APES SPRING TERM

sulfurous smog

"London-type smog" or "grey smog" dominated by sulfur dioxide and sulfate compounds

photochemical smog

"Los Angeles-type smog" or "brown smog" dominated by oxidants such as ozone

quantitative risk assessment equation

(risk = probability of being exposed to a hazard X probability of being harmed if exposed)

air to-air-heat exchangers

...

indoor air pollution

...

eutrophic lake

lake with a high level of primary productivity

crude oil

liquid petroleum removed from the ground, which can be further refined into compounds such as tar/asphalt, gasoline, diesel, and kerosene

household water use

depends on level of development and consequent appliance/bathroom fixture use; used for purposes (listed from greatest to least consumption) of toilet flushing, bathing, laundry, cooking and drinking

acid deposition

deposition with a pH lower than 5.6; anthropogenically caused by SO2 and NOX reacting with oxygen and water to form nitric acid and sulfuric acid, which then breaks down into nitrate, sulfate, and hydrogen ions

command-and-control approach

sets regulations and controls with fines or punishments (ex., emissions)

spring

source where water naturally percolates up to the ground surface; crucial to the organisms in freshwater aquatic biomes and can be used by humans for consumption

SVO

straight vegetable oil which could potentially act as a transition fuel to temporarily reduce use of petroleum

Kuznets curve

as per capita income increases, environmental degradation first increases, then decreases (exceptions include developed nations' C02 and MSW generation, and leapfrogging developing nations)

Spanish flu

bird flu which killed up to 100 million people in 1918 due to H1N1 virus

fossil carbon

carbon found in fossil fuels which has been buried for millions of years and, when reintroduced into the cycle, increases global C02 concentrations

global decline of ecosystem function

due to decline in species diversity, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment of 2006 found that 15 of 24 ecosystem functions (provisions, support systems, regulating services, etc.) are in decline

Florida panther's decline in genetic diversity (*)

due to hunting and habitat destruction, the panther was reduced to a small population (20-30) in south Florida and suffered from the effects of inbreeding depression (heart defects, morphologically abnormal sperm); introduction of genotypes from a Texas population has increased genetic diversity and allowed the panther to rebound to a population of 80-100

Recycla (Chile)

e-waste recycling facility which is domestic (less transportation energy use/pollution), safe for workers (face/respiratory protection), separates toxic and reuseable metals, holds the contracted manufacurer responsible for proper disposal, advertises environmental sustainability, employs (ex)convicts, and has improved the country's recycling rate

furrow irrigation

easy and inexpensive; 65% efficient; farmer digs trenches along the crop rows and fills them with water, which seeps into the ground and provides moisture to plant roots

Endangered Species Act (ESA)

1973. Purpose: protect animal and plant species from extinction. (success: bald eagle, peregrine falcon, gray wolf populations recovered.)

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)

1976. Purpose: govern tracking and disposal of solid and hazardous waste (success: some brownfields/contaminated lands cleaned up.)

RCRA (U. S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act)

1976: Cradle-to-grave tracking minimizes hazardous waste production and ensures proper disposal. 1984: Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA) phases out disposal and increases authority to punish violators.

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA/Superfund)

1980. Purpose: force and/or implement cleanup of hazardous waste (success: some Superfund sites cleaned up.)

Superfund Act (Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act [CERCLA])

1980/1986: the revenue from an imposed tax on chemical and petroleum industries funds cleanup of over 1200 hazardous waste sites on the National Priorities List (NPL); also, federal government is authorized to respond to release of substances hazardous to humans/environment

Kyoto Protocol

1997 international agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emission in developed/industrialized countries to 5.2 percent below 1990 levels by 2012 (uses precautionary principle and reduces emissions [fuel efficiency, fossil fuel alternatives] and removes gases from atmosphere [biomass and pumping])

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in the United Nations' Millennium Declaration

2000 UN resolution agreeing to address pressing issues and meeting goals by 2015: eradicate poverty/hunger. achieve universal education. promote gender equality/empower women. reduce child mortality. improve maternal health. combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, disease. ensure sustainability. develop global partnership for development.

Local Government Response to Global Warming

2005: General Electric reduces emissions/does green research

REACH (registration, evaluation, authorisation, and restriction of chemicals)

2007 agreement by the 27 nations of the European Union which embraces the precautionary principle by putting more responsibility on chemical manufacturers to confirm that chemicals used pose no risk to people or the environment, to be phased in over several years

Energy Independence and Security Act

2007 bill authorizing expenditures for training and creation of green jobs around the country.

Montreal Protocol on Substances That Depelete the Ozone Layer (1987)

24 countries aggreed to reduce CFC production 50 percent by 2000, and resolved to work towards a solution to restore the ozone layer (addressed 96 ozone-depleting compounds)

distribution of water on Earth

97% saltwater, 3% freshwater (1/4 underground, almost 3/4 frozen, remaining <1% accessible for human consumption)

World Bank

Born: 1944 w/ IMF. HQ: Washington, D.C. Function: provides technical and financial assistance to developing countries with the objectives of reducing poverty and promoting growth, especially in the poorest countries. Goals for economic development: 1) educating/strengthening gov't. 2) creating infrastructure. 3) developing financial systems. 4) combat corruption.

World Health Organization (WHO)

Born: 1945. HQ: Geneva, Switzerland. Function: monitors and assesses health trends, provides medical assistance to countries. Responsible for combating infectious disease and responding to health crises in natural disasters. Goals: 1) Promoting development. 2) health security. 3) health care systems. 4) health research/evidence. 5) partnerships with other organizations.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

Born: 1965. HQ: New York City. Function: addresses/facilitates issues of democratic governance, poverty reduction, crisis prevention/recovery, environment/energy issues, prevention of HIV/AIDS. Prepares an annual Human Development Report (HDR) that measures the populations's status.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

Born: 1970, Nixon. Agency of the U.S. Department of Labor responsible for enforcement of health and safety regulations, especially in the workplace (preventing injury/illness/death.) Conducts inspections,education/workshops. Limiting exposure to chemicals/pollutants is one facet of environmental protection.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Born: 1970, Nixon. Function: oversees governmental efforts related to the environment (science, research, assessment, education) and writes/develops regulations, working with the Department of Justice and Department of State and U.S. Native American gov'ts to enforce these regulations.

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

Born: 1972. HQ: Nairobi, Kenya. Function: gathers environmental information, conducts research, assesses environmental problems. Responsible for negotiating environmental treaties (ex., CITES, Montreal Protocal.) Prepares Global Environment Outlook Reports (GEOs.)

Department of Energy (DOE)

Born: 1977, Carter. Advances energy and economic security of the United States. Goals: scientific discovery/innovation/environmental responsiblity. Gathers data on energy use.

human development index (HDI)

Born: 1990 Pakistan/England/U.S. Function: ranks countries in order of development by calculating their life expectancy, knowledge and education (literacy rate/educational attainment), and standard of living (GDP/individual purchasing power.)

endocrine disruptors

chemicals that interfere with the normal functioning of hormones in an animal's body by attaching to a receptor where a hormone normally would, blocking the response; can disrupt testosterone production, leading to decline in aquatic life and lower male sperm counts/higher female breast cancer (ex., atrazine, DDT, phthalates, birth control)

historical diseases associated with poor sanitation and unsafe drinking water

cholera, hepatitis, and diarrheal diseases

Chattanooga, Tennessee

city which had third worst particulate pollution in the country and high levels of respiratory disease due to manufacturing/industry; pollution caught in a bowl formed by surrounding mountains 1969: Air Pollution Control Ordinance; controlled SOX emissions, permits for open burning, regulations on odors/dust/visible automobile emissions, capped fuel sulfur content, and monitored ordinances To continue clean sustainability: recycling program (vs. waste incinerator), public/private fleet of electric buses 1997: Early Action Compact; improved ozone parts per billion in return for not being designated a nonattainment area; public/private sectors work together, people are educated to limit O3 production 2007: achieved 0.08 ppb; but now EPA has lowered to 0.075 SUMMARY: Government, people, and business must work together

VOCs in home products

products may release VOCs such as formaldehyde, which leads to breathing difficulties/asthma and may even be a human carcinogen (building materials, furniture, glue/paints, cleaning products, plastics/fabrics, etc.)

biosphere reserves

proetected areas developed by UNESCO consisting of zones that vary in the amount of permissible human impact, protecting biodiversity without excluding all human activity

Lacey Act (1900 + subsequent amendments)

prohibits transport of illegally harvested game animals (mainly birds + mammals) across U.S. state borders; today prohibits interstate shipping of ALL illegally harvested plants and animals

"Debt for Nature" Swap (*)

protects large areas of land while improving developing countries' economic conditions; U.S. gov't and environmental organizations provide cash to pay down a portion of the country's debt to the U.S.; the debt is then transferred to environmental organizations within the country, and annual loan payments are invested in protecting the nation's biodiversity (Maya Biosphere Reserve is one of four areas under $24 million agreement between U.S. and Guatemala, protecting biodiversity of mangrove/tropical forests and endangered species [jaguar] as well as cultural heritage of historic Mayan temples.)

low-level waste

radioactive waste in the form of contaminated clothing, tools, rags, and items used in plant maintenance

high-level waste

radioactive waste in the form of used fuel rods

saltwater intrusion

rapid pumping of wells drilled in aquifers along a coastline can lower the water table, which reduces water pressure and allows nearby saltwater to infiltrate the aquifer and contaminate it with salt

nuclear fusion

reaction which occurs when lighter nuclei are forced together to produce heavier nuclei; can produce electricity through fusing of two hydrogen isotopes into a helium atom; creates relatively small amounts of radioactive waste, but production requires temperatures unrealistic on Earth as of yet

closed-loop recycling

recycling of a product into the same product as before; theoretically indefinite

haze

reduced visibility, mostly due to PM but also contributed to by ozone and photochemical oxidants

source reduction

reduces use or replaces materials destined to become MSW in design and manufacturing of products; implemented on individual and corporate levels; can increase efficiency and lower costs (less resources used)

drip irrigation

reduces weed growth; 95% efficient; uses a slowly dripping hose that is either laid on the ground or buried beneath the soil to water plant roots.

waste minimization, waste prevention

reducing inputs of materials into a system to reduce outputs and, consequently, the amount of solid waste produced

municipal solid waste (MSW)

refuse collected from residential areas, institutions, and small businesses; generation correlates with season, socioeconomic status, geographic location, and country

Phillipine forest turtle (*)

though protected by law, illegal trade has caused a rapid decline of this species in the wild due to demand as pets; now exists as a single population on one island in the Phillipines (sells for $50-$75 in Phillipines, $2500 U.S.)

capital

totality of our economic assets, divided into three categories: 1) natural=planet's resources such as air, water, minerals, 2) human=human knowledge and abilities, 3) manufactured=goods and services humans produce

pollution and biodiversity loss (*)

toxic contaminants (pesticides, heavy metals, acids, oil/dispersant) and endocrine disruptors from the air and water can inhibit species' survival and reproduction (fitness); release of nutrients can also cause algal blooms, dead zones, and thermal pollution that make climate unsuitable for marine organisms

chronic studies

toxicology studies conducted for a longer duration of time, from youth to reproduction, which can last several months and examines long-term effects of chemicals

lead (Pb)

trace metal found in gasoline, oil, coal, and old paint; impairs central nervous system and affects learning/intelligence (especially in small children)

mercury (Hg)

trace metal found in oil and especially coal, as well as the atmosphere and water due to mining/combustion; impairs central nervous system and bioaccumulates in the food chain due to poisoned fish

synergistic interactions

two risks together cause more harm than one would expect based on their individual risks (ex., impact of a carcinogen is greater on those who also smoke)

water table

uppermost level at which the water in a given area fully saturates the rock or soil

cogeneration (combines heat and power production)

use of a fuel to both generate electricity and produce heat; efficiency up to 90%

electrolysis

use of an electric current to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen; necessary to produce electricity but limits success of hydrogen fuel cells due to energy input requirements

active solar energy

uses intermediate technology to capture the energy of sunlight, through solar water heating systems, photovoltaic solar cells, and large-scale CST (concentrating solar thermal) systems

flex-fuel vehicles

vehicles which can run on either gasoline or E-85 (85% ethanol, 15% gasoline), and are possibly more environmentally friendly than typical gasoline-powered vehicles

West Nile virus

virus (discovered 1937) that lives in bird species and is transmitted by mosquitoes; in humans, causes brain inflammation, illness, and sometimes death; U.S. efforts since 1999 to combat mosquito populations and protect against bites are causing decline in disease

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

virus (discovered 1983) spread through sexual contact and unsanitized shared needles which weakens the immune system and leads to AIDS; 33 million infected today but antiviral drugs can extend lifespan; originated from chimpanzees in Cameroon

oil sands

viscous deposits of bitumen mixed with sand, water, and clay; requires much more intensive mining

natural sources of greenhouse gases

volcanic activity (C02, ash), decomposition (C02, methane), digestion (methane), denitrification (nitrous oxides), evapotranspiration (H2O)

grey water

wastewater from baths, showers, bathroom sinks, washing machines that can be recycled for household uses other than drinking

contaminated water

wastewater from toilets, kitchen sinks, and dishwashers that contain waste/contaminants/bacteria and should be disposed of (sewage treatment plant)

leachate

water that leaches through solid waste and removes various chemical compounds with which it comes into contact; can harm bodies of water, aquifers, drinking water, and habitation; potentially created through MSW in landfills

routes of exposure

ways in which an individual might come into contact with a chemical, such as through air/food/water/soil/differing environments

market failure

when an economic system does not appropriately account for all costs (externalities) (can be of manufactured OR natural/human capital)

meltdown

when nuclear fuel rods are left uncontrolled and either melt or cause a fire, both of which can lead to a nuclear accident

extinction

when the last member of a species dies; world currently experiences about 50,000 per year

anthropogenic sources of greenhouse gases

fossil fuel use (CO2 and PM) agricultural activity (nitrous oxides, methane), deforestation (CO2, methane, nitrous oxides), landfills (methane) industrial production (CFCs)

primary source

fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) which are generated through direct natural processes (decomposition, compression, fossilization, etc.)

capacity factor

fraction of the time a plant is operating in a year, when not shut down for maintenance, refueling, or repairs

nuclear fuels

fuels derived from radioactive materials that give off energy

greenhouse gases

gases in the atmosphere that absorb infrared radiation (H20, C02, CH4, N20, 03, CFCs)

Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976

gives the EPA authority to regulate chemicals (excluding food, cosmetics, and pesticides)

fluidized bed combustion

granulated coal is burned in close proximity to calcium carbonate, which absorbs the sulfur dioxide and reduces SO2 emissions

Hubbert curve

graph which projects the point at which world oil production reaches a maximum, and the point at which world runs out of oil

Intergovernment Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

group of 3,000 scientists under UN and World Meteorological Organization which assesses climate change through understanding the global warming system, the effects of global warming on biodiversity, energy fluxes, and economic/social states; suggests research and has provided information on CO2/temperature connections

LD50

lethal dose that kills 50 percent of the individuals; used to assess chemicals' relative toxicity; the center of the S-curve demonstrating species' tolerance

biocentric

life-centered worldview which believes humans are one of many species on earth that have equal intrinsic value; considers that the ecosystems in which humans live have an instrumental value; some think obligated to protect species, some think obligated to protect every organism

combined cycle

natural gas power plant that uses both steam turbines AND the exhaust gases to generate electricity; can have up to 60% efficiency

advantages of natural gas

natural gas releases almost no sulfur dioxide/particulates during combustion; releases 40% less C02 than coal; "clean" fossil fuel

disadvantages of natural gas

natural gas releases methane, a greenhouse gas 25 times worse than C02; "thumper trucks" disturb water flow, "fracking" chemically contaminates groundwater

electrical grid

network of interconnected transmission lines which connects power plants together and links them with end users of electricity

mad cow disease (bovine spongiform encephalopathy/BSE)

neurological disease (discovered 1980's) in which a pathogen (caused by mutation of prions) slowly damages a cow's nervous system, which can then be transmitted through consumption of infected cow's nervous system and give humans variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD, 1996); prevented through ban of feeding animal remains to cattle

leapfrogging

new technology develops in such a way that makes the older technology unnecessary or obsolete; developing nations can take advantage of expensive research/development/experience of developed nations without going through similar steps (which may or may not degrade the environment)

advantages of nuclear energy

nuclear energy does not produce air pollution, can achieve independence from foreign oil, huge supply, C02 emissions less than 10% that of coal

radioactive waste

nuclear fuel that can no longer produce enough heat to be useful in a power plant but continues to emit radioactivity; must be secured to prevent damage to living organisms

fission

nuclear reaction in which a neutron strikes a relatively large atomic nucleus, which splits into two or more parts and releases additional neutrons and energy in the form of heat

desalination

obtaining fresh water by removing the salt from salt water, through distillation or reverse osmosis (currently mainly attempted in Middle East; can be expensive/energy consuming, + brine issue.)

epidemic

occurence where a pathogen causes a rapid increase in disease within a population

edge habitat

occurs where two different communities come together, typically forming an abrupt transition which may have detrimental effects on species now forced to interact (negative effect of metapopulations/small preserved islands)

market economy

occurs wherever people engage in trade; the cost of a good is determined by supply and demand

advantages of oil

oil is convenient for transport and use (liquid); releases 15% less C02 than coal; relatively energy-dense and clean burning; low-sulfur oil expensive but possible; ideal for mobile combustion engines

advantages of oil sands and CTL

oil sands and CTL extend our supply of energy as petroleum and eventually coal reserves diminish

disadvantages of oil sands and CTL

oil sands pollute water, release more C02, and require more energy to process/have low system efficiency; CTL produces twice the greenhouse gas emissions as conventional oil and produces same risks as regular coal mining

disadvantages of oil

oil still contributes C02, traces of sulfur/arsenic/mercury/lead; extraction/transport leads to spills; commercial and individual runoff pollutes water; pipelines and oil wells degrade habitat for animals and humans

internalization of externalities

once natural capital goes through the process of valuation and/or dollar cost of externalities is calculated, this price is added to the total cost of the item (through tax or imposing on producer); through the law of demand, this increased price will reduce demand, consequently reduce adverse efects to environment

recharge area

opening at the surface of the otherwise impermeable layer covering a confined aquifer

environmental policy/amendment cycle in the U.S.

problem identification, policy formation, policy adoption, policy implementation, policy evaluation; amendments follow same steps.

recycling

process by which materials destined to become MSW are collected and converted into raw materials that are then used to produce new objects

valuation

process of assigning monetary value to intangible benefits and natural capital (through calculating revenue generated, surveys of intrinsic value, assessments of ecosystem services and cost to do through technology)

Clean Water Act (CWA)

1972. Purpose: promote clean water (success: swimmable/fishable rivers in U.S. increased)

technology transfer

less developed countries adopt technological innovations developed in wealthy countries

innovative pollution control

...

reduce introduction of alien invasive species

1) inspect goods coming into a country 2) prohibit wooden packing crates of untreated wood that could contain insect pests

alien species in Nordic countries (Iceland, Sweden, Finland, Norway, Denmark) (*)

1,700 terrestrial, freshwater, and marine species have been introduced during the last century (mostly terrestrial species, some freshwater vertebrates and marine invertebrates)

"Nike Considered" "Reuse-A-Shoe"

1. creates more sustainable products through index that evaluates environmental impact based on design efficiency, solvent use, and wast creation; changed from waste, VOCs emissions and poor factory/worker conditions to water based adhesive, life-cycle analysis, energy/water minimization, recyclability, etc. 2. Encourages recycling of athletic shoes into "Nike Grind" raw materials which can be made into sports surfaces/new Nike products, reducing landfill waste and need for extraction of raw materials. Summary: cradle-to-cradle practices to reduce environmental damage, working to achieve ethical and sustainable business model.

barrel (of oil)

160 liters equals a . . .

patterns of energy use

1875:coal; 1900:oil,natural gas; 1950:nuclear, hydroelectricity; 1970s:decline in oil, increase in coal

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)

1970. Purpose: enhance environment, monitor with the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) (sucess: protection of coral, sea turtles.)

Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA)

1970. Purpose: prevent occupational injuries, illness, death from work-related exposure to physical and chemical harm. (success: workers informed about toxins, trained.)

Clean Air Act (CAA)

1970. Purpose: promote clean air (success: S02 reductions from cap-and-trade.)

well-being

the status of being healthy, happy, and prosperous

global warming

warming of Earth's oceans, landmasses, and atmosphere

sixth mass extinction

.5% of our species are becoming extinct at a rate that rivals that of the Cretaceous period; unique because 1) is occuring over a relatively short period of time; 2) is the first humans have experienced; and 3) is due to human cause

1 billion GJ

1 exajoule (EJ) = ? gigajoules (GJ)

1 billion J

1 gigajoule (GJ) = ? joules (J)

1 quadrillion Btu

1 quad = ? British thermal units (Btu)

1.055 EJ

1 quad = ? exajoules (EJ)

curie

37 billion decays per second

work (energy)

end use of energy (ex, industrial, transportation, commercial, residential)

precautionary principle

when there is scientific evidence that demonstrates plausible risk, a chemical must be further tested to demonstrate it is safe before it can continue to be used; fewer harmful chemicals will be introduced but beneficial chemical introduction can be delayed

equilibrium point (E)

where the supply curve (S) and the demand curve (D) intersect on a graph without influence of taxes/other regulations; the quantities are equal and the price reflects exactly how many units suppliers are willing to supply and how many units consumers are willing to buy

industrial water use

withdrawn and consumed by electricity generation, refining of metals such as copper, aluminum, and steel, and paper

ecocentric

Earth-centered worldview which places equal value on all living organisms and the ecosystems where they live; believes nature is free of any associations of human existence. environmental wisdom school: adapt needs to nature rather than nature to our needs. deep ecology school: humans should not interfere with nautre/diversity

Old Diamond vs. Shell Oil Company

Emissions of toxic chemicals from nearby chemical plant and oil refinery in a low-income, minority neighborhood in Louisiana led to a "citizen scientist" proving the correlation between the pollution and asthma, cancer, and birth defects. The company was fined and gave compensation, also reducing emissions by 30 percent.

Dr. Wangari Maathi and the Green Belt Movement

Kenyan founder of an international organization that empowers women by paying them to plant trees, which can be harvested for firewood (renewable fuel source) and replant land (reduce erosion, improve soil/moisture, etc.)

radon

Radon-222 in granitic rocks/soils is seeped into buildings through cracks in foundation or found in contaminated drinking water, decays to Polonium-210; both the radon and the polonium attaches to particles and is inhaled, causing severe lung cancer

precautionary principle/scientific uncertainty

Scientific uncertainty complicates the estimation of risks; though the U.S. uses this as an excuse to downplay scientific evidence of environmental issues, the precautionary principle argues that waiting for widespread consensus runs the risk of creating environmentally unsustainable/inequitable future; however, economic progress/ well-being may be hindered in the present

Rekyjavik transportation

Since 2003, Iceland's capital has used hydrogen-fueled vehicles for public transportation, rental cars, and (in the future) a fishing fleet - an example to the rest of the world of clean, sustainable energy use

Human Health, Welfare

The Clean Air Act's amendments control pollutants that a) harm the population including the children, elderly, and sensitive populations, and b) damages visibility, crops, vegetation, animals, ecosystems, and buildings

Earth Day 1970

The Santa Barbara oil spill of 1969 shifted U.S. federal policy towards environmental awareness and, along with Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring," promoted the first Earth Day, the "birthday' of modern environmental policy, or the idea that economic benefits must be balanced by environmental science, environmental equity, and intergenerational equity. This included the founding of many organizations.

human poverty index (HPI)

UN. shows proportion of population suffering from poverty in a country with a high HDI. Calculates longevity (percentage not expected to live past 40), knowledge,(adult illiteracy), standard of living (proportion of population w/out water access and health services, percentage children under 5 underweight.)

smog formation

VOCs combine with nitrogen oxide to form photochemical oxidants, which reduces the amount of ozone that can break down later --> the photochemical oxidants (made of VOCS and NO) and the O3 together form smog

supply and demand graphs with externalities

When the cost of production is increased (due to imposed tax/regulation), the price of a good increases and the supply curve shifts to the left (on price y axis) and the amount demanded falls (following the law of demand), creating a new equilibrium point.

law of demand

When the price of a good rises, the quantity demanded falls. When the price of a good falls, the quantity demanded rises.

law of supply

When the price of a good rises, the quantity supplied rises. When the price of a good falls, the quantity supplied falls. (This is because more or less profitable.) (In addition, supply falls when demand falls, rises when demand rises.)

Maquiladora Industry

While the Mexican assembly plant industry, whose prosperity is enabled by the 1994 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), does provide jobs and 25% of Mexico's GDP, there are issues of industrial pollution (toxic chemicals/solid waste), poor working conditions and discrimination, and profits often go to foreign corporations.

tiered rate system

a billing system used by some electric companies where customers pay higher rates as electricity use increases, encouraging energy conservation

sick building syndrome

a buildup of toxic compounds and pollutants in an airtight space; seen in newer buildings with good insulation and tight seals against air leaks (trade-off between energy conservation/indoor air pollution); caused by faulty ventilation, indoor chemical contamination, outdoor chemical contamination, and biological contamination

zonation system of biosphere reserves (*)

a core area is preserved with minimal human contact; a buffer zone surrounds it that permits tourism, environmental education, and scientific research; a transition area surrounds this, and permits sustainable logging and agriculture and human residences

turbine

a device with blades turned by the kinetic energy of water, wind, steam, or exhaust gas from combustion, which then turns the generator in an electricity-producing plant

infectious disease

a disease caused by infectious agents (a.k.a., pathogens); responsible for 26% of world deaths

acute disease

a disease that rapidly impairs the functioning of a person's body

chronic disease

a disease that slowly impairs the functioning of a person's body

dead zone

a location within a body of water that does not have enough dissolved oxygen to sustain life, due to influx of nutrients and consequent algal bloom/decomposition

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act of 1996

a manufacturer must demonstrate that a pesticide will not cause adverse effects to the environment

open-loop recycling

a product is recycled into another product; saves material from entering landfills but does not reduce demand for the raw material

thermal inversion

a situation in which a relatively warm layer of air at mid-altitude covers a layer of cold, dense air below (as opposed to usual pattern of temperature decrease with altitude increase)

endangered

a species at serious risk of extinction

zebra mussel (*)

accidentally introduced to the Great Lakes due to transport from the ballast water of cargo ships from the Black Sea (Asia to N.A.); though remove algae and contaminants from this ideal marine ecosystem, they physically crowd native species and compete with them for food, and are so dense they clog water intake pipes for industries and communities

Van Jones and Green For All

according to this author, community organizer, and special advisor for environmental equality, the two issues of global warming and urban poverty can be fixed by constructing green jobs (building insulation, wind turbine/solar collector construction, mass transit systems) to improve living conditions and reduce environmental impact. (win-win)

Global Fight Against Malaria

affordable and available drugs and mosquito nets (lasting 3-5 years), in addition to sustained financial support from countries and foundations (Bill and Melinda Gates) and continued research into drugs and vaccines is necessary to eradicate the disease worldwide (hopefully in the next 50 years!)

photochemical oxidants

air pollutants formed as a result of sunlight acting on compounds such as nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide

scrubber

air pollution control device where particles are "scrubbed" from the exhaust stream by water droplets; the water-particle "sludge" is collected and processed for disposal; also used to reduce SO2 emissions, and sometimes ionizes particles to improve efficiency

electrostatic precipitator

air pollution control device which negatively charges particles, which are then attracted to a positively charged plate, where they are held until removal and disposal

baghouse filter

air pollution control device which removes particulate matter through a series of filter bags that physically filter out the particles

ground-level pollution

air pollution that occurs in the troposphere, the first 16 km (10 miles) above Earth's surface

teratogens

chemicals that interfere with normal development of embryos or fetuses and lead to birth defects (ex., thalidomine, alcohol)

invasive species

alien species, including animals, plants, and pathogens, spread rapidly across large areas, possible because they have no natural enemies in the introduced region to control their populations

bitumen

also known as "tar" or "pitch"; degraded type of petroleum that forms when a petroleum deposit is not capped with nonporous rock, and solidifies as bacteria/evaportation remove hydrocarbons

consequences of global warming to living organisms

altered timing of plant flowering/growing season, range/ability to disperse, biodiversity; less habitation (coastal areas), degraded human health (heat waves, increase in disease vectors' geographic range, infectious disease/bacterial/fungal illnesses wider spread), economy (lower heating bill vs. less tourism)

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

amendment of the EPA's Clean Air Act which specifies concentration limits for pollutants and requires localities to improve air qualities to meet these limits

dose

amount of a chemical absorbed or consumed by an organism

concentration

amount of a chemical in the air, water, food, or other route of exposure

cone of depression

an area where there is no longer any groundwater, caused by the rapid pumping of a deep well which causes adjacent, shallower ones to go dry as the water table lowers

nondepletable

an energy source that cannot be consumed within the span of human time; in this sense, they are unlimited (ex., solar, wind, geothermal, hydroelectric, and tidal energy)

renewable

an energy source that is either potentially renewable or nondepletable; usually more sustainable

nonrenewable

an energy source with a finite supply; depleted faster than replenished by natural processes (ex., fossil and nuclear fuels)

pandemic

an epidemic that occurs over a large geographic region such as an entire continent

disease

an impaired function of the body with a characteristic set of symptoms, associated with biological risks

emergent infectious disease

an infectious disease previously not described or not been common for at least the prior 20 years; often originates from pathogens that normally infect animal hosts but jump to human hosts due to rapid mutation

quantitative risk assessment

analysis of the numerical probabilities of an environmental hazard provides a more accurate assessment of risk; the risk of a rare event with a high likelihood of causing harm can be equal to the risk of a common event that has a low likelihood of causing harm (ex., dying in a plane crash vs. dying from peanut butter cancer)

environmental hazard

anything in the environment that could potentially cause harm, either voluntarily or involuntarily, anthropogenic or natural

confined aquifer

aquifer surrounded by a layer of impermeable rock or clay that impedes water flow and causes water pressure to build up underground

bird flu

avian influenza originating in SE Asia caused by H5N1 virus which in 2006 jumped from birds to people and has the potential to kill 150 million; humans have evolved few defenses and so have more than 50% death rate (out of 400, more than half died as of 2009)

recovered U.S. endangered species (*)

bald eagle (habitat protection and reduced contaminants [DDT]), American alligator, Pacific gray whale, and gray wolf populations are stable and even increasing due to assistance from Endangered Species Act (201 invertebrates, 381 invertebrates, and 795 plants still on the list! :( )

dam

barrier that runs across a river or stream to control the flow of water (PROS: hydroelectricity, flood control, water source, recreation. CONS: uses resources and energy; displaces residents; tampers with migratory organisms and their dependents; some rare species rely on seasonal flooding.)

decline of birds, mammals, and amphibians (*)

based on the species for which scientists have reliable data, 21% of birds, 32% of mammals, and 49% of amphibians are classified as threatened or near-threatened with extinction (however, of 10 million estimated species, only 50,000 have been assessed due to expense)

Muhammad Yunus, Grameen Bank in Bangladesh

began "microlending" in 1983: poorest people in less developed countries receive microloans (usually between $50-$500) to purchase items that help them earn an income and improve their quality of life; benefits the individual and the environment (education of women, sound environmental practices, lower fertility rate, local markets develop/les fuel)

carbon monoxide (as an indoor air pollutant)

binds with hemoglobin more efficiently than oxygen, interfering with oxygen transport and eventually leading to oxygen deprivation in the brain; caused by malfunctioning exhaust systems, colorless/odorless so builds up discreetly

biodiesel

biomass energy source used as a substitute for petroleum-based diesel fuel, which is theoretically carbon neutral; however, is expensive and (unless from algae/wood) requires more land than ethanol

oil flaring

burning of excess natural gas during petroleum extraction to prevent explosions

kudzu vine (*)

can grow a foot a day and cover anything that doesn't move; originally introduced to U.S. from Japan to prevent erosion, but now competes with other plants (trees, wildflowers) physically, causing them to die from lack of sunlight

aqueducts

canals or ditches used to carry water from a location of abundance to a location of need; modern construction includes concrete canals and pressurized steel pipes above or under ground. (PROS: alleviates lack of water; clean; enables persistence of people, agriculture, and households. CONS: inevitable habitat fragmentation and destruction; impeded water flow in natural sources leads to fish population decrease, salinisation of estuaries, change in water temperature, dry lake beds that contribute salt, soil, pesticide residues to atmosphere.)

photovoltaic solar cells

capture energy from the Sun as light (rather than heat) and convert it directly into electricity; semiconductors create a low-voltage direct current which is transformed into a higher-voltage alternating current (12-20 percent efficient), which is then used for appliances/lighting or charging batteries

modern carbon

carbon found in biomass which, theoretically, should not increase global C02 concentrations because it was recently in the atmosphere

ebola hemorrhagic fever

caused by Ebola virus, discovered 1976 in the Democratic Republic of Congo; individuals experience fever, vomiting, internal/external bleeding and death occurs in 2 weeks; concern because of high death rate (50-89%) and no cure

global change

change that occurs in the chemical, biological, and physical properties of the planet (both natural and anthropogenic)

global climate change

changes in the Earth's climate (average weather in an area over a period of years or decades)

carcinogens

chemicals that cause cancer, cell damage and uncontrolled cell growth through interfering with normal metabolic processes or by damaging cell DNA (ex., asbestos, arsenic, radon, formaldehyde, tobacco chemicals)

mutagens

chemicals that cause damage to the genetic material of a cell and can be carcinogens

neurotoxins

chemicals that disrupt the nervous system of animals, such as insecticides, lead, and mercury

climate change and biodiversity loss (*)

climate change that alters patterns of temperature and precipiatation will affect species and the available biomes where they can persist; migration to a more suitable climate is often not possible for species, such as organisms in the the Australian woodland/shrubland peninsula already surrounded by subtropical desert with conditions outside their range of tolerance

advantages of coal

coal is energy-dense, easy to exploit through surface mining, needs little refining, and requires little technological or economical demands

carbon dioxide (C02)

colorless gas that occurs anthropogenically with combusition of fossil fuels and clearing of land; alters climate and ecosystems by increasing greenhouse gas concentrations

carbon monoxide (CO)

colorless gas that occurs anthropogenically with incomplete combustion of any kind; common in vehicle exhaust/combustion processes, leads to indoor air pollution and death at high concentrations

atmospheric brown cloud

combination of PM and ozone which is brownish or black due to the carbon particles and/or NO2 it attracts; observed in cities and regions such as Asia

Black Triangle (German, Poland, Czech Republic)

combustion of high-sulfur content coal ("brown coal," lignite) which provides the fuel for power plants has caused this area to become one of the world's most polluted; respiratory illness and forest ecosystem damage has become apparent in the past 25 years

SLOSS (single large or several small?)

concepts of island biogeography (promotes larger preserved "islands") and metapopulations (promotes small, interconnected "islands") create debate over best method to preserve land and, consequently, biodiversity; larger islands host larger populations and therefore contain higher genetic diversity, but are more susceptible to disease/natural disaster than several different islands; however, increase in amount of islands increases amount of edge habitat and species interactions

passive solar design

construction which takes advantage of solar radiation without intermediate technology, through positioning of windows, use of dark roofing materials and overhangs, hillside housing, heating of solar ovens, etc.

incentive-based approach

constructs financial and other incentives to reduce environmental harm, based on profits and benefits

e-waste

consumer electronics that can contribute lead, mercury, cadmium, and carcinogenic organic compounds if not properly recycled; most exported to developing countries for treatment

sources of MSW (United States)

containers and packaging 31%, food and yard waste 26%, nondurable goods 25%, durable goods 18%

brownfields

contaminated industrial or commercial sites that require environmental cleanup before redevelopment/expansion; restoration funded by 1995 EPA Program

sulfur dioxide (SO2)

corrosive gas that occurs anthropogenically when sulfur combines with oxygen during combustion of coal and oil; is a respiratory irritant which can harm plant tissues and form sulfuric acid in the atmosphere

input price

cost of the resources used to produce the item; a factor that influences price

externalities

costs or impacts of a good or service on people or the environment not included in the economic price of that good or service

tipping fee

costs to deliver waste to a landfill or incinerator which recovers initial expenses of construction; creates economic incentive to reduce amount of waste disposed of

artesian well

formed when a well is drilled into a confined aquifer and the natural pressure released causes water to rise toward the ground surface (often without any need for pumps)

hydroponic agriculture

cultivation of crop plants under greenhouse conditions with their roots immersed in a nutrient-rich solution, but no soil. (PROS: recycles water so is 95% more efficient than traditional irrigation; yields more crops per hectare; because controlled, can grow crops year-round in ideal conditions; little to no pesticide use. CONS: more expensive.)

control rods

cylindrical devices inserted between fuel rods to absorb excess neutrons, slowing or stopping the fission reaction to prevent meltdown

fuel rods

cylindrical devices which contain uranium pellets, located inside the reactor core

reuse

decreases rate of waste disposal through increasing residence time of a product in the system; ideally, no additional energy is used, but practically this may require cleaning, repairing, transporting, etc.

distillation

desalination process where heat is used to boil water which leaves its salts behind as it evaporates; the steam produced is then captured and condensed, yielding pure water

reverse osmosis

desalination process where water is forced through a thin semipermeable membrane at high pressure; water can pass through the memberane but the salts cannot.

planned obsolescence

design of a product so that it will need to be replaced within a few years; characteristic of U.S. products post WWII industrialization

siting

designation of a location for a landfill/incinerator; must be away from human population/water sources in soils rich in clay but close enough for transportation; controversial because of NIMBY and issues of environmental injustice

qualitative risk assessment

determines the risk of an environmental hazard based on human perception rather than data

solar energy in developing countries

developing nations (like in Africa, Asia, South America) are skipping the industrializing step of instituting an electric grid, in favor of "leapfrogging" to solar energy, allowing them access to electricity without the massive cost of infrastructure

carbon neutral

does not change atmospheric C02 concentrations (ex., if sufficient biomass is planted to absorb the amount of carbon equal to the carbon released by burning biomass for energy)

threshold

dose at which a chemical's effect can be detected

acute studies

dose-response studies that last 1-4 days for maximum efficiency

triple bottom line

economic, environmental, and social factors must all be taken into account when making decisions about business, the economy, or development (adequate treatment of both humans and environment to achieve sustainability)

ED50

effective dose that causes 50 percent of the individuals to display the harmful, but nonlethal, effect (i.e., if a dose-response study is conducted to determine behavioral effects of a teratogen, carcinogen, or neurotoxin)

sublethal effects

effects of an environmental hazard that are not lethal, but may impair an organism's behavior, physiology, or reproduction

smart grid

efficient, self-regulating electricity distribution network that accepts multiple energy sources (renewable included) and allots electricity to end users based on digitally-communicated needs that coordinates energy use with energy availability

nitrogen oxides (NOX: NO, NO2)

either colorless or reddish brown gases that occur anthropogenically with any type of combustion (fossil fuel, wood, biomass); are respiratory irritants and a precursor to ozone (photochemical smog), and can form nitric acid in the atmosphere

tidal energy (moon power)

electricity created through capturing the kinetic energy of moon-driven tides; has relatively few environmental impacts and is predictable, but has a low capacity and geographical limits

hydroelectricity

electricity generated by the kinetic energy of moving water; accounts for 20 percent of worldwide electricity production

hydrogen fuel cell

electro-chemical device which converts hydrogen gas into electricity in the presence of oxygen, releasing water and energy as waste products (80% efficient)

Integrated Waste Management

employs several waste reduction, management, and disposal strategies in order to reduce environmental impacts of MSW; emphasizes source reduction and can include any combination of recycling/composting/landfills/incineration to be cost effective, efficient, and least environmentally harmful

fossil fuels

energy derived from biological material that became fossilized millions of years ago (ex., coal, oil, natural gas)

wind energy

energy generated from the kinetic energy of moving air which has a low cost, a high EROEI, and zero emissions during operations; however, relies on batteries, is noisy/aesthetically unpleasing, and kill birds/bats

embodied energy

energy inputs during extraction, building of extraction machinery, construction of power plant, transportation, and removing/disposing of waste material further decrease efficiency of an energy source (even if not calculated)

subsistence energy source

energy source gathered by individuals for their own immediate needs (typical of rural or developing areas)

commercial energy source

energy source which is bought and sold (ex., coal, oil, natural gas; sometimes wood, charcoal, animal waste)

nonrenewable energy source

energy source with a finite supply, primarily fossil fuels and nuclear fuels

potentially renewable

energy sources which can last indefinitely if not consumed faster than they are replenished (ex., biomass)

energy intensity

energy use per unit of gross domestic product (in U.S., this would be energy use per dollar of GDP)

secondary source

energy, such as electricity, obtained from the conversion of a primary source

sanitary landfills

engineered ground facilities designed to hold MSW with as little contamination of the surrounding environment as possible; features include clay liner, leachate collection system, cap, and methane extraction system

levee

enlarged bank built up on each side of the river to prevent flooding (PROS: flood protection, enables development. CONS: no sediment deposition on floodplains; sediment settling downstream, clogging estuary; forces floodwater to different location downstream; can collapse under pressure or overflow/erode)

greenhouse warming potential

estimate of how much a molecule of a gas compound can contribute to global warming over a period of 100 years relative to a molecule of C02

economics

examines how humans as individuals or companies allocate scarce resources in the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services (through money and price)

spray irrigation

expensive and energy-consuming; 75-95% efficient; water is pumped from a well into an apparatus that contains a series of spray nozzles that spray water across the field

dose-response studies

exposes organisms to different amounts of a chemical and then observes a variety of possible responses, including mortality, changes in behavior, and reproduction, to assess risk and determine safe concentration

environmental equity

fair distribution of Earth's resources (moral concerns + sustainability issue)

choroflourocarbons (CFCs)

family of organic compounds ideal for use in refrigeration/AC/aerosols/blowing agents, which are released

epidemiology

field of science that strives to understand the causes of illness and disease in human populations

silver carp (*)

fish transported from Asia to consume excess algae in aquaculture operatinons and sewage treatment holding ponds; has invaded Mississippi River and is heading towards the Great Lakes; may outcompete native species that consume algae and pose a safety issue to boaters due to jumping habit

waste stream

flow of solid waste that is recycled, incinerated, placed in a landfill, or otherwise disposed of after the product loses value

petroleum

fluid mixture of hydrocarbons, water, and sulfur that occurs in underground deposits; formed from phytoplankton remains 50 million to 150 million years ago

effects of habitat loss on brown-headed cowbird's prey (*)

habitat fragmentation increases species interactions due to increase in ecotones/landscapes; for example, when a forest meets a field, nest parasites such as the brown-headed cowbird lay their eggs in other species' nests (ex., chipping sparrow), forcing the host to raise its offspring or abandon the nest, leading to decline in North American songbirds

basic causes of decline in biodiversity

habitat loss, intrusion of alien species, pollution, climate change, overharvesting

wind turbine

harness the kinetic energy of convection currents to generate electricity; are ideally located in large concentrations in offshore environments, and can also share land with agricultural uses

waste-to-energy

heat generated by incineration is used for electricity or indoor heating rather than being released into the atmosphere

geothermal energy

heat that comes from the natural radioactive decay of elements deep within the Earth; can be used for direct heat, heat exchangers, or electricity production

waste (energy)

heat, C02, and other pollutants released as energy is converted and entropy increases

tuberculosis

highly contagious disease caused by a bacterium (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) that primarily infects the lungs; about 1/3 of the world's population is infected and 2 million die each year; when antibiotics are not taken due to expense/availability, bacteria can become drug-resistant and harder/costlier to kill

persistence

how long a chemical remains in the environment, dependent on factors of temperature, pH, whether a chemical is in soil or water, and whether it can be degraded by sunlight or microbes

demand (D)

how many units of a good consumers want to buy (influenced by income, prices of related goods, taste, expectations, and number of people who also want the good)

supply (S)

how many units suppliers of a given product or service are willing to provide at a particular price (influenced by input prices, technology, future expectations, and vending competiton)

solubility

how well a chemical can dissolve in a liquid (oil-soluble chemicals are more readily stored in animals' fat tissues and so lead to bioaccumulation)

environmental worldview

how you think the world works, how you view your role in it, and what you believe to be proper environmental behavior; play a significant role in the policies a nation considers and how it implements them

anthropocentric

human-centered worldview which believes human beings have intrinsic value; nature has an instrumental value to provide for our needs. -free-market school: unlimited competition and minimal governmental intervention attain these needs. -planetary management school:government intervention is sometimes necessary to protect environment from resource depletion, but optimistic can solve resource depletion with technology.

Dams and Salmon on the Klamath River

hydroelectric dams, in conjunction with the drainage of two large lakes at the river's source for agriculture, impeded the flow of water and prevented the natural migration of salmon to their breeding grounds; conflict over water use between farmers, fisherman, Native Americans, industry, etc. led to overuse and exploitation of this resource and massive fish kills (increased temperatures, disease, toxic algae); the dams are scheduled to be removed in 2020

run of the river

hydroelectricity generation where water is retained behind a low dam (or no dam) and runs through a channel before returning to the river; causes little flooding or changes in seasonal river flow, but systems are small and capacity factors rely on changing natural flows

Endangered Species Act (1973)

implements CITES agreement in U.S.; legislation authorizes FWS to determine species listed as threatened or endangered, and prohibits harming of such species (including trade prohibition of organisms, fur, or body parts). Also authorizes gov't to purchase critical habitat for endangered species and develop recovery plans to increase their hreatened populations and enable their persistence; some controversy due to restricted human activities in endangered species' habitats.

sustainable design

improves efficiency of buildings and communities through strategies such as passive solar design, building location and construction/roof materials, and multi-use systems which conserve energy

poverty

increases overuse of the land, degradation of the water, and incidence of disease; affects 1/6 to 1/2 the population and threatens human rights to survival, well-being, and happiness.

individual and community action

individuals can live sustainably by changing their own consumption, behavior, or lifestyle to reduce their impact. Communities can e organized around philosophies of sustainability. ("If the people lead, the leaders will follow.")

inbreeding depression

individuals with similar genotypes (relatives) breed with each other and produce an offspring with an impaired fitness (ability to survive and reproduce), due to its receiving two copies of a harmful mutation in the genome

pathogen

infectious agents including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and helminths (parasitic worms)

(bubonic) plague

infectious disease carried by fleas which then attach to rodents and transmit the illness to humans; individuals experience swollen glands, black spots, and extreme pain; modern antibiotics can kill the bacterium (Yersinia pestis) and prevent pandemic such as the ones in Europe (1300) and Asia (1900)

malaria

infectious disease caused by a species of protist in the genus Plasmodium, which spends one life stage inside a mosquito and another inside a human, causing recurrent flulike symptoms and killing 1 million people a year, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa/Asia/Middle East/Central+South America

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

infectious disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), characterized by rare types of pneumonia and cancer contracted due to weakened immune system (late 1970s; 25 million have died)

United Nations (UN)

institution created after World War II promoting dialogue among its 193 member countries with the goal of maintaining world peace; has established other international agencies and institutions since 1945

risk management

integrates scientific data on risk assessment and analyses of acceptable levels of risk with additional economic, social, ethical, and political factors; carried out by local/national/international government agencies instead of scientists

CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) (1973)

international agreement among 175 countries to control trade of threatened animals and plants

Svalbard Global Seed Vault (*)

international storage facility located in northern Norway; has the capacity to store and protect 14.5 million [crop] seed varieties from a wide range of natural disasters and/or global warming, towards the goal of preserving genetic diversity in face of future environmental changes

Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)

international treaty to protect biodiversity, with objectives to conserve biodiversity, sustainably use biodiversity, and equitably share the benefits of use; however, the 8 year strategic plan from 2002-2010 to reduce rate of biodiversity loss failed, with current trends moving towards rather than away from extinction, habitat loss, genetic diversity loss, ecosystem function failure, and ecological footprint reduction

risk factors for chronic disease (in low-income countries)

issues related to low nutrition and poor sanitation (such as malnutrition and unsafe drinking water)

risk factors for chronic disease (in high-income countries)

issues related to tobacco use, inactivity, high blood pressure/obesity, and urban air pollution

mesotrophic lake

lake with a moderate level of productivity

oligotrophic lake

lake with low productivity due to low amounts of nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen

floodplain

land adjacent to the river that receives deposits of nutrient-rich sediment from seasonal floodwaters, making the soil fertile

reservoir

large body of water stored behind a dam (used for consumption/recreation; can experience adverse environmental effects such as increased temperatures and low dissolved oxygen conditions.)

concentrating solar thermal (CST)

large-scale production of electricity which focuses the Sun's energy through mirrors or reflectors, heating water and producing steam to turn turbines without use of fossil fuels; drawbacks include land requirements and limitations at night

Ogallala aquifer

largest aquifer in the United States, covering the Great Plains; its rate of recharge is not keeping pace with the rate of water withdrawal = unsustainable

inversion layer

layer of warm air that traps emissions in a thermal inversion, creating severe pollution events and causing accumulation of pollutants below

hazardous waste

liquid, solid, gaseous, or sludge waste materials harmful to humans or ecosystems; usually by-product of industrial processes like textile/computer production and machinery cleaning (also generated by small businesses); according to EPA, over 20,000 generators produce 36 million metric tons (40 million U.S.tons) per year

Stockholm Convention

list of 12 chemicals (the "dirty dozen") to be banned, phased out, or reduced; agreed upon by 127 nations in 2001 and added to in 2009 (9 more chemicals) (includes endocrine disruptors in pesticides like DDT, industrial chemicals like PCBs, and manufacturing by-products)

Red List

list of threatened species compiled by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN); each country under CITES assigns a specific agency to monitor and regulate the import and export of animals on the list (ex., FWS in U.S.)

sustainability

living so that current needs are met without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

ice cores

long tubes of ice representing up to 500,000 years of ice formation, which have trapped ancient air bubbles that can be sampled for temperature (oxygen isotopes) and greenhouse gas concentrations

asbestos

long, thin, fibrous silicate mineral with insulating properties; can cause respiratory diseases such as asbestosis and lung cancer to a) miners and b) those living with old/damaged fibers in the walls

ethanol

made from converting the starches and sugars in plant material into alcohol and carbon dioxide; made from corn, sugarcane, wood chips, crop waste, or switchgrass; can reduce dependence on foreign oil and consequently reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but redcues gas mileage and requires land to grow

foraminifera

marine protists whose shells resist decay and build up in sediments; in knowing age of ocean sediments and temperature niche of this species, scientists can indirectly estimate ancient ocean temperatures

waste

material outputs generated or unused by a system that are either unconsumed or not useful

sustainable economic system

maximizes utilization of ecosystem services and cradle-to-cradle minimization of the waste stream, and utilizes less resource extraction (and the energy/human labor required)

current economic system

maximizes utilization of resources, energy, and human labor, resulting in a large waste stream; minimizes use of ecosystem services

capacity

maximum electrical output

half-life (chemical)

measure of a chemical's persistence; time needed for a chemical to degrade to half its original mass; modern chemicals designed to have shorter ones due to environmental hazards

environmental consequences of global warming

melting of polar ice caps, glaciers, permafrost; rising sea levels; predicted increased heat wave frequency, reduced cold spells, altered precipitation patterns and storm intensity, shifting ocean currents

smog

mixture of oxidants and particulate matter, which occurs when photochemical oxidants increase the concentrations of particulate matter, scattering light and reducing visibility

decline in genetic diversity of livestock (*)

modern breeding artificially selects for animals and plants with highest productivity/yield, causing the decline/extinction of historic domesticated organisms that evolved to thrive in local climatic conditions/resist local disease; this limited diversity of livestock a concern in case of future biotic or abiotic environmental change (43% European llivestock and 80% North American livestock currently endangered; majority of livestock comes from 7 mammal species and 4 bird species)

retrospective studies

monitors people over a period of years who have been exposed to a chemical at some time in the past, who are then compared to a control group in development of additional health problems

prospective studies

monitors people who might become exposed to harmful chemicals in the future; as time passes, researchers can determine if the habits of the participants have any association with future health problems by comparing to control group not exposed to hazardous chemicals

flood irrigation

more disruptive to vegetation; 70-80% efficient; involves flooding an entire field with water and letting the water soak in evenly

transportation

movement of people and goods achieved primarily through use of vehicles fueled by petroleum products (gasoline, diesel) and electricity

genuine progress indicator (GPI)

national economic measurement that includes personal consumption, income distribution, levels of higher education, resource depletion, pollution, and population's health; more accurate measure of overall wealth that includes human and environmental welfare

disadvantages of nuclear energy

opposition has made nuclear power plant construction expensive; byproducts could create nuclear weapon; accidents lead to death/cancer; produces large quantities pf high-level radioactive waste dangerous for millions of years

volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

organic compounds that become vapors at typical atmospheric termperatures; caused by evaporation of fuels, solvents, paints, and improper combustion of gasoline; usually hydrocarbons found in compounds that release a strong aroma, not a criteria air pollutant, but is a precursor to ozone/photochemical oxidant formation

biofuels

organic materials which are processed or refined into liquid fuels such as ethanol or biodiesel; used as substitutes for gasoline or diesel

compost

organic matter that has decomposed under controlled conditions to produce an organic-rich material that enhances soil structure, cation exchange capacity, and fertility; should be turned/agitated, aerated, and layered to achieve best C:N ratio and prevent anaerobic decomposition

Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)

other agencies that work on worldwide environmental issues include Greenpeace, International Union for Conservation of Nature, World Wide Fund for Nature, Friends of the Earth International.

impermeable surfaces

pavement or buildings that do not allow water penetration, typically found in urban and suburban areas (anthropogenic contribution to flooding)

types of coal (fewer to greater carbon molecules/potential energy per kilogram)

peat, lignite, sub-bituminous, bituminous, anthracite (lesser to greater age and exposure to pressure

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle (3 Rs)

phrase propagating diversion of materials from the waste stream, with techniques in order from greatest to least benefit to the environment

BioLite stove

physically separates solid fuel from gases and allows stove to burn only the gases; a small fan moves air through stove at rate that ensures complete combustion --> more efficient burn, less fuel use, less release of CO and PM

historical diseases passed between hosts

plague, malaria, and tuberculosis

primary pollutants

polluting compounds that come directly out of the smoke-stack, exhaust pipe, or natural emission source (ex., CO, CO2, SO2, NOX, most PM and VOCs)

unconfined aquifer

porous rock covered by soil which water can easily flow in and out of; rapidly recharged by percolation of precipitation

composition of MSW (United States)

potentially compostable 64%: paper 31%, food scraps/yard waste 26%, plastics 12%, metals 8%, wood 7&

microlending

practice of loaning small amounts of money to people who intend to start a small business in less developed countries; fosters sustainable development through creating significant profit for impoverished people/local economies, educating women, and stipulating lower fertility rates/other environmental protections

secondary pollutants

primary pollutants that have undergone transformation in the presence of sunlight, water, oxygen, or other compounds (ex., O3, acid deposition [sulfate, nitrate])

Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument (*)

region surrounding the northwestern Hawaiian Islands which protects an area the size of California and over 7,000 marine species (1/4 of which are endemic); human activities are limited (no fishing, fossil fuel extraction, coral harvesting) and will help conserve biodiversity in neighboring areas through increasing populations from which individuals can disperse

net removal

removing more timber than is replaced by growth; an unsustainable practice that leads to deforestation and, if extreme, renders solid biomass potentially NON renewable

innocent-until-proven-guilty principle

researchers must scientifically prove a chemical is harmful before it is restricted or banned; allows introduction of beneficial chemicals more quickly but can cause environmental harm

ash

residual nonorganic material that does not combust during incineration; if non-toxic, can be disposed of at landfill or used for road construction and cement

fly ash

residue collected beyond the furnace, for example, in the baghouse filter

bottom ash

residue collected underneath the furnace in the ash bunker

uranium mine tailings

residue left after uranium ore is mined and enriched with 235U

significance of shrinking polar ice cap

rise in Arctic temperatures has caused ice to melt 3 weeks earlier, decreasing polar bear hunting season and therefore their weight, relative abundance, decline in Arctic fox population, and change in indigenous people's cultural identity/food and clothing resources

overharvesting of the dodo (*)

sailors, settlers, and introduced rats hunted this bird to extinction on the island of Mauritius in the 1600s; large, flightless, and possessed no innate fear of humans because it evolved without large predators

safe exposures

scientists test the most sensitive species of bird, mammal, fish, and invertebrate (but not amphibians or reptiles) to determine appropriate regulation of chemicals that will protect all species of the group by extrapolation; LD50 and ED50 values are divided by 10 for other animals and 1000 for humans

(tropospheric) ozone (03)

secondary pollutant fromed by combination of sunlight, water, oxygen, VOCs, and NOX; reduces lung/respiratory function, harmful to tissues, and damages construction materials

effects of habitat loss due to decline in coral reefs (*)

since 1977, percentage of live coral in Caribbean reefs has declined sharply ((50%-->10%) due to harvesting, pollution, and climate change; this reduces vital habitat for many marine species

changes in protected land (*)

since the 1960's, there has been an increase in the amount of land under protection throughout the world (preserves biodiversity through the ecosystem approach)

Marine Mammal Protection Act (1972)

single-species approach to conservation; legislation prohibits killing of all marine mammals (ex., polar bears, sea otters, manatees, sea lions) in the U.S. and prohibits import/export of any marine mammal body parts (FWS and Nat'l Marine Fisheries Service approve only exceptions.)

aquifer

small spaces found within permeable layers of rock and sediment where groundwater is located

prions

small, beneficial proteins in brains of cattle which occasionally mutate into deadly proteins that act as pathogens and cause bovine spongiform encephalopathy

environmental justice

social movement/field of study that examines whether there is equal enforcement of environmental laws and elimination of disparities, intended or unintended, in the exposure to pollutants and other environmental harms affecting different ethnic and socioeconomic groups within a society.

coal

solid fuel formed primarily from the remains of trees, ferns, and other plant materials preserved 280 million to 360 million years ago

particulate matter (PM: PM10, PM25)

solid or liquid particles suspended in air due to all types of combustion and dust mobilization; absorbs and scatters light; creates respiratory/lung/heart problems and contributes to haze and smog

energy carrier

source that can move and deliver energy in a convenient, usable form to end users (ex., secondary source, electricity)

extinct species

species known to exist as early as the year 1500 but no longer exist today

least concern species

species that are widespread and abundant, in little to no risk of becoming threatened

threatened species

species that have a high risk of extinction in the future

native species

species that live in their historical range, typ[ically where they have lived for thousands or millions of years

alien species (exotic species)

species that live outside their historical range, often due to intentional or accidental human introduction

near-threatened species

species very likely to become threatened in the future

data-deficient species

species which have no reliable data to assess their status; they may be increasing, decreasing, or stable as defined by the IUCN

water impoundment

storage of water in a reservoir behind a dam which can control amount of electricity generation, provides recreation/economy/flood control, uses/produces less fossil fuels/pollution/waste/C02, and is less expensive; however, may flood crucial lands, interrupts ecosystems, has less D.O./more heat, and contributes to atmospheric C02 and methane through cement production, dredging, and anaerobic decomposition

fish ladders

structures added to a dam that are built like set of stairs with water flowing over them to allow migrating fish to reach their traditional breeding grounds

dike

structures built on the shore to prevent ocean waters from flooding adjacent land, especially areas below sea level; can be combined with electric/diesel powered pumps to combat any water that does intrude

environmental economics

subfield of economics that examines the costs and benefits of various policies and regulations that seek to regulate or limit air and water pollution (as well as other causes of environmental degradation)

ecological economics

subfield of economics which treats economics as a component of ecological systems rather than a distinctly separate field of study; understands/manages the economy as a subsystem of both natural and human systems; goal to preserve natural capital

stewardship

subset of the anthropocentric worldview; careful and responsible management and care for earth and its resources; the natural world requires protection and it is our ethical responsibility to manage it

disadvantages of coal

subsurface mining of coal is more expensive, technological, dangerous, and has long term health consequences; ash holding ponds can give way; combustion leads to higher atmospheric concentrations of sulfur (especially in bituminous coal), mercury, lead, and arsenic, as well as a large C02 contribution

cradle-to-cradle economic system

system where products are made of recycled materials whenever possible; the design and manufacturing are also done with the goal of being able to recycle as much of the product as possible when its useful life is over. Energy costs in manufacture/distribution/use are considered when designing/distributing

life-cycle analysis (cradle-to-grave analysis)

systems tools analyzing materials used and released throughout a product's lifetime, from extraction to manufacture to use to disposal; can determine some extent of environmental impact and its trade-offs, as well as assess many economic and enery considerations

green tax

tax placed on environmentally harmful activities/emissions in an attempt to internalize some of the externalities that may be involved in the life cycle of the activity/product; may need rebates or tax credits as incentives to supplement this deterrent

ground source heat pumps

technology that transfers heat from the ground into the building above through a circulation of pipes whose liquid/gas heats and cools accordingly; can be installed anywhere and use 30-70% less energy than a furnace or air conditioner

CTL

technology to convert solid coal into liquid fuel which could potentially eliminate U.S. dependence on foreign oil and on oil in general (as the coal reserves have 1,000 times more energy than the oil reserves)

thermal inertia

the ability of a material to retain its temperature for long periods of time; ideal for efficient insulation of buildings

greenhouse effect

the absorption of infrared radiation by atmospheric gases and reradiation of the energy back toward earth

siltation

the accumulation of sediments at the bottom of a reservoir, which decreases the amount of water that can be impounded and the generating capacity/life span of a dam

EROEI (energy return on energy investment)

the energy obtained from an energy source per unit of energy expended on its production (energy obtained / energy invested)

effects of habitat loss on niche specialists (*)

the greatest cause of species decline and extinction is due to decrease in habitat favorable to niche specialists, such as the northern spotted owl's preference of old-growth forests in Washington state; timber harvesting leaves an altered forest habitat that reduces owl populations due to fewer trees to nest/roost in and less forest to hunt in

peak demand

the greatest quantity of energy used at one time; to meet this, electric companies must build excess generating capacity, which consumes more fuel; can be reduced by implementaton of a variable price structure

energy conservation

the implementation of methods to use less energy, achieved through change in individual habits or governmental policy/incentive

biomagnification

the increase in chemical concentration in animal tissues as the chemical moves up the food chain (because successive trophic levels must consume more biomass to sustain themselves, and therefore contain a higher concentration of toxic chemicals in their tissues)

bioaccumulation

the increased concentration of a chemical within an organism over time; total rate depends on concentration in environment, rate of absorption, rate of chemical breakdown, and rate of excretion

groundwater recharge

the input proces by which water from precipitation percolates through the soil into an aquifer

air pollution

the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or microorganisms into the atmosphere at concentrations high enough to harm plants, animals, materials (buildings), or alter ecosystems

risk acceptance

the level of risk that can be tolerated, complex because of subjectivity and personal preference

peak oil

the point at which half the oil supply is used up and extraction/use begins to decline; world has either already reached or will very soon reach this point (depending on use of lower or upper estimate)

incineration

the process of burning waste materials such as paper, plastic, food and yard waste (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen) to reduce their volume and mass and sometimes to generate electricity or heat

becquerel (Bq)

the rate at which a sample of radioactive material decays; the decay of one atom per second

gross domestic product (GDP)

the value of all products and services produced in a year in a given country (consumer and government spending, investments, exports-imports); a flawed measure of wealth/well-being because externalities aren't included (only considers production, not consumption)

price

the way producers and consumers communicate the value of an item and allocate the scarce item