overcome what my fate has in store for me? If one wins wealth that satisfies all desire, what then? If one's foot stands on the head of defeated foes, what then? If honored men are drawn to you by the force of your riches, what then? If man's physical body were to endure forever, what then?" Bhartrihari, Indian poet, Satakatrayam, excerpt from a poetry collection written in Sanskrit, circa fifth century C.E. *a Hindu god Ideas such as those expressed in the poem would have been most readily endorsed by adherents of which of the following?

The use of new weapons by expanding imperial states

"When the initial siege failed to take the city,* [the Ottoman] Sultan Mehmet II summoned the cannon-makers and spoke to them about what cannon could be used to demolish the northern wall of the city, along the bay of the Golden Horn. They assured him it would be easy to demolish that wall if they could construct another massive cannon. The Sultan immediately provided them with everything they needed. So they constructed the cannon, a thing most fearsome to see and altogether unbelievable. With an astounding thunder and a flame that lit up all the surroundings, the canon hurled stones that hit the wall with tremendous force and velocity and immediately knocked it down. After a long and bitter struggle, the Ottomans prevailed and their entire army poured into the city through the breach in the walls. They robbed and plundered, and the whole city was despoiled and blackened as if by fire. The Sultan then entered the city and saw its great size, grandeur, and beauty. When he saw what a large number had been killed and the wholesale ruin and destruction of the city, he was filled with compassion. Tears fell from his eyes as he groaned: 'What a great city we have given over to plunder and destruction!'" *The Byzantine capital Constantinople, which was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 and renamed Istanbul Michael Kritovoulos, Byzantine noble, History of Mehmet the Conqueror, written in the 1460s The conduct of the siege as described in the passage could best be used to explain which of the following processes in the period 1450-1750 ?

The intensification of political rivalries between the Ottoman Empire and neighboring states in Europe and the Middle East

"When the initial siege failed to take the city,* [the Ottoman] Sultan Mehmet II summoned the cannon-makers and spoke to them about what cannon could be used to demolish the northern wall of the city, along the bay of the Golden Horn. They assured him it would be easy to demolish that wall if they could construct another massive cannon. The Sultan immediately provided them with everything they needed. So they constructed the cannon, a thing most fearsome to see and altogether unbelievable. With an astounding thunder and a flame that lit up all the surroundings, the canon hurled stones that hit the wall with tremendous force and velocity and immediately knocked it down. After a long and bitter struggle, the Ottomans prevailed and their entire army poured into the city through the breach in the walls. They robbed and plundered, and the whole city was despoiled and blackened as if by fire. The Sultan then entered the city and saw its great size, grandeur, and beauty. When he saw what a large number had been killed and the wholesale ruin and destruction of the city, he was filled with compassion. Tears fell from his eyes as he groaned: 'What a great city we have given over to plunder and destruction!'" *The Byzantine capital Constantinople, which was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 and renamed Istanbul Michael Kritovoulos, Byzantine noble, History of Mehmet the Conqueror, written in the 1460s The type of warfare described in the passage most directly helps to explain which of the following sixteenth-century developments?

Aztec (Mexica) Empire

"When the initial siege failed to take the city,* [the Ottoman] Sultan Mehmet II summoned the cannon-makers and spoke to them about what cannon could be used to demolish the northern wall of the city, along the bay of the Golden Horn. They assured him it would be easy to demolish that wall if they could construct another massive cannon. The Sultan immediately provided them with everything they needed. So they constructed the cannon, a thing most fearsome to see and altogether unbelievable. With an astounding thunder and a flame that lit up all the surroundings, the canon hurled stones that hit the wall with tremendous force and velocity and immediately knocked it down. After a long and bitter struggle, the Ottomans prevailed and their entire army poured into the city through the breach in the walls. They robbed and plundered, and the whole city was despoiled and blackened as if by fire. The Sultan then entered the city and saw its great size, grandeur, and beauty. When he saw what a large number had been killed and the wholesale ruin and destruction of the city, he was filled with compassion. Tears fell from his eyes as he groaned: 'What a great city we have given over to plunder and destruction!'" *The Byzantine capital Constantinople, which was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 and renamed Istanbul Michael Kritovoulos, Byzantine noble, History of Mehmet the Conqueror, written in the 1460s The type of weaponry used in the siege, as described in the passage, could also help to explain the expansion of all of the following states in the period 1450-1750 EXCEPT the

Confucianism is a cultural tradition emphasizing ethical norms, whereas Buddhism is a religious tradition emphasizing spiritual practices.

"Zhu Seng Du came from an intellectual family in South China. He lived with his mother and was a dutiful son. He later proposed to a woman from the respected Yang family. Before the marriage was set, however, his fiancée's mother and father died and soon after Du's mother died as well. Realizing the transience of this world, Du left everything behind and entered a monastic order. His fiancée realized that there was no place in society for a woman like her. So, she wrote to Du and said 'The ancestral temples should not be abandoned as you have done. Moreover, considering the teaching of Confucian society, you should abandon your lofty religious ideals and make a name for yourself in the world. Through your success you would glorify the spirits of your ancestors and bring comfort to those close to you.' Du responded 'Serving the ruler cannot be compared to pursuing the path of Buddhism for the benefit of all people. Serving one's parents cannot be compared to seeking perfection for the sake of all beings in the universe. I have chosen the path of the Buddha. Dear one, let this be our last goodbye. The student of the dharma must learn to cast away his attachments to this world.'" The Lives of Eminent Monks, a collection of Buddhist biographies, China, sixth century C.E. The passage most directly illustrates which of the following differences between Confucianism and Buddhism?

The intensification of agricultural labor and productivity

"[In the 1500s and 1600s] maize, manioc, sweet potatoes, peanuts, squash and cacao quickly became staples of West African agriculture. The first three spread rapidly over wide stretches of the continent. Presumably, the resemblance of the African climate to that of Central and South America facilitated the rapid acceptance of these new crops. So did the shifting 'garden' type of cultivation prevailing in Africa. In Africa, no fixed system of crop rotation or established agricultural routine inhibited experimentation with these new plants." William McNeill, American historian, The Rise of the West, 1963 The process described by McNeill in the passage is an example of which of the following trends in the period?

The growth of the transatlantic slave trade

"[In the 1500s and 1600s] maize, manioc, sweet potatoes, peanuts, squash and cacao quickly became staples of West African agriculture. The first three spread rapidly over wide stretches of the continent. Presumably, the resemblance of the African climate to that of Central and South America facilitated the rapid acceptance of these new crops. So did the shifting 'garden' type of cultivation prevailing in Africa. In Africa, no fixed system of crop rotation or established agricultural routine inhibited experimentation with these new plants." William McNeill, American historian, The Rise of the West, 1963 The process described by McNeill in the passage is most closely related to which of the following in the same period?

In part because of Mongol society's nomadic nature, elite Mongol women exercised considerably more political power and influence than did women in most other contemporary societies.

Beki [the daughter-in-law of Chinggis Khan] laid a sound basis for the management of the Mongol court's affairs. One can say that no turban-wearing male minister would have been capable of dealing with these matters as brilliantly as she did. Her husband used to consult her first on any state business, be it military or political, and would always take the course she recommended. After her husband's death, she took control of her sons with great wisdom. Even though each one of them was prince and therefore capable of ruling by his own will, she made sure they never departed from the rules of the ancient Mongol laws of conduct. When her son, Güyük Khan, was raised to the throne, he and his brothers were the only princes who—because of Beki's wise guidance—were found always to have acted according to the laws. The great nobles of the assembly that gave the khanate to Güyük are said to have praised Beki with the following verse: And if all women were like her, then women would indeed be superior to men. Although she herself was a Christian, Beki generously supported the Muslim religion. She gave 1,000 silver coins to build an Islamic school in the city of Bukhara. She also gave alms every year to be distributed among the poor and needy Muslims. — Ata-Malik Juvayni, Persian Muslim historian who served as a provincial governor in the Mongol Ilkhanate, History of the World Conqueror, chronicle of the Mongol Empire, written circa 1270 C.E. The description of Beki's actions in the passage can best be used to illustrate which of the following unique aspects of Mongol society?

Slave labor and sugar

Historians consider the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries to be a time of great change in cultivation methods and in the physical landscape of Latin America. Which of the following pairings was most responsible for these changes?

The cyclical nature of death and rebirth

I am imperishable time; The Creator whose face is everywhere; Death that devours all things; The source of all things to come The god Krishna speaks, Bhagavad Gita, Vedic sacred text, circa fifth century to second century B.C.E. The excerpt above best represents which aspect of Hinduism?

European merchants transported only a fraction of the goods shipped globally.

In recent decades, many world historians have challenged the commonly held view that Europeans controlled the largest share of world trade in the seventeenth through the eighteenth centuries. Which of the following evidence from the period would best support this historical reinterpretation?

African slaves in the Americas integrating African beliefs into their practice of Christianity

Many forced and free migrants practiced the religious beliefs of their homelands as a way of adapting to unfamiliar experiences and environments in their destination societies. Which of the following processes best supports the historical argument above?

The creation of a Portuguese trading-post empire

Source 1 "Vasco de Gama, a gentleman of your household, came to my country, at which I was pleased. My country is rich in cinnamon, cloves, ginger, pepper, and precious stones. That which I ask of you in exchange is gold, silver, corals, and scarlet cloth." Letter from the ruler of Calicut, a Hindu-Muslim state on the western coast of India, to the king of Portugal, 1498 Source 2 "In this year the vessels of the Franks [Portuguese] appeared off our shores en route for India, Hormuz [at the opening of the Persian Gulf], and other places. They captured about seven vessels, killing many of those on board and taking others as prisoners. This was their first action, and may God curse them." Umar al-Taiyib Ba Faqih, Muslim scholar, Yemen, southern part of the Arabian Peninsula, describing events in 1503 Over the next century, the Portuguese activities referenced in the two passages resulted in which of the following changes in the region?

The authors' attitudes toward European expansion

Source 1 "Vasco de Gama, a gentleman of your household, came to my country, at which I was pleased. My country is rich in cinnamon, cloves, ginger, pepper, and precious stones. That which I ask of you in exchange is gold, silver, corals, and scarlet cloth." Letter from the ruler of Calicut, a Hindu-Muslim state on the western coast of India, to the king of Portugal, 1498 Source 2 "In this year the vessels of the Franks [Portuguese] appeared off our shores en route for India, Hormuz [at the opening of the Persian Gulf], and other places. They captured about seven vessels, killing many of those on board and taking others as prisoners. This was their first action, and may God curse them." Umar al-Taiyib Ba Faqih, Muslim scholar, Yemen, southern part of the Arabian Peninsula, describing events in 1503 The two passages differ most strongly with respect to which of the following?

Korea

The Primordial Beginning "Heaven is everlasting; Life itself is brief; The world is fleeting, but the Way eternal. 'Tis the road of meditation that begins the distant journey, While the sea of craving sets adrift the lighter crafts. Before the dust of bondage has been cleared away, How can the plantings of the mind be contemplated? Yet, what need is there to wash away the grime of passion? In the waters of the Truth there is a tranquil flow." Wang Jung, Chinese poet, "Songs of Religious Joy," fifth century C.E. Source: The Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 107, No. 1 (Jan.-Mar., 1987), pp. 31 38 In which of the following regions did Chinese cultural traditions have the longest-lasting influence?

To offer an example of proper social behavior for others to follow

The following question(s) refer to the following passage. "Lu Hui's parents died when he was young and he was brought up in his mother's family. His uncle often encouraged him to take the imperial examination. Uprisings, however, prevented Lu from being able to take the examinations. Unable to make a living, Lu became a poor wandering student. One day, Zheng Xu, who was a high-ranking government official, offered to make arrangements that would allow Lu to bypass the exams and advance himself with Zheng's support. Zheng tried to tempt Lu to skirt the rules, saying 'How long can a man live? If there is a shortcut to riches and fame, why insist on going through examinations?' But Lu firmly refused the offer, saying, 'Our great nation has established the examination system for the outstanding and the talented. My uncle always encouraged me to take the examinations and I cannot bring myself to break our agreement. If I have to die as a mere student, it is my fate. But I will not change my mind for the sake of wealth.' When Zheng saw Lu's determination, he respected him even more than before. Another ten years passed before Lu finally passed the examination. He died as one of the highest officials in the whole empire." Wang Dingbao, government official in a regional state established after the collapse of the Tang Dynasty, Selected Stories From the Time of The Tang, a collection of biographies, written circa 940 C.E Based on the passage, which of the following was the most likely reason that Wang Dingbao chose to record the story of Lu Hui?

Latin America exported sugar and silver and imported manufactured items.

World Economic Theory, 1500-1800 The world economic system that developed after 1500 featured unequal relationships between western Europe and dependent economies in other regions. Strong governments and large armies fed European dominance of world trade. Dependent economies used slave or serf labor to produce cheap foods and minerals for Europe and they imported more expensive European items in turn. Dependent regions had weak governments which made European penetration and slave systems possible. Which of the following is an illustration of this world economy theory?

The development of manufacturing in colonial Latin America

World Economic Theory, 1500-1800 The world economic system that developed after 1500 featured unequal relationships between western Europe and dependent economies in other regions. Strong governments and large armies fed European dominance of world trade. Dependent economies used slave or serf labor to produce cheap foods and minerals for Europe and they imported more expensive European items in turn. Dependent regions had weak governments which made European penetration and slave systems possible. Which of the following would illustrate an objection to this world economic theory?

Mulatto and mestizo communities had some economic resources, but creoles were still economically dominant.

[Testimony by the creole (European-ancestry) members of a lay religious brotherhood in the town of San Juan Peribán.] "Cristobál Bernal was elected chair of our brotherhood by a margin of only two votes. Most votes in Bernal's favor came from mulatto and mestizo brothers. However, we, the creole brothers, elected Don Carvajal, a resident of the town and owner of the hacienda and sugar mill there. We urge you to command that only creoles should vote for the positions of chair and deputy chairs and that neither mulattoes nor mestizos can serve in those positions, and that a new election must be held for these positions." [Response by the mulatto and mestizo brothers] "Since the brotherhood was founded, it has had the ancient custom of voting for and electing mulattoes and mestizos as deputies. And mestizos and mulattoes make up most of the membership and help the brotherhood grow. And mestizo and mulatto brothers had donated land, which earns 25 pesos rent per year for the brotherhood. And mulatto and mestizo brothers also collect alms for the brotherhood. If this brotherhood were actually two—one for creoles only and the other for mulattoes and mestizos—then the petitioners might have a case. But there is only one brotherhood in which creoles, mestizos, and mulattoes are mixed and, being members of it, they must enjoy the rights and advantages of the said brotherhood. Without question these rights should include voting and electing their own chair and deputies." [Judge's decision] "The election is declared valid, and Bernal is confirmed as chair." Based on the passage and your knowledge of world history, which of the following can be inferred about the economic hierarchy in San Juan Peribán?

The formation of new identities as part of the restructuring of social hierarchies

[Testimony by the creole (European-ancestry) members of a lay religious brotherhood in the town of San Juan Peribán.] "Cristobál Bernal was elected chair of our brotherhood by a margin of only two votes. Most votes in Bernal's favor came from mulatto and mestizo brothers. However, we, the creole brothers, elected Don Carvajal, a resident of the town and owner of the hacienda and sugar mill there. We urge you to command that only creoles should vote for the positions of chair and deputy chairs and that neither mulattoes nor mestizos can serve in those positions, and that a new election must be held for these positions." [Response by the mulatto and mestizo brothers] "Since the brotherhood was founded, it has had the ancient custom of voting for and electing mulattoes and mestizos as deputies. And mestizos and mulattoes make up most of the membership and help the brotherhood grow. And mestizo and mulatto brothers had donated land, which earns 25 pesos rent per year for the brotherhood. And mulatto and mestizo brothers also collect alms for the brotherhood. If this brotherhood were actually two—one for creoles only and the other for mulattoes and mestizos—then the petitioners might have a case. But there is only one brotherhood in which creoles, mestizos, and mulattoes are mixed and, being members of it, they must enjoy the rights and advantages of the said brotherhood. Without question these rights should include voting and electing their own chair and deputies." [Judge's decision] "The election is declared valid, and Bernal is confirmed as chair." The dispute described in the court case is most directly an effect of which of the following processes in colonial American societies?