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Highway Trust Fund
- a federal gasoline tax to pay for construction and maintenance of roads and highways.
1986 - Emergency Wetlands Resources Act
- authorized the purchase of wetlands from Land and Water Conservation Fund monies, removing a prior prohibition on such acquisitions. o It required the Secretary to establish a National Wetlands Priority Conservation Plan o required the States to include wetlands in their Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans o transferred to the Migratory Bird Conservation Fund amounts equal to the import duties on arms and ammunition.
• Subsidized mortgages
- low interest rates offered to people to purchase a home that would otherwise not be able to do so.
urban
- metropolitan areas complete with all the necessary services to be sustained
• Exurban-
- similar to suburban areas, but are not connected to any central city or densely populated area.
Second-growth forest:
: a stand of trees resulting from natural secondary succession.
nature reserves A model biosphere reserve
A model biosphere reserve that contains a protected inner core surrounded by two buffer zones that people can use for multiple use. o We can prevent or slow down losses of biodiversity by concentrating efforts on protecting global hot spots where significant biodiversity is under immediate threat. o Conservation biologists are helping people in communities find ways to sustain local biodiversity while providing local economic income.
National Wildlife Refuge System
Acquires, establishes, and manages refuges for the protection & conservation of fish, waterfowl & wildlife
Federal Food, Drug & Cosmetics Act
All food, drugs & cosmetics may not be adulterated or misbranded when they cross state boundaries. Poisonous ingredients may not be added to food. Amendments cover infant formula, bottled drinking water, vitamins & supplements, margarine, seafood inspections, and truth-in-advertising
Food Additives Amendment to the FDCA "Delaney Clause"
Allowed no substance capable of causing cancer in test animals or humans into processed food. But does not cover pesticides on raw foods, such as fresh fruits and vegetables, milk, and meats.
Harvesting Trees
Building roads into previously inaccessible forests paves the way for fragmentation, destruction, and degradation.
4 Ways Vegetation Can Effect Climate:
Changing color of the surface and the amount of sunlight reflected and absorbed Increasing the amount of water transpired and evaporated from the surface to the atmosphere Changing the rate at which greenhouse gases are released from the Earth's surface into the atmosphere Changing the "surface roughness," which affects wind speed at the surface
NATIONAL PARKS
Countries have established more than 1,100 national parks, but most are threatened by human activities. • • Loggers, miners, and wildlife poachers also deplete natural resources. • Many are too small to sustain large-animal species. • Many suffer from invasive species. Local people invade park for wood, cropland, and other natural resources.
The National Park Service (NPS)
Created in 1916 to administer parks and monuments • 388 sites totaling 32 million ha (72 million acres) • Includes national historic sites, national recreation areas, national wild and scenic rivers • 273 million visitors in 2006
Types and Effects of Forest Fires
Depending on their intensity, fires can benefit or harm forests. • Burn away flammable ground material. • Release valuable mineral nutrients.
Nonfederal entities also protect land
Each U.S. state and Canadian province has agencies that manage resources • So do counties and municipalities o Land trusts = local or regional organizations that purchase land to protect it • • Trusts protect 4.1 million ha (10.2 million acres) • Jackson Hole, Wyoming is protected by a land trust The Nature Conservancy is the world's largest land trust
NATURE RESERVES Ecologists call for protecting more land....
Ecologists call for protecting more land to help sustain biodiversity, but powerful economic and political interests oppose doing this. • Currently 12% of earth's land area is protected. • Only 5% is strictly protected from harmful human activities. • Conservation biologists call for full protection of at least 20% of earth's land area representing multiple examples of all biomes.
Noise Control Act
Establishes noise emission standards for transportation vehicles (beginning with aircraft & airports), machinery, and appliances
Externalities
Externalities- a cost or benefit of a good or service that is not included in the purchase price of the product or service. • In environmental science we are concerned about negative externalities because of the environmental damage for which no one bears the cost.
MANAGING AND SUSTAINING FORESTS
Forests provide a number of ecological and economic services that researchers have attempted to estimate their total monetary value.
Wild & Scenic Rivers Act
Identifies wild, scenic or recreational rivers which are then protected in their free- flowing condition for future generations
The Tragedy of the Commons
In 1968, ecologist Garrett Hardin described the "tragedy of the commons". • Tragedy of the commons- the tendency of a shared, limited resource to become depleted because people act from self-interest for short-term gain. look at diagram on page 2 of ppt
Healthy Forest Restoration Act:
In 2003, U.S. Congress passed it • • In return, must clear away smaller, more fire- prone trees and underbrush. • Some forest scientists believe this could increase severe fires by removing fire resistant trees and leaving highly flammable slash. Allows timber companies to cut medium and large trees in 71% of the national fores
Wetlands
Lands that are usually covered with water for at least part of the year o Have characteristic soils and water- tolerant vegetation o Benefits • Habitat for migratory waterfowl and wildlife • Recharge groundwater • Reduce damage from flooding • Improve water quality • Produce many commercially important products
nature reserves Large and medium-sized reserves with buffer zones...
Large and medium-sized reserves with buffer zones help protect biodiversity and can be connected by corridors. Costa Rica has consolidated its parks and reserves into 8 megareserves designed to sustain 80% if its biodiversity.
Rangeland Trends in US
Make up 30% of total US land area • 2/3 privately owned o Pressure from developers to subdivide o Public rangeland managed by: • Taylor Grazing Act (1934) • Federal Land Policy and Management Act (1976) o Conditions of public rangeland are slowly improving • Grazing fees is an issue
US National Forests
Managed for multiple uses • Timber harvest • Livestock forage • Water resource and watershed protection • Mining, hunting, fishing, etc. o Road building is an issue • o Clearcutting is an issue Provides logging companies with access to forest
Coastal Demographics
Many coastal areas overdeveloped • o United States • • 3.8 billion people live within 150km of coastline • 6.4 billion people will likely live there by 2025 14 of 20 largest US cities along coast 19 of 20 most densely populated countries along coasts
Smart Growth
Mixed land uses • create a range of housing opportunities and choices • create walkable neighborhoods • encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions • take advantage of compact building design • Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place • Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty and critical environmental areas • Provide a variety of transportation choices • Strengthen and direct development toward existing communities • Make development decisions predictable, fair and cost-effective
Forest Trends in US
Most temperature forest are steady or expanding o Returning stands lack biodiversity of original forests o More than half of US forest are privately owned (right) • Forest Legacy Program • Conservation easement
Federal parks and reserves began in the U.S.
National parks = public lands protected from resource extraction and development Open to nature appreciation and recreation Yellowstone National Park was established in 1872 The Antiquities Act of 1906 The president can declare selected public lands as national monuments
Restoring Wetlands
No Net Loss of Wetlands: o Development of wetlands is allowed if corresponding amount of previously converted wetland is restored o Not all wetland restorations are successful
Rangeland Degradation and Deforestation
Overgrazing leaves ground barren • o Land degradation • o Desertification • Animals exceed their carrying capacity Natural or human-induced process that decreases future ability of land to support crops or livestock Degradation of once fertile land into nonproductive desert
Case Study: Stresses on U.S. National Parks
Overused due to popularity. o Inholdings (private ownership) within parks threaten natural resources. o Air pollution.
Soil Conservation Act
Planned to decrease soil erosion by assisting farmers to change farming practices and by instituting soil restoration programs
Wilderness protection has been weakened
President George W. Bush has weakened wilderness protection • Federal agencies have shifted policies and enforcement • Away from preservation and conservation • Toward recreation and resource extraction
Suburban Sprawl problems
Problems: • Increased air pollution • Loss / fragmentation of wildlife habitat • Loss of wetlands, forest, & agricultural lands • Noise pollution o Increased energy use (to power automobiles) o Decline of downtown central business district o Traffic congestion o Increased runoff from paved surfaces
Rivers & Harbors Act
Prohibits the construction of any bridge, dam, dike, wharf, pier, jetty or causeway over or in navigable waterways without Congressional approval for the conservation of wildlife & protection of habitat
Managing Public and Private Land
Public Planning and Land Use • • Land use decisions are complex and have multiple effects Must take into account all repercussions of proposed land use o Management of Federal Land • Wide-Use Movement • Environmental Movement
Case Study: Grazing and Urban Development in the American West
Ranchers, ecologists, and environmentalists are joining together to preserve the grasslands on cattle ranches. Paying ranchers conservation easements (barring future owners from development). Pressuring government to zone the land to prevent development of ecologically sensitive areas.
Taylor Grazing Act
Required permits & fees for use of federal grazing lands. Limited the number of livestock.
Not everyone supports land set-asides
Restriction of activities in wilderness areas generated opposition to U.S. land protection policies • Some western states want resource extraction and development o The wise-use movement = a coalition of individuals and industries that oppose environmental protection • • Protecting private property, transferring federal lands to state or private hands, promoting motorized recreation on public lands Farmers, ranchers, loggers, mineral and fossil fuel industries
Controversy over Logging in U.S. National Forests
There has been an ongoing debate over whether U.S. national forests should be primarily for: • Timber. • Ecological services. • Recreation. • Mix of these use
Biosphere reserves have several zones
This can be a win-win situation for everyone
Transboundary and peace parks
Transboundary park = an area of protected land overlapping national borders • o Peace parks = transboundary reserves that help ease tensions by acting as buffers between nations o Biosphere reserves = land with exceptional biodiversity • Couple preservation with sustainable development For example, Waterton-Glacier National Parks in the U.S. and Canada
Causes of Tropical Deforestation and Degradation
Tropical deforestation results from a number of interconnected primary and secondary causes.
CASE STUDY: FOREST RESOURCES AND MANAGEMENT IN THE U.S.
U.S. forests cover more area than in 1920. o Since the 1960's, an increasing area of old growth and diverse second-growth forests have been clear-cut. • Often replace with tree farms. • Decreases biodiversity. • Disrupts ecosystem processes
HUMAN IMPACTS ON TERRESTRIAL BIODIVERSITY
We have depleted and degraded some of the earth's biodiversity and these threats are expected to increase.
o 1985 - Food Security Act -
Wetlands Reserve Program) The 1985 Act contains provisions designed to discourage the conversion of wetlands into non-wetland areas. These provision collectively, are commonly referred to as the "Swampbuster" provisions (Food Security Act of 1985 (Title XII, Subtitle C)). Swampbuster provisions denied Federal farm program benefits to producers who converted wetlands after December 23, 1985. The Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990 strengthened Swampbuster by making violators ineligible for farm program benefits for that year and subsequent years. The Act also created a system for inadvertent violations allowing farmers to regain lost Federal benefits if they restore converted wetlands.
The SLOSS dilemma
Which is better to protect species? • A Single Large Or Several Small reserves? • Depends on the species: tigers vs. insects o Corridors = protected land that allows animals to travel between islands of protected habitat • Animals get more resources • Enables gene flow between populations
Wilderness areas
Wilderness areas = area is off-limits to development of any kind • • Open to the public for hiking, nature study, etc. Must have minimal impact on the land • Necessary to ensure that humans don't occupy and modify all natural areas o Established within federal lands & Overseen by the agencies that administer those areas
o Old-growth forest:
\uncut or regenerated forest that has not been seriously disturbed for several hundred years. • 22% of world's forest. • Hosts many species with specialized niches.
Zoning-
a planning tool to create quieter and safer communities. For example, prohibiting the development of a factory or strip mall in a residential area.
Habitat/Species Management Areas-
actively managed to maintain biological communities.
Multi-use zoning
allows retail and high-density residential development to coexist in the same area.
Geographic Information System (GIS) mapping
can be used to understand and manage ecosystems. • Identify areas to establish and connect nature reserves in large ecoregions to prevent fragmentation. • Developers can use GIS to design housing developments with the least environmental impact.
Strict Nature Reserves and Wilderness Areas
established to protect species and ecosystems.
Wilderness
is land legally set aside in a large enough area to prevent or minimize harm from human activities. o Only a small percentage of the land area of the United States has been protected as wilderness. o Some areas have a limited number of permitted human guests to reduce impact o Other problems include invasive species
• National Parks-
managed for scientific, educational, and recreational use, and sometimes for their beauty or unique landforms. - established to preserve scenic views and unusual landforms.
Managed Resource Protected Areas-
managed for the sustained use of biological, mineral, and recreational resources.
• Protected Landscapes and Seascapes
nondestructive use of natural resources while allowing for tourism and recreation.
Key Terms and Concepts
o 1. Describe the different Acts that exist in terms of Land resources and Conservation. Discuss the History of each and the purpose of each Act. o 2. Compare and contrast the wise-use movement with the environmental movement. How are they similar or different? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each? o 3. Discuss 4 ways that trees are harvested. What is the advantage and disadvantage of each system. Are some ways more dangerous in certain ecosystems? Explain how with concrete examples to illustrate your point. o 4. Explain why the definition of a wetland is controversial. What animals benefit most from a wetland? How do humans interfere or destroy wetlands. What is the consequence of wetland destruction. Give concrete examples. o 5. Describe the case history of the Lahontan cutthroat trout and how it is being managed. Highlight the unique aspects of this management approach. What are the advantages and disadvantages and how is it controversial?
Why Should We Care about the Loss of Tropical Forests?
o About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical forests.
Conservation and Land Resources
o All types of ecosystems must be preserved o Four criteria of importance: • • Areas lost or degraded since European colonization Number remaining of present examples of a particular ecosystem (or the total area) • Estimate of the likelihood that a given ecosystem will lose a significant area or be degraded in next 10 years • Number of threatened and endangered species living in the ecosystem
National Wildlife Refuges
o Begun in 1903 by President Theodore Roosevelt o 37 million ha (91 million acres) in 541 sites o U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service administers refuges • Management ranges from preservation to manipulation • Wildlife havens • Allows hunting, fishing, wildlife observation, photography, education managed for the purpose of protecting wildlife
Environmental Problems Associated with Urban Areas
o Brownfields o Inadequate sewage / storm water systems o Long commutes o Air pollution heat island effect o Creation of urban heat islands o Dust domes Noise pollution
Population and Urbanization
o Characteristics of the Urban Population o Increased heterogeneity o Young age structure o Different proportions of males / females Rush to urbanization in developing countries has led to: o squatter settlements o exceptionally high unemployment • homelessness
Coastlines
o Coastal wetlands • Provide food and habitat for many aquatic animals • Historically regarded as wasteland o US starting to see importance of protecting this environment • Retaining seawalls (right)
Habitat fragmentation threatens species
o Contiguous habitat is chopped into small pieces • Species suffer
national park system
o Created in 1916 o Currently includes 58 parks o Primary goal • Teach people about the natural environment, management of natural resources and history of a site Threats to U.S. Parks • Crime & Vandalism • Traffic jams • Pollution of the soil, water and air • • Resource violations o Natural Regulation • Policy to let nature take it course • No culling wildlife • No suppressing wildfire
Making Cities More Sustainable
o Features of a sustainable city: o 1) Clear, cohesive urban policies o 2) Utilize energy and other resources efficiently o 3) Designed to reduce pollution 4) Large areas of green space 5) People-centered, not car-centered 6) Encourage urban farming
Global Outlook: Extent of Deforestation
o Human activities have reduced the earth's forest cover by as much as half. o Losses are concentrated in developing countries.
Parks and reserves are increasing internationally
o Many nations have established national parks • Benefit from ecotourism • Protected areas now cover 9.6% of the world's land area o Parks do not always receive necessary funding • • Paper parks = Areas protected on paper but not in reality World heritage sites = protected areas that fall under national sovereignty but are designated or managed by the United Nations • 830 sites across 184 countries
Components of a Smart Growth Plan
o Mixed land uses o Create a range of housing opportunities and choices o Create walkable neighborhoods o Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions o Take advantage of compact building design Foster distinctive, attractive communities with strong sense of place o Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical environmental areas o Provide a variety of transportation choices o Strengthen and direct development toward existing communities o Make development decisions predictable, fair, and cost effective
Wildlife Refuges
o National Wildlife Refuge System (1903) o Represent all major ecosystems founds in the US o Mission • To preserve lands and waters for the conservation of fishes, wildlife and plants of the US o Recreation (including hunting and fishing) are permitted • Cannot impede conservation efforts
Case-In-Point Tongass National Park
o One of world's few temperate rainforests o Prime logging area o Modified 1997 Forest Plan o Roadless Area Conservation Rule (2000) o Politics rules government agencies
Management of the American West
o Overexploitation of resources caused great damage to the American West • Poor farming practices, overgrazing, farming arid lands o John Wesley Powell in the late 1800s called for agencies to base management on science • Farming Western lands had to account for arid conditions • His ideas were ignored, contributing to failures such as the Dust Bowl of the 1930s
The City as an Ecosystem
o Population - demographics o Organization - social structure o Environment - physical environment o Technology - human inventions affecting the urban environment
Disappearing Tropical Rain Forests
o Population growth • Subsistence agriculture Cannot account for all of it o Immediate causes • • Commercial logging • Cattle ranching o Other causes • Mining • Hydroelectric power
o Environmental Benefits of Urbanization
o Preservation of rural areas o (particularly with compact development)
Disappearing Tropical Dry Forests
o Primarily destroyed for fuelwood • Used for heating and cooking
Parks and reserves
o Reasons for establishing parks and reserves include: Offer recreational value to tourists, hikers, fishers, hunters and others • Protect areas with utilitarian benefits, such as clean drinking water • Use sites that are otherwise economically not valuable and are therefore easy to protect • Preservation of biodiversity Monumentalism = preserving areas with enormous, beautiful or unusual features, such as the Grand Canyon
Forests: topics
o Role in Hydrologic Cycle &Climate o Forest Management o Deforestation o Forest Trends in the US o Trends in Tropical Forests o Boreal Forests
Deforestation
o Temporary or permanent clearance of large expanses of forest for agriculture or other use o World forests shrank 90 million acres from 2000-2005 o Causes • Fire • Expansion of agriculture • Construction of roads • Tree harvest • Insect and disease
Solutions: Controversy Over Fire Management
o To reduce fire damage: • • Set controlled surface fires. Allow fires to burn on public lands if they don't threaten life and property. • Clear small areas around property subject to fire.
Forest Management
o Traditional Forest Management • Low diversity- monocultures (right) • Managed for timber production o Ecological Sustainable Forest Management • Environmentally balanced • Diverse trees Prevent soil erosion Preserve watersheds Wildlife corridors- unlogged
Trends in Tropical Forests
o Tropical rainforests (below) and tropical dry forests
Agricultural Land
o US has 300 million acres of prime farmland o Much is being overtaken by suburban sprawl • Parking lots • Housing developments • Shopping malls
Kenya's Green Belt Movement: Individuals Matter
o Wangari Maathai founded the Green Belt Movement. o The main goal is to organize poor women to plant (for fuelwood) and protect millions of trees. o In 2004, awarded Nobel peace prize.
solutions
o We can use forests more sustainably by emphasizing: • Economic value of ecological services. • Harvesting trees no faster than they are replenished. • Protecting old-growth and vulnerable areas.
Wilderness Parks and Wildlife Refuges
o Wilderness • A protected area of land in which no human development is permitted o Wilderness Act (1964) • Set aside federally owned land as part of National Wilderness Preservation System • No development permitted (including roads) o Managed by NPS, USFS, FWS & BLM
Boreal Forests
o World's largest biome o Extensive clearcutting • Primary source of world's industrial wood and wood fiber
Tree plantation:
planted stands of a particular tree species.
National wilderness areas-
set aside to preserve large tracts of intact ecosystems or landscapes.
National Monuments-
set aside to protect unique sites of special natural or cultural interests.
o Rangeland
• Land that is not intensively managed and is used for grazing livestock
Human activity that threatens wetlands
• • Construction of dams, dykes or seawalls • Filling in for solid waste disposal • Road building • Mining for gravel, fossil fuels, etc. o Shrinking 58,500 acres per year Drainage for agriculture or mosquito control
Maximum Sustainable Yield
• The maximum amount of a renewable resource that can be harvested without compromising the future availability of that resource.
Urban Sprawl
• Urban sprawl- the creation of urbanized areas that spread into rural areas. • The four main concerns of urban sprawl in the U.S. are: • automobiles and highway construction • living costs (people can get more land and a larger house in the suburbs for the same amount of money) • urban blight (city revenue shrinks as people move to the suburbs) • government policies
• Suburban-
•areas surrounding metropolitan centers with low population densities.
