AP World History Unit Test #4

absolutism

Absolute monarchies believed kings were the messengers, or lieutenants of God and derived their authority from him. The king made the law and determined policy, no one else shared his roles. People who disobeyed were to be punished and rebellion was very against the law. People like Louis XIV, Peter I, and Catherine II were prominent rulers of the absolute monarch. Significance- (political and military)- The significance of absolutism is that it raised standard of living and transformed Europe. Since Louis, considered the Sun King, constantly demanded painters, sculptors, architects, and writers, he provided the nobility with luxurious accommodations and endless entertainment. Louis and his advisors promoted economic advancement and supported roads, abolishing internal tariffs, and encouraged exports. They created wars in order to expand France and to signify France being a powerful country.

4.1.VII How did the arts fare during this period? 4.1.VII.A How did public literacy as well as literary and artistic forms of expression develop during this period?

As merchants' profits increased and governments collected more taxes, funding for the visual and performing arts, even for popular audiences, increased. Innovations in visual and performing arts were seen all over the world. (such as Renaissance art in Europe, miniature paintings in the Middle East and South Asia, woodblock prints in Japan or post-Conquest codices in Mesoamerica) Literacy expanded accompanied by the proliferation of popular literary forms in Europe and Asia. (such as Shakespeare, Cervantes, Sundiata, Journey to the West or kabuki)

4.2.II How did the post-1450 economic order affect the social, economic, and political elites? 4.2.II.B How did pre-existing political and economic elites react to these changes? 4.2.II.C How were gender and family structures affected to these changes? 4.2.II.D How did societies in the Americas reflect the post-1450 economic order?

As new social and political elites changed, they also restructured new ethnic, racial and gender hierarchies. Both imperial conquests and widening global economic opportunities contributed to the formation of new political and economic elites. (such as the Manchus in China, Creole elites in Spanish America, European gentry or urban commercial entrepreneurs in all major port cities in the world) The power of existing political and economic elites. (such as the zamindars in the Mughal Empire, nobility in Europe or daimyo in Japan) fluctuated as they confronted new challenges to their ability to affect the policies of the increasingly powerful monarchs and leaders. Some notable gender and family restructuring occurred including the demographic changes in Africa that resulted from the slave trades (as well as dependence of European men on Southeast Asian women for conducting trade in that region or the smaller size of European families) The massive demographic changes in the Americas resulted in new ethnic and racial classifications. (such as mestizo, mulatto or creole)

serfdom (russia)

Because Russia was a large but underpopulated empire with little manufacturing and trade, powerful nobles were concerned about retaining their allegiance, so they restricted freedoms of Russian peasants and forced them to become Serfs. As serfdom was coming to an end in Western Europe, landowners in eastern Europe tightened restrictions on these serfs and serfdom survived until the 19th century. Even though serfs were not the same as slaves, but during the late 17th and 18th centuries, landlords sold serfs to one another. Accompanying those circumstances, landlords created estates with inexpensive labor and in turn received enormous amounts of wealth. Significance (economic and political)- Because of serfdom in eastern Europe, the emergence of capitalism in modern Europe flourished. Eastern European lands relied on semi-free labor to cultivate crops that would be sent out to western Europe where merchants and manufacturers employed free wage labor and build a capitalist society. Capitalism flourished in western society because of the inexpensive raw foods and materials eastern Europe provided which came from peasants and serfs.

capitalism

Capitalism was an economic system where private properties make their own goods available on the free market and attempt to take advantage of the market to profit themselves. People seeking economic interests would hire workers and produce what they wanted to, believing that businessmen are the prerogative of capitalism and not the government or rulers. Businessmen were to compete with each other, and the laws of supply and demand would determine the prices and portray their successes. Significance (economic and political)- Because capitalism was becoming more popular and well-known, banks started appearing in all major commercial cities to hold funds for safekeeping and grant loans to entrepreneurs and merchants. Newsletters that provided readers with reports on prices, information about demand for goods in other markets, and political news having an impact on business were being published by banks as well. Capitalism changed rural Europe as well, since it undermined patterns of rural life, because each person was being able to make enough money to pursue their own economic interests and become independent from their families and leave them, and their families had to continue working agriculturally.

4.3.III What obstacles to empire-building did empires confront, and how did they respond to these challenges?

Competition over trade routes. (such as Omani-European rivalry in the Indian Ocean and piracy in the Caribbean), state rivalries. (such as the Thirty Years War or the Ottoman-Safavid conflict), and local resistance. (such as bread riots) all provided significant challenges to state consolidation and expansion.

constitutionalism

Constitutional governments claimed limited power and recognized rights pertaining to individuals during the 17th century. Constitutional governments arose because of political and religious disagreements, and Kings making decisions without parliament. Significance (political and economic)- The result of constitutional states was that is effectively brought popular support which in turn was used to magnify state power. Merchants were especially prominent in political affairs, and state policy favored maritime trade and commercial empires overseas. They allowed entrepreneurs to freely pursue their economic interests without interference from their authorities. These states experienced extraordinary results, merchants state with the wealth they obtained and rulers followed policies that looked after their merchants.

edo

Edo was a castle town located in modern Tokyo where the shoguns governed personal areas of expertise, and made attempts to control the daimyo, who were powerful territorial lords who ruled most of Japan from their landholdings. Shoguns created a policy of "alternate attendance" which made daimyo maintain their families in Edo and spend every other year at Tokugawa court. These policies in Edo enabled the okugawa to keep an eye on the daimyo. Significance (economic and social)- These policies in Edo encouraged daimyo to spend their money on nice goods that weren't necessities and to live comfortable lives. Daimyos recently invested in military forced that challenged the bakafu, but after the Edo, they stopped spending their money on this.The shoguns restricted much of the daimyo's ways in Edo, like subjecting marriage alliances between daimyo families, discouraged the daimyo to obtain permits for the construction work of their castles, etc.

4.3 How did empires attempt to administer the new widespread nature of their territories? How did the role of Africa, the Americas, Asia, and Europe develop in this new world-wide political order? How did the people of various empires react to their government's methods?

Empires expanded and conquered new peoples around the world, but they often had difficulties incorporating culturally, ethnically and religiously diverse subjects and administrating widely dispersed territories. Agents of European powers moved into existing trade networks around the world. In Africa and the greater Indian Ocean, nascent European empires consisted mainly of interconnected trading posts and enclaves. Euro- pean empires in the Americas moved more quickly to settlement and territorial control responding to local demographic and commercial conditions. Moreover, the creation of European empires in the Americas quickly fostered a new Atlantic trade system that included the trans- Atlantic slave trade. Around the world, empires and states of varying sizes pursued strategies of centralization, including more efficient taxation systems that placed strains on peasant producers, sometimes prompting local rebellions. Rulers used public displays of art and architecture to legitimize state power. African states shared certain characteristics with larger Eurasian empires. Changes in African and global trading patterns strengthened some West and Central African states—especially on the coast, led to the rise of new states and contributed to the decline of states on both the coast and in the interior.

engenhos

Engenho, related to the English word engine, refers to the sugar mills the Colonial Brazilian life revolved around. Sugarcane requires extensive work to yield molasses or sugar as a beneficial export. Because of this, the engenhos needed both heavy labor and specialized skills of individuals who understood the complexity of the sugar-making process. The engenhos were one of the most complex enterprises in America. Significance (economic)- The significance of the Engenhos was it came to represent a complex of land, labor, buildings, animals, capital, and skills related to producing sugar. Sugar eventually became the most important export in colonial economy, so Portuguese planters and owners were a privileged group of people, who exercised political social, and economic power. Because they contributed contributed to the governments revenues, they received strong royal support. Because Native Americans refused to work for the Portuguese, Portuguese plantation managers imported slaves to cultivate sugar and work for the mills. This led to a constant demand for slaves.

4.1.V What were effects of the Columbian Exchange? 4.1.V.A What were unintentional biological effects of the Columbian Exchange? 4.1.V.B What foods were transferred to new geographic regions as part of the Columbian Exchange, and what labor systems made this transfer possible? 4.1.V.C What plants/animals were deliberately transferred across the Atlantic as part of the Columbian Exchange? 4.1.V.D What effects did American food crops have on the diet of Afro-Eurasians? 4.1.V.E How did settlers' action affect the Americas environmentally?

European colonization of the Americas led to the spread of diseases endemic in the Eastern Hemisphere. (such as smallpox, measles or influenza) among Amerindian populations and the unintentional transfer of pests. (such as mosquitoes or rats) Columbian Exchange graphic American foods (such as potatoes, maize or manioc) became staple crops in various parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa while cash crops. (such as cacao or tobacco) were grown primarily on plantations with coerced labor and were exported mostly to Europe and the Middle East in this period. Afro-Eurasian fruit trees, grains, sugar, and domesticated animals. (such as horses, pigs or cattle) were deliberately brought by Europeans to the Americas while other foods. (such as okra) were brought by African slaves. Populations in Afro-Eurasia benefitted nutritionally from the increased diversity of American food crops. European colonization and introduction of European agriculture and settlements practices in the Americas often affected the physical environment through deforestation and soil depletion

4.3.II What was the relationship between imperialism and military technology? 4.3.II.A How did Europeans go about creating new global empires and trade networks? 4.3.II.B How did pre-existing land-based empires and new empires during this era compare to previous era's empires?

Imperial expansion relied on the increased use of gunpowder, cannons and armed trade to establish large empires in both hemispheres. Europeans established new trading post empires in Africa and Asia which proved profitable for the rulers and merchants involved in new global trade networks, but also affected the power of states in interior West and Central Africa. European states, including Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, France and Britain, established new maritime empires in the Americas. Land empires expanded dramatically in size, including the Manchus, Mughals, Ottomans and Russians.

4.1.I How did the global trade network after 1500 CE affect the pre-existing regional trade networks? (Indian Ocean, Mediterranean, trans-Saharan, Silk Routes) 4.1.II.A What technical developments made transoceanic European travel & trade possible? 4.1.II.B Where did those developments originate?

In the context of the new global circulation of goods, there was an intensification of all existing regional trade networks that brought prosperity and economic disruption to the merchants and governments in the trading regions of the Indian Ocean, Mediterranean, Sahara, and overland Eurasia. European technological developments in cartography and navigation built on previous knowledge developed in the classical, Islamic and Asian worlds, and included the production of new tools. (such as astrolabe or revised maps), innovations in ship designs. (such as caravels) and an improved understanding of global wind and currents patterns, all of which made transoceanic travel and trade possible.

mestizo societies

In the places European migrants decided to form colonies, Europeans and Americans alike lived amongst each other. This soon created not only multi cultural territories but also ethnically mixed ones as well. Most European migrants were men, including 85% of Spanish migrants that were men, and Portuguese migrants being even more male dominated. Because of this, migrants often entered male relationships with Native American women, to create "mestizo", or mixed societies. Significance (social)- The significance of mestizo people and societies was that it changed social order amongst these Euro-American regions. Not only did mestizos exist, but so did mulattoes born of Portuguese and African parents, zambos, born of indigenous and African parents, and other combinations. The social hierarchy changed from most European, to least, and imported slaves stood at the bottom of the hierarchy. This showed the value of being European in these societies.

silver

Silver was heavily produced in two areas: The North of Mexico and the central Andes. They employed a large amount of native laborers. These native laborers volunteered to work to escape the diseases and pressures of conquest in their home villages. As more silver was being produced and discovered, Spanish administrators drafted laborers to work in more harsh conditions using the mita system, which required Spanish authorities to annually draft 1/7th of it's men in each native village to work in the mines. Significance (economic)- The significance of Silver mining concerning the mita system was that it touched a large portion of the indigenous population and influenced settlement patterns throughout the Andean region. The significance of silver mining as a whole was it powered the Spanish economy in the Americas and stimulated the world economy in the Americas and stimulated the world economy of early modern times. Silver helped Spanish kings finance a strong military and bureaucracy, however, most of the benefits from silver went to benefit the larger world economies and stimulate global trade.

smallpox/epidemic diseases

Smallpox started spreading during 1518 and was a disease Europeans brought to the new world. It began to infect Native Americans and indigenous peoples. Smallpox soon ended up killing off tens of thousands of people. Significance (military)- The significance of smallpox and other epidemic diseases was it made a significant population decline in native tribes in the Caribbean. This population decrease aided Spanish efforts in seizing Caribbean lands, and weakened defensive forces. Epidemic diseases killed off so many people, that tribes and Aztec societies were no longer able to function.

columbian exchange

The Columbian exchange was the global diffusion of plants, food crops, animals, human populations, and diseases spread across the globe. The Columbia diffusion involved lands with many different flora, fauna, and diseases. It permanently altered the worlds human geography and natural environment. Significance (environment and social)- The Columbian exchange brought disease to many societies that were unable to handle it. The infectious diseases brought sharp losses to peoples of the Americas and Pacific Islands. Smallpox was one of the worst diseases, however measles, diptheria, whooping cough, and influenza took a heavy toll. Smallpox ravaged the Aztec Empire, with a decline of 90% of the Mexican population. Over a longer period of time, the Columbian exchange also increased human population because of the spread of food and animals across the globe. The Columbian exchange fueled a significant increase in world population by 25%.

enlightenment

The Enlightenment was when people abandoned Greek philosophies and Christian teachings to teach humans through rational thinking. Enlightenment thinkers wanted to find laws that controlled human societies. Many believed in individual freedom, and were optimistic about the future of the world and humanity. Philosophes- philosophers mostly from France- addressed their works to the educated public, and they mostly composed histories, novels, dramas, satires, and pamphlets. Significance (intellectual and religious)- The Enlightenment weakened religious influence in European culture, because people were developing studies that both contradicted the bible and challenged it. Enlightenment thinkers encouraged to value reason over revelation, and encouraged political and cultural leaders to promote society to rational analytical thinking. The Enlightenment era transformed

encomienda

The Hacienda was a local estate that produced foodstuffs for its own use and the use of nearby markets, towns, and cities. The main source of labor for the Hacienda was the indigenous people who had to work under the encomienda system. This system both benefited the Spanish because they exacted both labor and tribute from defeated populations. However, Spanish landowners overworked their laborers and skimped on their maintenance. Significance (economic and social)- The significance of the encomienda system was that it led to rampant abuse of the indigenous peoples. However it was a way for Spanish colonists to use the indigenous peoples' land and goods. Spanish landowners often resorted to giving laborers money and making them work in return, however wages were so low that they could never pay off their debt and had to keep working.

ming dynasty

The Ming Dynasty lasted from 1368-1644 after the Yuan Dynasty's collapse. They restored native rule and the founder, Hongwu built a tightly centralized state and drove the Mongols out of China. However, tightly centralized Ming rule did not last after the mid 16th century when a series of occurrences greatly weakened it. Famines struck China during the early 17th century and the Ming government were too slow to react so peasants, who could only eat grass roots and tree bark started rebellions. Significance (political and military)- The significance of the Ming Dynasty and it's decline was that after these revolts broke out, cities began to withdraw their loyalty from the Ming Dynasty. Then the Manchu forces invaded from the north. Rebels seized the Ming dynasty, and the Manchus allied with the army loyal to the Ming and crushed the rebels, claiming they were avengers who saved the capital from dangerous rebels, despite them never restoring Ming rule and moving their own capital to Beijing. This later led to the development of the Qing Dynasty.

scientific revolution

The Scientific Revolution was the development of transformational scientific discoveries; astronomy, physics, mathematics, botany, and biology underwent a transformation during this revolution. Scientists and mathematicians used to base their understandings from Greek scholars, but during the Scientific Revolution, people began to base their theories on their own observational data and mathematical reasoning. Significant scientists and mathematicians during this time were people like Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei who demonstrated planetary orbits were elliptical and not circular as people believed before and Isaac Newton who discovered gravity and believed the universe was so powerful and persuasive that its influence extended far beyond science. Significance (intellectual and environmental)- The Scientific Revolution contributed to the thought that science and mathematics could explain the occurrences of the natural world, instead of religion. It was also the basis for new discoveries in the sciences and mathematics. Discoveries like the Law of Inertia (believes that something will continue to move in a straight line until a force intervenes), and pointed out the problems that Greek scholars and philosophers had with their discoveries. Scientists began to turn away from authorities and develop different ideas about the world and surroundings.

Thirty Years' War

The Thirty-Years War began in the 17th century when the Holy Roman Emperor attempted to force Bohemian people to return to the Roman Catholic church. By the time the war ended, the Spanish, French, Dutch, German, Swedish, Danish, Polish, Bohemian, and Russian forces took part in the conflict and the main battleground was the emperor's territory in Germany. These countries joined the war for various political and economic reasons, however differences in religion complicated the two even further and made them more difficult to resolve. Significance (economic and religious)- The Thirty Years' War was a very brutal, violent, and even the most destructive European rivalry before the 20th century that damaged the economies and societies of Europe. After the Thirty Years' War, Europe's hierarchy was questioned, as well the viability of it being a strong, independent, well-armed, and intensely competitive. The Thirty Years' War created the Peace of Westphalia, which laid foundations for a system of independent and competing states, because of that, European religious unity disappeared, and sovereign state had arrived.

tokugawa shogunate

The Tokugawa shoguns wanted to lay a foundation for political and social stability in Japan, and provided support for neo-Confucianism, as well as tightly restricting foreign influence and promoting traditional values. Shoguns were military governors that were thought to be a temporary stand-in for the Japanese emperor. After the Japanese civil war, Tokugaw Ieyasu established a military government that was meant to be a temporary government, to Tokugaw and his descendants ruled as shoguns from 600 to 1897. The goal for the Tokugawa shoguns was to stabilize their realm and prevent the possible return of civil war. The shoguns significantly limited international relations by kicking out all European foreigners, completely restricting foreign trade and forbidding the Japanese to travel abroad. Significance (economic and social)- Since trade was prohibited, agricultural production within Japan increased, which in turn made a booming economy. Because of increased agricultural production, the population of Japan rose as well. The Japanese's social hierarchy followed Confucian beliefs, ruling elites like the shogun, daimyo, and samurai were at the top, peasants and artisans were beneath them, and artisans were beneath them, and then merchants were at the bottom, however during Tokugawa era, ruling elites were undermined since it was a very peaceful period.

4.1.VI How did the Columbian Exchange affect the spread of religions? 4.1.VI.A Where did the "universal" religions of Buddhism, Christianity & Islam spread? 4.1.VI.B How did the Columbian Exchange affect religion(s)?

The increase in interactions between newly connected hemispheres and intensification of connections within hemispheres expanded the spread and reform of existing religions and created syncretic belief systems and practices. The practice of Islam continued to spread into diverse cultural settings in Asia and Africa. The practice of Christianity was increasingly diversified by the Reformation. Buddhism spread within Asia. Syncretic forms of religion developed. (such as African influences in Latin America, interactions between Amerindians and Catholic missionaries, or Sikhism between Muslims and Hindus in India and Southeast Asia)

Describe the degree of global 'inter- connection' after 1500 CE compared to before 1500. What were the overall effects of this change in global interconnectedness?

The interconnection of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres made possible by transoceanic voyaging marked a key transformation of this period. Technological innovations helped to make transoceanic connections possible Changing patterns of long-distance trade included the global circulation of some commodities and the formation of new regional markets and financial centers. Increased transregional and global trade networks facilitated the spread of religion and other elements of culture as well as the migration of large numbers of people. Germs carried to the Americas ravaged the indigenous peoples, while the global exchange of crops and animals altered agriculture, diets and populations around

4.1.IV What new financial and monetary means made new scale(s) of trade possible? What previously established scale(s) of trade continued? 4.1.IV.A Describe European merchants overall trade role c. 1450-1750. 4.1.IV.B What role did silver play in facilitating a truly global scale of trade? 4.1.IV.C What new mercantilist financial means developed to facilitate global trade? 4.1.IV.D What were the economic and social effects of the Atlantic trading system?

The new global circulation of goods was facilitated by royal chartered European monopoly companies who took silver from Spanish colonies in the Americas to purchase Asian goods for the Atlantic markets, but regional markets continued to flourish in Afro-Eurasia using established commercial practices and new transoceanic shipping services developed by European merchants. European merchants' role in Asian trade was characterized mostly by transporting goods from one Asian country to another market in Asia or the Indian Ocean region. Commercialization and the creation of a global economy were intimately connected to new global circulation of silver from the Americas. Influenced by mercantilism, joint-stock companies were new methods used by European rulers to control their domestic and colonial economies and by European merchants to compete against each other in global trade. The Atlantic system involved the movement of goods, wealth, and free and unfree laborers, and the mixing of African, American and European cultures and peoples.

indentured labor

Tobacco plantations had high demands of labor, so instead of Europeans seeking out of indigenous peoples or slaves, they decided to bring orphans, criminals, the unemployed, political prisoners, and other people who felt they had not future in Europe to work for 4-7 years in the plantation and afterwards start a new life in the Americas. Of course some went on to be successful planters and artisans however many died of disease or overworking during their required work or they continued to work. Significance (economic and social)- The significance of indentured laborers were they led to the use of slaves because as they were leaving owners still needed labor. A few slaves came from Africa to work alongside other laborers. Eventually Virginia law recognized all blacks as slaves, and planters replaced indentured laborers with slaves. In 1750 120,000 slaves tilled tobacco.

4.2.I How did labor systems develop between 1450-1750? 4.2.I.A How was peasant labor affected between 1450-1750? 4.2.I.B How did slavery within Africa compare to the pre-1450 era? 4.2.I.C How did the Atlantic slave trade affect both African societies and the economy of the Americas? 4.2.I.D How did labor systems develop in the colonial Americas?

Traditional peasant agriculture increased and changed, plantations expanded, and demand for labor increased. These changes both fed and responded to growing global demand for raw materials and finished products. Peasant labor intensified in many regions. (such as the development of frontier settlements in Russian Siberia, cotton textile production in India or silk textile production in China) Slavery in Africa continued both the traditional incorporation of slaves into households and the export of slaves to the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean. The growth of the plantation economy increased the demand for slaves in the Americas. Colonial economies in the Americas depended on a range of coerced labor (such as chattel slavery, indentured servitude, encomienda and hacienda systems, or the Spanish adaptation of the Inca mit'a.

4.3.I How did political rulers legitimize and consolidate their rule? 4.3.I.B What role did religion play in legitimizing political rule? 4.3.I.C How were ethnic and religious minorities treated in various empires? 4.3.I.D How did rulers make sure that their governments were well run? 4.3.I.E How did rulers finance their territorial expansion?

Visual displays of political power. (such as monumental architecture, urban plans, courtly literature or visual arts) helped legitimize and support rulers. Rulers used religious ideas to legitimize their rule. (such as European notions of divine right, the Safavid use of Shiism, the Mexica or Aztec practice of human sacrifice, the Songhay promotion of Islam or the Chinese emperors' public performance of Confucian rituals) States treated different ethnic and religious groups in ways that both utilized their economic contributions while limiting their ability to challenge the authority of the state. (such as the Ottoman treatment of non-Muslim subjects, Manchu policies toward Chinese or the Spanish creation of a separate "República de Indios") Recruitment and use of bureaucratic elites, as well as the development of military professionals. (such as the Ottoman devshirme, Chinese examination system or salaried samurai), became more common among rulers who wanted to maintain centralized control over their populations and resources. Rulers used tribute collection and tax farming to generate revenue for territorial expansion.

qing dynasty

When the Ming Dynasty collapsed, Manchu peoples entered and reinvented another dynasty, the Qing Dynasty, that lasted from 1644 to 1911. The establishment of the Qing Dynasty was partially due to Manchu peoples who expelled Ming garrisons and invaded Korea, Mongolia, and China. Manchus usually held the highest political posts in the Qing government, however, they stuck to the same governmental tendencies that the Ming government established. Significance (political, social, economic)- The significance of the Qing dynasty was it applied Confucian teachings in schools, therefore all Qing students would have a Confucian mindset. They also ended up holding the same governmental structure the Ming did, so the Qing dynasty ended up presiding a tightly centralized state administered by Confucian scholars. Therefore, by modelling conservative and traditional government, the Qing dynasty experienced social and economic changes: agricultural production increased dramatically, global trade brought China enormous wealth, manufacturing, and urban growth

4.2 How did agriculture's role change between 1450-1750? What pre-requisite conditions made these changes possible?

While the world's productive systems continued to be heavily centered on agricultural production throughout this period, major changes occurred in agricultural labor, the systems and location of manufacturing, gender and social structures, and environmental processes. A surge in agricultural productivity resulted from new methods in crop and field rotation and the introduction of new crops. Economic growth also depended on new forms of manufacturing and new commercial patterns, especially in long-distance trade. Political and economic centers within regions shifted, and merchants' social status tended to rise in various states. Demographic growth—even in areas such as the Americas, where disease had ravaged the population—was restored by the eighteenth century and surged in many regions, especially with the introduction of American food crops throughout the Eastern Hemisphere. The Columbian Exchange led to new ways of humans interacting with their environments. New forms of coerced and semi-coerced labor emerged in Europe, Africa and the Americas and affected ethnic and racial classifications and gender roles.

4.1.III What were the major notable trans- oceanic voyages between 1450-1750 CE? 4.1.III.A Where did Zheng He and the Chinese Treasure Fleets travel? 4.1.III.B Why did Portugal begin longer maritime voyages ca. 1430 CE? 4.1.III.C What effect did Columbus' travels have on Europeans? 4.1.III.D What originally motivated Europeans to travel across the northern Atlantic? 4.1.III.E How did the new global connections affect the peoples of Oceania and Polynesia?

• Zheng He: Official Chinese maritime activity expanded into the Indian Ocean region with the naval voyages led by Ming Admiral Zheng He which enhanced Chinese prestige. • Portugal: Portuguese development of a school for navigation led to increased travel to and trade with West Africa and resulted in the construction of a global trading-post empire. • Spain: Spanish sponsorship of the first Columbian and subsequent voyages across the Atlantic and Pacific dramatically increased European interest in transoceanic travel and trade. • European, general: Northern Atlantic crossings for fishing and settlements continued and spurred European searches for multiple routes to Asia. • Oceania: In Oceania and Polynesia, established exchange and communication networks were not dramatically affected because of infrequent European reconnaissance in the Pacific Ocean.