APUSH Identifiers- Period 7

Boondoggling

What: "Boondoggle" was the name of the newspaper of the Roosevelt Troop of the Boy Scouts, based in Rochester, New York, and it first appeared in print in 1927. It was attributed to a boy scout from Rochester who coined the term to describe "a new type of uniform decoration". When: 1927 Why: A boondoggle is a project that is considered a waste of both time and money, yet is often continued due to extraneous policy or political motivations. How: In politics, though, boondoggle has become an attack term for government programs that are regarded (by the speaker or writer) as frivolous, wasteful Several work relief programs under the control of the Works Progress Administration (WPA). It is a politically motivated, trivial, wasteful or impractical government project funded with the intent to gain political favor

Hoovervilles

What: "Hooverville" became a common term for shacktowns and homeless encampments during the Great Depression. There were dozens in the state of Washington, hundreds throughout the country, each testifying to the housing crisis that accompanied the employment crisis of the early 1930s. When: early 1930s Why: The failure of Depression-era policies to alleviate unemployment and address the social crisis led to the creation of Hoovervilles, shantytowns that sprang up to house those who had become homeless because of the Great Depression. "Hooverville" was a deliberately politicized label, emphasizing that President Herbert Hoover and the Republican Party were to be held responsible for the economic crisis and its miseries How: Hoovervilles were not nice places. The shacks were tiny, poorly built, and didn't have bathrooms. They weren't very warm during the winter and often didn't keep out the rain. The sanitary conditions of the towns were very bad and many times the people didn't have access to clean drinking water.

Okies

What: "Okie", in the most general sense, refers to a resident, native, or cultural descendant of Oklahoma, equating to Oklahoman. It is derived from the name of the state, similar to Arkie for a native of Arkansas. any poverty-stricken migrant from the Southwest When: 1930s Why: "Okies," as Californians labeled them, were refugee farm families from the Southern Plains who migrated to California in the 1930s to escape the ruin of the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl. The refugees came from several states, including the drought-ravaged corners of Kansas, Colorado, and New Mexico but especially the impoverished parts of Oklahoma (the origin of one fifth of Okies), Texas, Arkansas, and Missouri. How: The damaging environmental effects of the dust storms had not only dried up the land, but it had also dried up jobs and the economy. The drought caused a cessation of agricultural production, leading to less income for farmers, and consequently less food on the table for their families

"Return to Normalcy"

What: "Return to normalcy" was United States presidential candidate Warren G. Harding's campaign slogan for the election of 1920. It evoked a return to the way of life before World War I, the First Red Scare, and the Spanish flu pandemic. When: 1920 Why: Harding's slogan and platform, calling for disengagement from foreign intervention and for a return to business as usual, were offered as an antidote for the widespread sense of upheaval among Americans in the aftermath of World War I and in response to the deadly influenza pandemic of 1918-19, significant labour unrest, a series of race riots, and the Red Scare and resultant Palmer Raids How: It evoked a return to the way of life before World War I, the First Red Scare, and the Spanish flu pandemic.

Anschluss

What: "Union", political union of Austria with Germany, achieved through annexation by Adolf Hitler in 1938. When: 1938 Why: America disliked German aggression and chastised Nazi disregard for international law. When reacting to Anschluss, the United States government tried to underscore these principles within the constraints of internal difficulties, and the opposition of a large anti-New Deal coalition and the isolationists. How: Many Germans from both Austria and Germany welcomed the Anschluss as they saw it as completing the complex and long overdue German unification of all Germans united into one state. Hitler had originally intended to leave Austria as a satellite state with Seyss-Inquart as head of a pro-Nazi government. Germany added seven million people and an army of 100,000 to its Reich. Germany gained useful resources such as steel, iron ore and Austria's foreign exchange reserves. The balance of power in south-eastern Europe shifted in favour of Germany, increasing their influence in the Balkans

Moral Diplomacy

What: 'Moral' diplomacy is a form of diplomacy proposed by President Woodrow Wilson in his 1912 United States presidential election. Moral diplomacy is the system in which support is given only to countries whose beliefs are analogous to that of the nation. Moral diplomacy is a style of international affairs attempting to motivate foreign countries to become democratic, aligning with the Unites States' values. See this strategy used in Mexico, China, and the Philippines When: 1912 Why: This promotes the growth of the nation's ideals and damages nations with different ideologies How: In the end, moral diplomacy increased the U.S.'s direct military action in many countries and also greatly impacted the economy by manipulating situations in countries that were not democratic or those that held what Wilson viewed as morally corrupt values. "Moral diplomacy" failed because the U.S. became overly reliant on its allies

1917 Big year in War (U.S. and Russia)

What: 1917 saw the entry of America into World War One, the result of Germany's use of unrestricted submarine warfare. When: 1917 Why: The entry of the United States was the turning point of the war, because it made the eventual defeat of Germany possible. It had been foreseen in 1916 that if the United States went to war, the Allies' military effort against Germany would be upheld by U.S. supplies and by enormous extensions of credit. How: The United States breaks off diplomatic relations with Germany. Congress and Senate override a veto by President Woodrow Wilson to reinstate the Immigration Act of 1917, which allows more restrictions on immigration to the U.S., including the wholesale ban of people from much of Asia

Mein Kampf

What: 1925 autobiographical manifesto by Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler When: July 18, 1925 Why: The work describes the process by which Hitler became antisemitic and outlines his political ideology and future plans for Germany. After slow initial sales, the book became a bestseller in Germany following Hitler's rise to power in 1933 How: Mein Kampf promoted the key components of Nazism: rabid antisemitism, a racist world view, and an aggressive foreign policy geared to gaining Lebensraum in eastern Europe. It greatly contributed to Hitler's rise to power

Liberty Bonds

What: A Liberty Bond is a debt obligation issued by the U.S. Department of the Treasury in conjunction with the Federal Reserve. Also known as a Liberty Loan, it was a war bond, issued in four installments in 1917-18 as a means to finance the U.S.' participation in World War I and the Allied war effort in Europe. When: 1917-18 Why: A Liberty bond was a war bond that was sold in the United States to support the Allied cause in World War I. Subscribing to the bonds became a symbol of patriotic duty in the United States and introduced the idea of financial securities to many citizens for the first time. Liberty Bonds were created and sold by the U.S. government during World War I to help fund the American war effort. The bonds were a way for Americans to support the war, especially if they were unable to take part in combat. The bonds were issued five times between 1917 and 1919. How: Liberty loans raised $22 billion to finance World War I, the equivalent of more than $5 trillion today. At least a third of Americans 18 or older bought bonds. Banks advanced customers money to purchase bonds, paving the way for the margin loans that played a significant part in the stock market run-up of the 1920s.

Red Scare

What: A Red Scare is the promotion of a widespread fear of a potential rise of communism, anarchism or other leftist ideologies by a society or state. It is often characterized as political propaganda. The term is most often used to refer to two periods in the history of the United States which are referred to by this name When: 1919 Why: The Red Scare of 1919 occurred at a time when the American people felt threatened by the rising tide of Communism in Russia, widespread labor unrest, and the often bizarre forms of Anarchism. The most important government response was the beginning of the Palmer Raids How: Levin wrote that the Red Scare was "a nationwide anti-radical hysteria provoked by a mounting fear and anxiety that a Bolshevik revolution in America was imminent—a revolution that would change Church, home, marriage, civility, and the American way of Life". The Red Scare's largest impact was the scars it left on Hollywood. Films can inform, and they can also entertain. During the 1950s, however, there was a growing fear in many that communist ideals were being worked into films.

Bank runs

What: A bank run or run on the bank occurs when many clients withdraw their money from a bank, because they believe the bank may cease to function in the near future In modern history, bank runs are often associated with the Great Depression. In the wake of the 1929 stock market crash, American depositors began to panic and seek refuge in holding physical cash. The first bank failure due to mass withdrawals occurred in 1930 in Tennessee When: 1929 Why: A bank run occurs when a large number of customers of a bank or other financial institution withdraw their deposits simultaneously over concerns of the bank's solvency. With more people withdrawing money, banks will use up their cash reserves and ultimately end up defaulting How: Another phenomenon that compounded the nation's economic woes during the Great Depression was a wave of banking panics or "bank runs," during which large numbers of anxious people withdrew their deposits in cash, forcing banks to liquidate loans and often leading to bank failure

Yalta Conference

What: A meeting of three World War II allies: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin When: Feb 4, 1945 - Feb 11, 1945 Why: This is important because each leader had an agenda for the Yalta Conference: Roosevelt wanted Soviet support in the U.S. Pacific War against Japan and Soviet participation in the UN; Churchill pressed for free elections and democratic governments in Eastern and Central Europe (specifically Poland), and Stalin demanded a Soviet sphere of influence How: It was during the Yalta conference that American suspicions toward Russia heightened. Stalin didn't seem to follow the plan of the previous conference too closely and Americans were already wary of them due to the fact they were communist

Island Hopping

What: A military strategy employed by the Allies in the Pacific War against the Empire of Japan during World War II When: 1940s Why: The key idea is to bypass heavily fortified enemy islands instead of trying to capture every island in sequence en route to a final target. The reasoning is that those islands can simply be cut off from their supply chains rather than needing to be overwhelmed by superior force, thus speeding up progress and reducing losses of troops and material How: Leapfrogging had a number of advantages. It would allow U.S. forces to reach Japan more quickly and not expend the time, manpower, and supplies to capture every Japanese-held island on the way. It would also give the Allies the advantage of surprise and keep the Japanese off balance

Manhattan Project

What: A research and development undertaking during World War II that produced the first nuclear weapons When: 1939 Why: This is important because two types of atomic bombs were developed concurrently during the war: a relatively simple gun-type fission weapon and a more complex implosion-type nuclear weapon but it was a big step towards nuclear war How: The manhattan project ended up developing the bombs that would be dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki later on. Those were the two decisive bombs that made Japan surrender and ended the war

Appeasement

What: Appeasement in an international context is a diplomatic policy of making political, material, or territorial concessions to an aggressive power in order to avoid conflict When: 1930s Why: Instituted in the hope of avoiding war, appeasement was the name given to Britain's policy in the 1930s of allowing Hitler to expand German territory unchecked. Most closely associated with British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, it is now widely discredited as a policy of weakness. How: Appeasement encouraged Hitler to be more aggressive, with each victory giving him confidence and power. With more land, Germany became better defended, with more soldiers, workers, raw materials, weapons and industries. This then shows the first way that appeasement caused World War Two. gave Hitler more confidence in his military actions causing WW2 after Hitler had broken the treaty of Versailles to build up his forces and conquer lands on multiple occasions

Speakeasies

What: A speakeasy, also called a blind pig or blind tiger, is an illicit establishment that sells alcoholic beverages, or a retro style bar that replicates aspects of historical speakeasies. Speakeasy bars came into prominence in the United States during the Prohibition era When: 1920s Why: Speakeasies Were Prohibition's Worst-Kept Secrets. When Prohibition took effect on January 17, 1920, many thousands of formerly legal saloons across the country catering only to men closed down. The illicit bars, also referred to as "blind pigs" and "gin joints," multiplied, especially in urban areas The underground nature of the speakeasy also created many changes in society and culture. The speakeasy created an environment where gangsters, the wealthy, and the lower classes could all drink and socialize together. A larger impact could be noticed in the realm of African Americans and women How: The speakeasy created an environment where gangsters, the wealthy, and the lower classes could all drink and socialize together. A larger impact could be noticed in the realm of African Americans and women. Many African American writers were also being published in increasing numbers.

Stock Market Crash

What: A stock market crash is a sudden dramatic decline of stock prices across a major cross-section of a stock market, resulting in a significant loss of paper wealth. Crashes are driven by panic selling and underlying economic factors. They often follow speculation and economic bubbles When: 1929 Why: Among the other causes of the stock market crash of 1929 were low wages, the proliferation of debt, a struggling agricultural sector and an excess of large bank loans that could not be liquidated How: The Great Depression began after the stock market crash of October 1929, which sent Wall Street into a panic and wiped out millions of investors. Over the next several years, consumer spending and investment dropped, causing steep declines in industrial output and employment as failing companies laid off workers

Speculation

What: Act of buying stocks at great risk with the anticipation that the price will rise. When: 1920s Why: Many buyers engaged in speculation thinking that the market was going to climb so they could sell the stocks quickly and make their money back. Speculators are prevalent in the markets where price movements of securities are highly frequent and volatile. They play very important roles in the markets by absorbing excess risk and providing much needed liquidity in the market by buying and selling when other investors don't participate. How: Rampant speculation led to falsely high stock prices, and when the stock market began to tumble in the months leading up to the October 1929 crash, speculative investors couldn't make their margin calls, and a massive sell-off began

AAA

What: Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA), in U.S. history, major New Deal program to restore agricultural prosperity during the Great Depression by curtailing farm production, reducing export surpluses, and raising prices. In spite of its limited achievements, the early AAA program was favoured by most farmers When: 1933 Why: Roosevelt's Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) of 1933 was designed to correct the imbalance. Farmers who agreed to limit production would receive "parity" payments to balance prices between farm and nonfarm products, based on prewar income levels. The AAA eroded the old sharecropping and tenant system of farm labor. With access to federal funds, large landowners were able to diversify their crops, combine holdings, and purchase tractors and machinery to more efficiently work the land. They no longer needed the old system. How: The AAA successfully increased crop prices.

Al Capone

What: Alphonse Gabriel Capone, sometimes known by the nickname "Scarface", was an American gangster and businessman who attained notoriety during the Prohibition era as the co-founder and boss of the Chicago Outfit. His seven-year reign as a crime boss ended when he went to prison at the age of 33 When: January 17, 1899, Brooklyn, New York, NY Died: January 25, 1947 Why: Born in 1899 in Brooklyn, New York, to poor immigrant parents, Al Capone went on to become the most infamous gangster in American history. In 1920 during the height of Prohibition, Capone's multi-million dollar Chicago operation in bootlegging, prostitution and gambling dominated the organized crime scene How: Capone was sent to Chicago and helped Torrio rid the city of their underworld competition. After Torrio retired, Capone became Chicago's de facto crime czar, running gambling, prostitution, and bootlegging rackets and expanding his territories by gunning down rivals

Harry Truman

What: American politician who was the 33rd president of the United States When: May 8, 1884 Why: He is most known for putting an end to World War II in the Pacific by dropping the atomic bomb on Japan. He is also known for the Marshall Plan, the Truman Doctrine, and the Korean War How: Truman protected and reinforced the New Deal reforms of his predecessor, guided the American economy from a war-time to a peace-time footing, and advanced the cause of African-American civil rights. He also cracked down on corruption that was occurring within society

Federal Housing Authority

What: An FHA insured loan is a US Federal Housing Administration mortgage insurance backed mortgage loan that is provided by an FHA-approved lender. FHA mortgage insurance protects lenders against losses When: June 27, 1934 Why: facilitate home financing, improve housing standards, and increase employment in the home-construction industry in the wake of the Great Depression How: The FHA's primary function was to insure home mortgage loans made by banks and other private lenders, thereby encouraging them to make more loans to prospective home buyers.

Destroyer for Bases Deal

What: An agreement between the United States and the United Kingdom on September 2, 1940 When: September 2, 1940 Why: According to the deal 50 Caldwell, Wickes, and Clemson class US Navy destroyers were transferred to the Royal Navy from the US Navy in exchange for land rights on British possessions How: Under the terms of the Agreement, the United States gave the British 50 obsolete destroyers in exchange for 99-year leases to territory in Newfoundland and the Caribbean. The territories would be used as the United States air and naval bases

Radio

What: An entertainment broadcasting venture based in Wilkinsburg, Pennsylvania, became the first commercial radio station, KDKA, in 1920. The station WWJ, in Detroit, Michigan, also one of the firsts, began commercial broadcasting in the same year. When: 1920 Why: The Birth of public radio broadcasting is credited to Lee de Forest. It was described as the "sound factory." The idea of radio as entertainment took off in 1920, with the opening of the first radio stations established specifically for broadcast to the public such as KDKA in Pittsburgh and WWJ in Detroit. How: Over the years, radio has had a considerable influence on the political landscape of the United States. In the past, government leaders relied on radio to convey messages to the public, such as President Franklin D. Roosevelt's "fireside chats." Radio was also used as a way to generate propaganda for World War II.

Article X

What: Article X of the Covenant of the League of Nations, which required members to assist any other member nation in the event of an invasion or attack, was a lightning rod for opposition in America. After the Treaty's rejection, public opinion divided over U.S. participation in international peacekeeping treaties When: 1920 Why: The Treaty of Versailles and U.S. membership in the League of Nations were central issues in the 1920 Presidential campaign. Article X of the Covenant of the League of Nations, which required members to assist any other member nation in the event of an invasion or attack, was a lightning rod for opposition in America How: the intent of Article X was to preserve a balance of power by preventing one country from invading another (e.g. Germany invading Belgium and France); it did not take away the right of the United States to wage war

"Cash and carry act"

What: Before passage of the Neutrality Act of 1939, Roosevelt persuaded Congress to allow the sale of military supplies to allies like France and Britain on a "cash-and-carry" basis: They had to pay cash for American-made supplies, and then transport the supplies on their own ships When: 1939 Why: The purpose of this policy was to allow the Allied nations at war with Germany to purchase war materials while maintaining a semblance of neutrality for the United States. Coming out of the Great Depression, the U.S. economy was rebounding. Further growth in manufacturing would propel the economy forward How: This Act lifted the arms embargo and put all trade with belligerent nations under the terms of "cash-and-carry." The ban on loans remained in effect, and American ships were barred from transporting goods to belligerent ports

Big Stick Diplomacy

What: Big stick ideology, big stick diplomacy, or big stick policy refers to President Theodore Roosevelt's foreign policy: "speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far." Big Stick diplomacy is the policy of carefully mediated negotiation ("speaking softly") supported by the unspoken threat of a powerful military ("big stick") When: 1904 Why: The idea is negotiating peacefully but also having strength in case things go wrong. Simultaneously threatening with the "big stick", or the military, ties in heavily with the idea of Realpolitik, which implies a pursuit of political power that resembles Machiavellian ideals How: President Roosevelt used Big Stick diplomacy in many foreign policy situations. He brokered an agreement for an American-led canal through Panama, expanded American influence in Cuba, and negotiated a peace treaty between Russia and Japan. For this, Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906

Blitzkreig

What: Blitzkrieg is a military doctrine in which a surprise attack using a rapid, overwhelming force concentration that may consist of armoured and motorised or mechanised infantry formations aka an intense military campaign intended to bring about a swift victory. When: WWII Why: Most famously, blitzkrieg describes the successful tactics used by Nazi Germany in the early years of World War II, as German forces swept through Poland, Norway, Belgium, Holland and France with astonishing speed and force. "Blitzkrieg," a German word meaning "Lightning War," was Germany's strategy to avoid a long war in the first phase of World War II in Europe How: The tactics, as employed by the Germans, consisted of a splitting thrust on a narrow front by combat groups using tanks, dive bombers, and motorized artillery to disrupt the main enemy battle position at the Schwerpunkt Such an attack ideally leads to a quick victory, limiting the loss of soldiers and artillery

Bonus Army

What: Bonus Army, gathering of probably 10,000 to 25,000 World War I veterans (estimates vary widely) who, with their wives and children, converged on Washington, D.C., in 1932, demanding immediate bonus payment for wartime services to alleviate the economic hardship of the Great Depression When: 1932 Why: The bonus march was a legacy of World War I that helped shape the nation's response to the Great Depression and World War II. During the Depression, Americans were able to express their preference for a more activist state through their support of the bonus marchers. How: The immediate effects of the bonus army derived from how the government, especially President Hoover and General MacArthur, handled the eviction of the veterans from the Capitol. A large number of Americans viewed it as unnecessary and sympathized with the veterans who were not merely bums, but war heroes

Brain Trust

What: Brain Trust, also called Brains Trust, in U.S. history, group of advisers to Franklin D. Roosevelt during his first campaign for the presidency (1932). It contributed suggestions and drafts for campaign speeches, all of which underwent considerable revision by Roosevelt When: 1932 Why: Brain trust was a term that originally described a group of close advisers to a political candidate or incumbent; these were often academics who were prized for their expertise in particular fields. The term is most associated with the group of advisers of Franklin D. Roosevelt during his presidential administration How: a small group who came together in 1932 to help Franklin D Roosevelt find ways out of the Great Depression. The group's legacy was significant as they were closely involved with the New Deal as well as a very famous speech

Buying on Margin

What: Buying on margin involves getting a loan from your brokerage and using the money from the loan to invest in more securities than you can buy with your available cash. Through margin buying, investors can amplify their returns — but only if their investments outperform the cost of the loan itself. When: 1920s Why: People encouraged by the market's stability were unafraid of debt. The concept of "buying on margin" allowed ordinary people with little financial acumen to borrow money from their stockbroker and put down as little as 10 percent of the share value How: Led to the stock market crash of 1929 and the Great Depression

18th Amendment

What: By its terms, the Eighteenth Amendment prohibited "the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquours" but not the consumption, private possession, or production for one's own consumption. It was repealed in 1933 by ratification of the Twenty-First Amendment. When: 1919 Why: Though the advocates of prohibition had argued that banning sales of alcohol would reduce criminal activity, it in fact directly contributed to the rise of organized crime. After the Eighteenth Amendment went into force, bootlegging, or the illegal distillation and sale of alcoholic beverages, became widespread. How: The Prohibition Amendment had profound consequences: it made brewing and distilling illegal, expanded state and federal government, inspired new forms of sociability between men and women, and suppressed elements of immigrant and working-class culture

Korematsu vs the US

What: Case that occurred after Korematsu tried to resist relocation When: December 18, 1944 Why: A United States, legal case in which the U.S. Supreme Court, on December 18, 1944, upheld the conviction of Fred Korematsu—a son of Japanese immigrants who was born in Oakland, California—for having violated an exclusion order requiring him to submit to forced relocation during World War II How: The Supreme Court held that the wartime internment of American citizens of Japanese descent was constitutional. Above, Japanese Americans at a government-run internment camp during World War II. The US Supreme Court finally overruled Korematsu, the 1944 case that justified Japanese internment

Father Charles Coughlin

What: Charles Edward Coughlin, commonly known as Father Coughlin or the radio priest, was a Canadian-American Roman Catholic priest who was based in the United States near Detroit. He was the founding priest of the National Shrine of the Little Flower church When: October 25, 1891, Hamilton, Canada Died: October 27, 1979 Why: He was the founding priest of the National Shrine of the Little Flower church. He was one of the first political leaders to use radio to reach a mass audience: during the 1930s, an estimated 30 million listeners tuned to his weekly broadcasts How: Father Coughlin's influence on Depression-era America was enormous. Millions of Americans listened to his weekly radio broadcast. At the height of his popularity, one-third of the nation was tuned into his weekly broadcasts. In the early 1930s, Coughlin was, arguably, one of the most influential men in America

CORE

What: Civil rights organization founded in 1942 in Chicago by James Farmer and other members of the Fellowship of Reconciliation that espoused nonviolent direct action. When: 1942 Why: Congress of Racial Equality is an interracial American organization established by James Farmer in 1942 to improve race relations and end discriminatory policies through direct-action projects How: During the 1950s and 1960s, CORE took a leading role in desegregating interstate travel with "freedom rides" and other activities. CORE members also played an important part in registering African Americans to vote in the South during the Freedom Summer of 1964.

Potsdam Conference

What: Conference was held in Potsdam, Germany, from July 17 to August 2, 1945 to allow the three leading Allies to plan the postwar peace When: July 17 - August 2, 1945 Why: In addition to settling matters related to Germany and Poland, the Potsdam negotiators approved the formation of a Council of Foreign Ministers that would act on behalf of the United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and China to draft peace treaties with Germany's former allies How: resulted in divisions of Germany through reparations of each allied sides occupation zones, and divisions of European countries between the US and the USSR. After the division between the free world and communist camps, Stalin brought down an Iron Curtain to keep invasions from the West out.

Sudetenland Crisis

What: Crisis provoked by the Pan-Germanist demands of Germany that the Sudetenland be annexed to Germany When - 1938 Why: The loss of the Sudetenland crippled Czechoslovakia as a fighting force, with most of their armaments, fortifications and raw materials signed off to Germany without them having any say in the matter. Unable to resist without French and British support, by the end of 1938 the whole of the country was in Nazi hands How: The Sudeten crisis began in February 1938 when Hitler demanded self-determination for all Germans in Austria and Czechoslovakia. The Sudeten Nazi Party demanded a union with Germany and started rioting. They caused so much trouble that the Czechs had to send in the army.

Daylight savings time

What: Daylight saving time, also known as daylight savings time or daylight time, and summer time, is the practice of advancing clocks during warmer months so that darkness falls at a later clock time When: March 19, 1918 Why: The nominal reason for daylight saving time has long been to save energy. The time change was first instituted in the U.S. during World War I, and then reinstituted again during WW II, as a part of the war effort How: Germany was the first to adopt daylight saving time on May 1, 1916, during World War I as a way to conserve fuel. It was unpopular and abolished after World War I. On Feb. 9 ,1942, Franklin Roosevelt instituted a year-round daylight saving time, which he called "war time." This lasted until Sept

Hoover Dam

What: Hoover Dam is a concrete arch-gravity dam in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River, on the border between the U.S. states of Nevada and Arizona. It was constructed between 1931 and 1936 during the Great Depression and was dedicated on September 30, 1935, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt When: September 30, 1935 Why: Completed in 1936, Hoover Dam was built to provide irrigation water and hydroelectric power, and to control seasonal flooding of the Colorado River, which made downstream settlement possible How: Hoover Dam, formerly called Boulder Dam, dam in Black Canyon on the Colorado River, at the Arizona-Nevada border, U.S. Constructed between 1930 and 1936, it is the highest concrete arch dam in the United States

Election of 1932

What: Democratic New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt defeated Republican incumbent president Herbert Hoover in a landslide, with Hoover winning only six Northeastern states. Roosevelt's victory was the first by a Democratic candidate since Woodrow Wilson won re-election in 1916 When: 1932 Why: 1932 was a political realignment election: not only did Roosevelt win a sweeping victory over Hoover, but Democrats significantly extended their control over the U.S. House, gaining 101 seats, and also gained 12 seats in the U.S. Senate to gain control of the chamber How: The depression was the only issue of consequence in the presidential campaign of 1932. The American public had to choose between the apparently unsuccessful policies of the incumbent Hoover, who blamed the depression on external events and alleged that Roosevelt would intensify the disaster, and the vaguely defined New Deal program presented by Roosevelt. People chose Roosevelt, he won the election by a landslide.

Dollar Diplomacy

What: Dollar Diplomacy, foreign policy created by U.S. Pres. William Howard Taft (served 1909-13) and his secretary of state, Philander C. Knox, to ensure the financial stability of a region while protecting and extending U.S. commercial and financial interests there. When: 1909 - 1913 Why: Taft's dollar diplomacy not only allowed the United States to gain financially from countries but also restrained other foreign countries from reaping any sort of financial gain. Consequently, when the United States benefited from other countries, other world powers could not reap those same benefits How: Dollar diplomacy caused immigration, low wages, a shift in land ownership, a broken family structure, and an increase in population and illegitimate births.

doughboys

What: Doughboy was a popular nickname for the American infantryman during World War I. Though the origins of the term are not certain, the nickname was still in use as of the early 1940s When: WWI Why: doughboy, nickname popularly given to United States soldiers during World War I. The term was first used during the American Civil War when it was applied to the brass buttons on uniforms and thence to infantrymen. Again, infantrymen were said to march in "dough" during wet weather. Mencken claimed the nickname could be traced to Continental Army soldiers who kept the piping on their uniforms white through the application of clay. When the troops got rained on the clay on their uniforms turned into "doughy blobs," supposedly leading to the doughboy moniker The Doughboys arrived in the front line trenches with French arms and untried commanders, but quickly became a premier fighting force. The addition of the American troops broke the stalemate and pushed the Germans back into Germany, forcing them into the armistice that ended the devastation of the First World War. How: The Doughboys helped change the course of the war, because while they were still to arrive in their multi-millions before the war ended, the sheer fact they were coming at all helped keep the western allies intact and fighting in 1917, allowing them to cling on until victories were won in 1918 and the war ended

Self-determination

What: During World War I, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson promoted the concept of "self-determination," meaning that a nation—a group of people with similar political ambitions—can seek to create its own independent government or state When: ww1; The concept was first expressed in the 1860s, and spread rapidly thereafter. During and after World War I, the principle was encouraged by both Soviet Premier Vladimir Lenin and United States President Woodrow Wilson Why: As a political principle, the idea of self-determination evolved at first as a by-product of the doctrine of nationalism, to which early expression was given by the French and American revolutions. In World War I the Allies accepted self-determination as a peace aim How: National self determination was the belief that races should rule themselves and that the people would be able to choose the future political status of their nation. In the treaty of Versailles, nations were returned to their people

Emperor Hirohito

What: Emperor Shōwa, commonly known by his personal name Hirohito, was the 124th emperor of Japan, ruling from 1926 until his death in 1989 When: April 29, 1901 - January 7, 1989 Why: Leader of Japan during World War II and Japan's longest-reigning monarch Hirohito is best remembered for leading his country to a humiliating defeat in World War II. Remarkably, however, he was never removed from power; he was never prosecuted for war crimes. He continued to be the Emperor of Japan until his death in 1989 How: Hirohito presided over the invasion of China, the bombing of Pearl Harbor, and eventually, the Japanese surrender to the Allies. Many historical sources have portrayed Hirohito as powerless. Often these sorces characterized the emperor as constrained by military advisers that were making all the decisions

Fascism

What: Fascism is a form of far-right, authoritarian ultranationalism characterized by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition, and strong regimentation of society and the economy that rose to prominence in early 20th-century Europe When: early 20th-century Why: Fascism arose in Europe after World War I when many people yearned for national unity and strong leadership. In Italy, Benito Mussolini used his charisma to establish a powerful fascist state. Benito Mussolini coined the term "fascism" in 1919 to describe his political movement How: For large numbers of Italians, an oppressive fascist regime brought economic hardship and/or a loss of basic human rights. For others fascism appeared to bring stability, well-being and national honour (epitomized in the conquest of Ethiopia in 1936) - for which authoritarian government was a price worth paying.

Flappers

What: Flappers were a subculture of young Western women in the 1920s who wore short skirts, bobbed their hair, listened to jazz, and flaunted their disdain for what was then considered acceptable behavior When: 1920s Why: Flappers of the 1920s were young women known for their energetic freedom, embracing a lifestyle viewed by many at the time as outrageous, immoral or downright dangerous. Now considered the first generation of independent American women, flappers pushed barriers in economic, political and sexual freedom for women How: Women were finally granted the right to vote in the 1920s and Flappers discovered that their collective voice could be heard on women's rights issues. They began to take active roles in politics and protests, such as protests against Prohibition. Flappers were defined by how they dressed, danced and talked. With lighter and more flexible undergarments that created a straight, slim silhouette, this new design allowed women to dance freely. It wasn't just their fashion that made flappers; It was also their behavior and attitude

reparations

What: Forms of reparations which have been proposed or given in the United States by city, county, state, and national governments or private institutions include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, and systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation related to independence, apologies and acknowledgements of the injustices When: 1920 Why: The Treaty of Versailles (signed in 1919) and the 1921 London Schedule of Payments required Germany to pay 132 billion gold marks (US$33 billion in reparations to cover civilian damage caused during the war. How: Allied victors took a punitive approach to Germany at the end of World War I. Intense negotiation resulted in the Treaty of Versailles' "war guilt clause," which identified Germany as the sole responsible party for the war and forced it to pay reparations

Frances Perkins (Sec. of Labor)

What: Frances Perkins was an American workers-rights advocate who served as the U.S. Secretary of Labor from 1933 to 1945, the longest serving in that position. She made history as the first woman to serve in any presidential U.S. Cabinet When: April 10, 1880, Boston, MA Died: May 14, 1965 Why: Perkins would have been famous simply by being the first woman cabinet member, but her legacy also stems from her additional accomplishments. She was largely responsible for the creation of social security, unemployment insurance in the United States, the federal minimum wage, and federal laws regulating child labor. How: Frances Perkins was the U.S. Secretary of Labor from 1933 to 1945, and the first woman appointed to the U.S. Cabinet. As a loyal supporter of her friend, Franklin D. Roosevelt, she helped pull the labor movement into the New Deal coalition.

Dr. Francis Townshend

What: Francis Everett Townsend was an American physician who was best known for his revolving old-age pension proposal during the Great Depression. Known as the "Townsend Plan", this proposal influenced the establishment of the Roosevelt administration's Social Security system When: January 13, 1867, Fairbury, IL Died: September 1, 1960 Why: an American physician who was best known for his revolving old-age pension proposal during the Great Depression. His formation of "Townsend clubs" helped pressure businesses into offering pensions for retirees. How: The basic idea of the Townsend Plan was that the government would provide a pension of $200 per month to every citizen age 60 and older

Neville Chamberlain

What: He was a British politician of the Conservative Party who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom When: March 18, 1869 Why: He's important because he is best known for his foreign policy of appeasement, and in particular for his signing of the Munich Agreement on 30 September 1938, ceding the German-speaking Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia to Nazi Germany led by Adolf Hitler How: Chamberlain's reputation remains controversial among historians. Many of them blamed Chamberlain and his associates for the Munich accord and for allegedly failing to prepare the country for war

Henry Ford (Model T)

What: Henry Ford was an American industrialist, business magnate, founder of the Ford Motor Company, and chief developer of the assembly line technique of mass production When: July 30, 1863 - April 7, 1947 Why: Henry Ford was an American automobile manufacturer who created the Model T in 1908 and went on to develop the assembly line mode of production, which revolutionized the automotive industry. As a result, Ford sold millions of cars and became a world-famous business leader. American industrialist who revolutionized factory production with his assembly-line methods. Ford spent most of his life making headlines, good, bad, but never indifferent. How: The impact Henry Ford had on the world is almost immeasurable. His introduction of the automobile into the mass market transformed agricultural economies in the United States and even around the world into prosperous industrial and urban ones. Many historians credit him with creating a middle class in America

Huey Long

What: Huey Pierce Long Jr., nicknamed "the Kingfish", was an American politician who served as the 40th governor of Louisiana from 1928 to 1932 and as a United States Senator from 1932 until his assassination in 1935 When: August 30, 1893 Why: Long created a public works program that was unprecedented in the South, constructing roads, bridges, hospitals, schools, and state buildings. During his four years as governor, Long increased paved highways in Louisiana How: In the Senate, Long addressed the Great Depression by advocating for a series of reforms known as Share Our Wealth, a plan to redistribute wealth and capping personal income at $50 million. Labeled a socialist by both political parties, Long started his own newspaper, the American Progress, to spread his ideas

"meatless, heatless and wheatless"

What: In 1918, to promote food conservation during World War I, the U.S. government called for one meatless day, two wheatless days and two porkless days each week. When: 1918 Why: During World War I, the U.S. Food Administration urged families to reduce consumption of key staples to aid the war effort. "Food Will Win the War," the government proclaimed, and "Meatless Monday" and "Wheatless Wednesday" were introduced to encourage Americans to do their part How: Voluntary reduction over mandatory restrictions, including Meatless and Wheatless Days during WWI led to a 15% reduction in overall household food consumption between 1918 and 1919.

Bootleggers

What: In U.S. history, bootlegging was the illegal manufacture, transport, distribution, or sale of alcoholic beverages during the Prohibition period (1920-33), when those activities were forbidden under the Eighteenth Amendment (1919) to the U.S. Constitution When: 1919 Why: Bootlegging helped lead to the establishment of American organized crime, which persisted long after the repeal of Prohibition How: On the whole, the initial economic effects of Prohibition were largely negative. The closing of breweries, distilleries and saloons led to the elimination of thousands of jobs, and in turn thousands more jobs were eliminated for barrel makers, truckers, waiters, and other related trades

Allies

What: In World War II, the three great Allied powers—Great Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union—formed a Grand Alliance that was the key to victory When: WWII 1939-1945 Why: The major Allied Powers were Britain, France, Russia, and the United States. The Allies formed mostly as a defense against the attacks of the Axis Powers. How: The common purpose of the Allies was to defeat the Axis powers and create a peaceful post-war world. Its creation was a response to the aggression and unprovoked war the Axis had unleashed upon the world

Gunboat Diplomacy

What: In international politics, the term gunboat diplomacy refers to the pursuit of foreign policy objectives with the aid of conspicuous displays of naval power, implying or constituting a direct threat of warfare should terms not be agreeable to the superior force. When: Between 1905 and 1907 Why: Between 1905 and 1907, gunboat diplomacy ensured U.S. financial supervision and control in that nation while avoiding, at least initially, both the costs and the enmity that went with the establishment of a formal colony How: Aside from military conquest, gunboat diplomacy was the dominant way to establish new trade partners, colonial outposts, and expansion of empire.

Roosevelt Corollary

What: In the history of United States foreign policy, the Roosevelt Corollary was an addition to the Monroe Doctrine articulated by President Theodore Roosevelt in his State of the Union address in 1904 after the Venezuela Crisis of 1902-1903. The corollary states that the United States could intervene in the internal affairs of Latin American countries if they committed flagrant and chronic wrongdoings. Roosevelt tied his policy to the Monroe Doctrine, and it was also consistent with his foreign policy included in his Big Stick Diplomacy When: 1904 Why: The Roosevelt Corollary was a United States foreign policy established by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904. It stated that the U.S. would intervene in Latin American countries where European powers sought to collect debts or whose governments were thought to be unstable. The Roosevelt Corollary was an important addition to the Monroe Doctrine because it sent a message to European and Latin American nations. It stated that the U.S. would not tolerate European interference in the region and that the U.S. would police the area to maintain stability. How: The Roosevelt Corollary of December 1904 stated that the United States would intervene as a last resort to ensure that other nations in the Western Hemisphere fulfilled their obligations to international creditors, and did not violate the rights of the United States or invite "foreign aggression to the detriment of the entire body of American nations." While the Monroe Doctrine said European countries should stay out of Latin America, the Roosevelt Corollary took this further to say the United States had the right to exercise military force in Latin American countries to keep European countries out

United Nations

What: Intergovernmental organization aiming to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations When: October 24, 1945 Why: It's the world's largest and most familiar international organization. The UN was established after World War II with the aim of preventing future wars, succeeding the rather ineffective League of Nations How: The organization's objectives include maintaining international peace and security, protecting human rights, delivering humanitarian aid, promoting sustainable development, and upholding international law.

isolationism

What: Isolationism is a political philosophy advocating a national foreign policy that opposes involvement in the political affairs, and especially the wars, of other countries. Thus, isolationism fundamentally advocates neutrality and opposes entanglement in military alliances and mutual defense pacts When: 1920s Why: The policy of Isolationism in the 1920's attempted to isolate the United States from the diplomatic affairs of other countries by avoiding foreign entanglements and entering into alliances, and limiting foreign competition by imposing high import tariffs (Taxes). Isolationists believed that World War II was ultimately a dispute between foreign nations and that the United States had no good reason to get involved. The best policy, they claimed, was for the United States to build up its own defenses and avoid antagonizing either side. How: Although U.S. isolationism was not the only cause of WWII it was one of the main reasons for the start of the war because it allowed authoritarian rule to sweep the world with the weakened League of Nations, contributed to the worsening of the Great Depression, and made diplomatic resolve abroad impossible

Volstead Act

What: Known as the Volstead Act (H.R. 6810), after Judiciary Chairman Andrew Volstead of Minnesota, this law was introduced by the House to implement the Prohibition Amendment by defining the process and procedures for banning alcoholic beverages, as well as their production and distribution When: 1919 Why: to provide enforcement for the Eighteenth Amendment, prohibiting the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages. How: The Prohibition Amendment had profound consequences: it made brewing and distilling illegal, expanded state and federal government, inspired new forms of sociability between men and women, and suppressed elements of immigrant and working-class culture.

Ku Klux Klan

What: Ku Klux Klan, either of two distinct U.S. hate organizations that employed terror in pursuit of their white supremacist agenda. One group was founded immediately after the Civil War and lasted until the 1870s. The other began in 1915 and has continued to the present. It took violent steps to undermine the Republican party, hoping to maintain black economic instability and ensure white racial and economic superiority in the postwar South When: 1920s Why: The KKK started as a grassroots campaign in the post-civil war era south with the sole aim of disenfranchising the slaves recently freed by Abraham Lincoln through the emancipation proclamation. It quickly spiraled out of control as an avid hate group, with members committing acts of terror on local black populations and holding politicians hostage, as well as rigging votes, all under the anonymity of their hoods. This pattern of extreme intolerance towards non-white races and violence in response to perceived threats to the "American way of life" is one that repeated itself time and time again throughout the 1900's as the world wars and civil rights movement changed the American landscape How: The Klan would experience a huge resurgence in the 1920s with the nativist movement, and another uprising in the 1950s following Brown v. Board of Education. At its height in the mid-1920s, the KKK had four million members nationwide dedicated to intimidating, torturing, and killing African Americans and allied activists.

Modernists

What: Modernists were people who embraced new ideas, styles, and social trends. For them, traditional values were chains that restricted both individual freedom and the pursuit of happiness. As these groups clashed in the 1920s, American society became deeply divided. When: 1920s Why: Traditionalists were people who had deep respect for long-held cultural and religious values. For them, these values were anchors that provided order and stability to society. Modernists were people who embraced new ideas, styles, and social trends How: Modernists were people who embraced new ideas, styles, and social trends. For them, traditional values were chains that restricted both individual freedom and the pursuit of happiness. As these groups clashed in the 1920s, American society became deeply divided

Munich Conference

What: Munich Agreement, (September 30, 1938), settlement reached by Germany, Great Britain, France, and Italy that permitted German annexation of the Sudetenland, in western Czechoslovakia When: September 30, 1938 Why: British and French prime ministers Neville Chamberlain and Edouard Daladier sign the Munich Pact with Nazi leader Adolf Hitler. The agreement averted the outbreak of war but gave Czechoslovakia away to German conquest How: The Munich Conference was a turning point towards World War II because Britain and France caved in to Hitlers demands. Even though Hitler had promised not to try to further exand Germany's territory he did not keep his word

NRA

What: National Recovery Administration (NRA), U.S. government agency established by Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt to stimulate business recovery through fair-practice codes during the Great Depression. The agency ultimately established 557 basic codes and 208 supplementary codes that affected about 22 million workers The National Recovery Administration (NRA) established codes to eliminate unfair practices, establish minimum wages and maximum hours, and guarantee the right of collective bargaining When: 1933 Why: supervised fair trade codes and guaranteed laborers a right to collective bargaining. The goal of the administration was to eliminate "cut throat competition" by bringing industry, labor, and government together to create codes of "fair practices" and set prices authorized the president to institute industry-wide codes intended to eliminate unfair trade practices, reduce unemployment, establish minimum wages and maximum hours, and guarantee the right of labour to bargain collectively. How: The NRA's success was short-lived. Johnson proved to be an overzealous leader who alienated many businesspeople. For labor, the NRA was a mixed blessing. On the positive side, the codes abolished child labor and established the precedent of federal regulation of minimum wages and maximum hours.

"you have nothing to fear but fear itself"

What: Nothing to fear but fear itself may refer to: A phrase from the 1933 inaugural address of Franklin D. Roosevelt. When: 1933 Why: The only thing we have to fear is fear itself." -FDR was telling the American people that their fear was making things worse How: In a general sense, FDR was simply reassuring the American people that they had it within themselves to defeat the Great Depression if they did not succumb to fear that would prevent them from acting to end hard times

Soviet-German Non-Aggression Pact

What: On August 23, 1939-shortly before World War II (1939-45) broke out in Europe-enemies Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union surprised the world by signing the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact, in which the two countries agreed to take no military action against each other for the next 10 years When: August 23, 1939 Why: The pact was an agreement of convenience between the two bitter ideological enemies. It permitted Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union to carve up spheres of influence in eastern Europe, while pledging not to attack each other for 10 years. The non-aggression pact allowed Germany to fight these intermediate wars without fear of a Soviet attack, thereby avoiding a two front war. In July 1940, one month after Germany defeated France, Hitler ordered preparations for war against the Soviet Union How: The agreement was voided when Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941.

August 9, 1945

What: On August 9, 1945, a second atom bomb is dropped on Japan by the United States, at Nagasaki, resulting finally in Japan's unconditional surrender. The devastation wrought at Hiroshima was not sufficient to convince the Japanese War Council to accept the Potsdam Conference's demand for unconditional surrender. When: August 9, 1945 Why: Atomic bombing of Nagasaki: United States B-29 bomber Bockscar dropped a plutonium-239 atomic bomb codenamed "Fat Man" on the Japanese city of Nagasaki at 11:02 a.m. local time, resulting in between 39,000 and 80,000 deaths. How: The bombing of the Japanese city of Nagasaki with the Fat Man plutonium bomb device on August 9, 1945, caused terrible human devastation and helped end World War II

Platt Amendment

What: On March 2, 1901, the Platt Amendment was passed as part of the 1901 Army Appropriations Bill. It stipulated seven conditions for the withdrawal of United States troops remaining in Cuba at the end of the Spanish-American War, and an eighth condition that Cuba sign a treaty accepting these seven conditions When: 1901 Why: The Platt Amendment outlined the role of the United States in Cuba and the Caribbean, limiting Cuba's right to make treaties with other nations and restricting Cuba in the conduct of foreign policy and commercial relations How: Approved on May 22, 1903, the Platt Amendment was a treaty between the U.S. and Cuba that attempted to protect Cuba's independence from foreign intervention. It permitted extensive U.S. involvement in Cuban international and domestic affairs for the enforcement of Cuban independence

FERA

What: On May 12, 1933, the United States Congress created the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA). This organization's purpose was initially to distribute 500 million dollars in federal funds to state agencies. These funds were grants and not loans When: May 12, 1933 Why: FERA's main goal was to alleviate household unemployment by creating new unskilled jobs in local and state government How: The act established the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, a grant-making agency authorized to distribute federal aid to the states for relief. By the end of December 1935, FERA had distributed over $3.1 billion and employed more than 20 million people

Oct. 29, 1929 (Black Tuesday)

What: On October 29, 1929, the United States stock market crashed in an event known as Black Tuesday. This began a chain of events that led to the Great Depression, a 10-year economic slump that affected all industrialized countries in the world. Investors borrowed money to buy more stocks When: Oct. 29, 1929 Why: Also known as the Wall Street Crash of 1929, Black Tuesday was the worst stock market crash in US history. Black Tuesday was an abrupt end to the rapid economic expansion of The Roaring 20's. This event is widely considered to be one of the largest contributors to the beginning of The Great Depression How: An immediate impact of Black Tuesday was that $14 billion of stock value was wiped out, leaving many people penniless and many companies bankrupt.

PWA

What: Public Works Administration (PWA), in U.S. history, New Deal government agency (1933-39) designed to reduce unemployment and increase purchasing power through the construction of highways and public buildings When: 1933-39 Why: The PWA accomplished the electrification of rural America, the building of canals, tunnels, bridges, highways, streets, sewage systems, and housing areas, as well as hospitals, schools, and universities; every year it consumed roughly half of the concrete and a third of the steel of the entire nation How: The PWA headquarters in Washington planned projects, which were built by private construction companies hiring workers on the open market. Unlike the WPA, it did not hire the unemployed directly.

"pump priming" economics

What: Pump priming is the action taken to stimulate an economy, usually during a recessionary period, through government spending and interest rate and tax reductions. The term pump priming is derived from the operation of older pumps - a suction valve had to be primed with water so that the pump would function properly When: 1933 Why: Pump priming is the action taken to stimulate an economy, usually during a recessionary period, through government spending and interest rate and tax reductions. How: Pump-priming is government spending during a recessionary period in an attempt to stimulate private spending and the expansion of business and industry. Roosevelt became convinced by the fall of 1933 that pump-priming was necessary to achieve economic recovery.

RFC

What: Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), U.S. government agency established by Congress on January 22, 1932, to provide financial aid to railroads, financial institutions, and business corporations. ... Eisenhower administration, which sought to limit government involvement in the economy. When: January 22, 1932 - c. 1957 Why: The RFC was an independent agency of the US Federal Government, and fully owned and operated by the government. The agency played a major role in recapitalizing banks in the 1930s and it was effective in reducing bank failures and stimulating bank lending How: The RFC became more prominent under the New Deal and continued to operate through World War II. It was modeled after the US War Finance Corporation of World War I. In total, it gave US$2 billion in aid to state and local governments and made many loans, nearly all of which were repaid

Reconstruction Finance Corporation

What: Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), U.S. government agency established by Congress on January 22, 1932, to provide financial aid to railroads, financial institutions, and business corporations. Eisenhower administration, which sought to limit government involvement in the economy. When: January 22, 1932 - c. 1957 Why: The RFC was an independent agency of the US Federal Government, and fully owned and operated by the government. The agency played a major role in recapitalizing banks in the 1930s and it was effective in reducing bank failures and stimulating bank lending How: The RFC became more prominent under the New Deal and continued to operate through World War II. It was modeled after the US War Finance Corporation of World War I. In total, it gave US$2 billion in aid to state and local governments and made many loans, nearly all of which were repaid

Red Summer

What: Red Summer is the period from late winter through early autumn of 1919 during which white supremacist terrorism and racial riots took place in more than three dozen cities across the United States, as well as in one rural county in Arkansas When: late winter through early autumn of 1919 Why: In most instances, attacks consisted of white-on-black violence. However, numerous African Americans also fought back, notably in the Chicago and Washington, D.C. race riots, which resulted in 38 and 15 deaths, respectively, along with even more injuries, and extensive property damage in Chicago How: hundreds of people lost their lives, thousands were injured and many more were forced to flee their homes.

CCC

What: Roosevelt established the Civilian Conservation Corps, or CCC, with an executive order on April 5, 1933. The CCC was part of his New Deal legislation, combating high unemployment during the Great Depression by putting hundreds of thousands of young men to work on environmental conservation projects When: April 5, 1933 Why: The CCC made valuable contributions to forest management, flood control, conservation projects, and the development of state and national parks, forests, and historic sites. In return, the men received the benefits of education and training, a small paycheck, and the dignity of honest work How: the CCC had a lasting effect on its enrollees. Life in the camps brought tangible benefits to the health, educational level, and employment expectancies of almost three million young Americans, and it also gave immediate financial aid to their families

Schenck v. United States

What: Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47, was a landmark decision of the US Supreme Court concerning enforcement of the Espionage Act of 1917 during World War I When: Jan 9, 1919 - Mar 3, 1919 Why: Schenck v. United States, legal case in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled on March 3, 1919, that the freedom of speech protection afforded in the U.S. Constitution's First Amendment could be restricted if the words spoken or printed represented to society a "clear and present danger." How: In Schenck v. United States (1919), the Supreme Court invented the famous "clear and present danger" test to determine when a state could constitutionally limit an individual's free speech rights under the First Amendment. the wartime powers of the government, and the constitutionality of any restriction on the First Amendment freedom of speech

SEC

What: Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), U.S. regulatory commission established by Congress in 1934 after the Senate Committee on Banking and Currency investigated the New York Stock Exchange's operations The SEC was created in 1934 as one of President Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal programs to help fight the devastating economic effects of the Great Depression and prevent any future market calamities. When: 1934 Why: The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission is a large independent agency of the United States federal government, created in the aftermath of the Wall Street Crash of 1929. The primary purpose of the SEC is to enforce the law against market manipulation How: Roosevelt signed the Securities Exchange Act, which created the SEC. This Act gave the SEC extensive power to regulate the securities industry, including the New York Stock Exchange. It also allowed them to bring civil charges against individuals and companies who violated securities laws

Second Front Controversy

What: Soviets were taking a beating at the hands of the Germans and were eager for the U.S. to attack Germany from the west, across the English channel, through France. Stalin needed his allies to launch a full-scale invasion of western Europe to divert German forces from the Eastern Front. When: WWII; 1942 to 1944 Why: From 1942 to 1944 one subject dominated Allied strategic debate - the creation of a Second Front in Europe. During these years, the Soviet Union single-handedly resisted a massive German invasion. Stalin demanded his allies strike at the heart of Hitler's empire in northwest Europe, establishing a "second front." How: It marked a turning point in World War II. June 6, 1944 - Led by Eisenhower, over a million troops (the largest invasion force in history) stormed the beaches at Normandy and began the process of re-taking France. The turning point of World War II.

"a day which will live in infamy"

What: The "Day of Infamy" speech", sometimes referred to as just "The Infamy speech", was delivered by Franklin D. Roosevelt, the 32nd president of the United States, to a joint session of Congress on December 8, 1941 When: December 8, 1941 Why: He sought to emphasize the historic nature of the events at Pearl Harbor, implicitly urging the American people never to forget the attack and memorialize its date. How: The term "day of infamy" has become widely used by the media to refer to any moment of supreme disgrace or evil. Roosevelt's framing of the Pearl Harbor attack became, in effect, the standard American narrative of the events of December 7, 1941

Hollywood

What: The 1920's were when the movie industry began to truly flourish, along with the birth of the "movie star". With hundreds of movies being made each year, Hollywood was the rise of an American force When: 1920s Why: The rise of Hollywood in the 1920s was due to the economic prosperity during the Roaring Twenties Era. People had more time to spend on leisure and Americans fell in love with the movies. The movies were a cheap form of entertainment and Hollywood in the 1920's was a booming industry How: The Golden Age of Hollywood began with the silent movie era (though some people say it started at the end of the silent movie age). Dramatic films such as D.W. Studio movie stars were even more idolized, and Hollywood increased its reputation as the land of affluence and fame. As the show-business capital of the world, Hollywood is home to many famous television and movie studios and record companies

Immigration Restriction Act of 1921

What: The 1924 National Origins Act made immigration restriction a permanent US government policy. The National Origins Formula was an American system of immigration quotas, between 1921 and 1965, which restricted immigration on the basis of existing proportions of the population When: 1921 Why: A 1921 law imposed the first overall numerical quota on immigration to the U.S.—about 350,000, reduced to 165,000 in 1924 (Martin, 2011). The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 established the nation's first numerical limits on the number of immigrants who could enter the United States How: Fears of increased immigration after the end of World War I and the spread of radicalism propelled Congress to enact this "emergency" measure imposing drastic quantitative caps on immigration. The Emergency Quota Act restricted the number of immigrants to 357,000 per year, and also set down an immigration quota by which only 3 per cent of the total population of any ethnic group already in the USA in 1910, could be admitted to America after 1921.

21st Amendment

What: The 21st Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is ratified, repealing the 18th Amendment and bringing an end to the era of national prohibition of alcohol in America When: Dec. 5, 1933 Why: The U.S. Constitution's 21st Amendment repealed the 18th Amendment, which prohibited the transportation, manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages. The repeal generated a number of positive effects, such as giving adults the personal freedom to drink again and weakening organized crime's grip on power. How: The U.S. Constitution's 21st Amendment repealed the 18th Amendment, which prohibited the transportation, manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages. The repeal generated a number of positive effects, such as giving adults the personal freedom to drink again and weakening organized crime's grip on power

Allies

What: The Allies of World War I or Entente Powers were a coalition of countries led by France, Britain, Russia, Italy, Japan, and the United States When: August 8, 1918 Why: When war broke out, the Allied powers possessed greater overall demographic, industrial, and military resources than the Central Powers and enjoyed easier access to the oceans for trade with neutral countries, particularly with the United States. How: The production of munitions and American funding, resource allocation and the British Blockade, gave the allies a clear advantage on the home front. The utilization of the superior weaponry and manpower as well as improved tactics on the battlefront gave the allies an upper hand in this war of attrition.

America First Committee

What: The America First Committee was the foremost United States isolationist pressure group against American entry into World War II When: Formation: September 4, 1940 Dissolved: December 10, 1941 Why: The America First Committee launched a petition aimed at enforcing the 1939 Neutrality Act and forcing President Franklin D. Roosevelt to keep his pledge to keep America out of the war. The committee profoundly distrusted Roosevelt and argued that he was lying to the American people How: The America First Committee, an isolationist group formed in 1940, lobbied Congress against American involvement in foreign wars. The group was one of the largest antiwar organizations in the country with 800,000 members at its peak

American Liberty League

What: The American Liberty League was an American political organization formed in 1934. Its membership consisted primarily of wealthy business elites and prominent political figures, who were for the most part conservatives opposed to the New Deal of President Franklin D. Roosevelt When: 1934 Why: The set of programs and policies designed to promote economic recovery and social reform introduced during the 1930s by President Franklin D. Roosevelt How: Its membership consisted primarily of wealthy business elites and prominent political figures, who were for the most part conservatives opposed to the New Deal of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The group emphasized private property and individual liberties It was highly active in spreading its message for two years. Following the landslide re-election of Roosevelt in 1936, it sharply reduced its activities. It disbanded entirely in 1940.

Atlantic Charter

What: The Atlantic Charter was a statement issued on 14 August 1941 that set out American and British goals for the world after the end of World War II When: August 14, 1941 Why: The Atlantic Charter was a pivotal policy statement issued on August 14, 1941, that defined the Allied goals for the post-war world, including self-determination for nations and economic and social cooperation among nations First, it publicly affirmed the sense of solidarity between the U.S. and Great Britain against Axis aggression. Second, it laid out President Roosevelt's Wilsonian-vision for the postwar world; one that would be characterized by freer exchanges of trade, self-determination, disarmament, and collective security How: Among its major points were a nation's right to choose its own government, the easing of trade restrictions and a plea for postwar disarmament. The document is considered one of the first key steps toward the establishment of the United Nations in 1945

Kettle Hill

What: The Battle of Kettle Hill (generally known as San Juan Hill) fought on July 1, 1898, was the most significant since it was the only battle that involved all four buffalo soldier regiments, the 9th and 10th Cavalry and the 24th and 25th Infantry. When: July 1, 1898 Why: By the end of day of July 1, U.S. forces had taken both San Juan Hill and Kettle Hill. Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders got most of the credit for taking Kettle Hill but the victory belonged to all of the soldiers who charged up the hill including the 9th and 10th Cavalry How: Hundreds fell under Spanish gunfire before reaching the base of the heights, where the force split up into two flanks to take San Juan Hill and Kettle Hill. The Rough Riders were among the troops in the right flank attacking Kettle Hill.

San Juan Hill

What: The Battle of San Juan Hill, also known as the Battle for the San Juan Heights, was a major battle of the Spanish-American War fought between an American force under the command of William Rufus Shafter and Joseph Wheeler against a Spanish force led by Arsenio Linares y Pombo When: July 1, 1898 Why: The victory allowed the United States to begin a siege of Santiago de Cuba, which led to Spanish surrender and the end of the Spanish-American War. The American press was effusive in its praise of the United States forces How: After enduring artillery fire which inflicted heavy casualties, the Americans charged up the hill and dispersed the Spanish, suffering even more heavily in the process. The fight for the heights proved to be the bloodiest and most famous battle of the war.

Battle of the Bulge

What: The Battle of the Bulge, also known as the Ardennes Offensive, was a major German offensive campaign on the Western Front during World War II which took place from 16 December 1944 to 25 January 1945. When: Dec 16, 1944 - Jan 25, 1945 Why: The Battle of the Bulge marked the last German offense on the Western Front. The catastrophic losses on the German side prevented Germany from resisting the advance of Allied forces following the Normandy Invasion How: Hitler's aim was to split the Allies in their drive toward Germany. The German troops' failure to divide Britain, France and America with the Ardennes offensive paved the way to victory for the allies. The Allies won the Battle of the Bulge, resulting in significantly higher casualties on the German side despite their surprise attack on Allied forces. Losing 120,000 people and military supplies, German forces were dealt an irreparable blow, while Allied forces suffered only 75,000 casualties.

Iwo Jima and Okinawa

What: The Battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa in 1945 undoubtedly saw some of World War Two's fiercest fighting. Both engagements occurred towards the end of the Pacific War, as the United States sought to capture strategically important territories ahead of a planned invasion of Japan When: 1945 Why: It is believed that Iwo Jima and Okinawa were of great importance to the victory in the Pacific War. They were said to be the areas in which they could use as landing strips for the atomic bombs that would later destroy the Japanese homeland. Taking Okinawa would provide Allied forces an airbase from which bombers could strike Japan and an advanced anchorage for Allied fleets. From Okinawa, US forces could increase air strikes against Japan and blockade important logistical routes, denying the home islands of vital commodities. How: Kamikazes would sink dozens of US warships and kill nearly 5,000 sailors during fighting around Okinawa. Total American casualties at Okinawa during three months of fighting there would be nearly double those suffered at Iwo Jima. About 200,000 Japanese soldiers and civilians would die as well. The Battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa in 1945 undoubtedly saw some of World War Two's fiercest fighting. Both engagements occurred towards the end of the Pacific War, as the United States sought to capture strategically important territories ahead of a planned invasion of Japan. Hard-fought battles on the Japanese home islands of Iwo Jima, Okinawa, and others resulted in horrific casualties on both sides but finally produced a Japanese defeat.

Boxer Rebellion

What: The Boxer Rebellion was an uprising against foreigners that occurred in China about 1900, begun by peasants but eventually supported by the government. A Chinese secret society known as the Boxers embarked on a violent campaign to drive all foreigners from China. Several countries sent troops to halt the attacks When: about 1900 Why: While the Boxer Rebellion was an important demonstration of Chinese nationalism, it also provided the nation with a crucial wake up call. It resulted in a decline in Chinese status in the world and was detrimental to the status of the imperial government. The revolt was a radical and religious uprising. Japan and the Western Powers began to control more and more of the Chinese economy. Among the Imperial powers, Japan gained prestige due to its military aid in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion and was now seen as a power. How: The effect on China was a weakening of the dynasty, although it was temporarily sustained by the Europeans who were under the impression that the Boxer Rebellion was anti-Qing. China was also forced to pay almost $333 million in reparations. One consequence of the Boxer Rebellion to China was that the Western Powers gave up the idea of colonializing China. It seemed more preferable to work with China through its imperial administration. Another consequence was the initiation of some reforms approved by the dowager empress

Central Powers

What: The Central Powers, also known as the Central Empires, was one of the two main coalitions that fought World War I. It consisted of German Empire, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Kingdom of Bulgaria;also known as the Quadruple Alliance When: June 28, 1914 Why: The Central Powers consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire. The Austria-Hungarian Empire declared war on the Serbians after the assassination of AH's leader, Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Russia backed Serbia and so all of the Allied Powers got involved, too. This led to WWI. How: The Central Powers mobilized around 25 million soldiers. Around 3.1 million were killed in action and another 8.4 million were wounded. Each member of the Central Powers signed a different treaty with the Allies at the end of the war. The last, and most famous, treaty was the Treaty of Versailles signed by Germany. As well as providing the alliance with its name, the geographical position of the German and Austro-Hungarian empires also gave the Central Powers at least one very important strategic advantage over the Allies they were fighting

Committee on Public Information (Creel Committee)

What: The Committee on Public Information (1917-1919), also known as the CPI or the Creel Committee, was an independent agency of the government of the United States under the Wilson administration created to influence public opinion to support the US in World War I, in particular, the US home front When: April 13, 1917 Why: President Woodrow Wilson established the committee in April 1917 through Executive Order 2594 in response to the U.S. entry into World War I in an attempt to mobilize public opinion behind the war effort with every available form of mass communication How: In its few years of operation, the Committee on Public Information (CPI) fed material to newspapers and magazines, commissioned advertising campaigns, and produced propaganda posters. It even arranged for thousands of public speakers to appear all over the country, making the case for Americans to fight in Europe Following the end of the war in 1918, the reputation of the CPI began to decline. Many Americans concluded that the committee had oversold the conflict and had created a climate that suppressed legitimate dissent.

Dawes Plan

What: The Dawes Plan (as proposed by the Dawes Committee, chaired by Charles G. Dawes) was a plan in 1924 that successfully resolved the issue of World War I reparations that Germany had to pay. The plan provided for an end to the Allied occupation, and a staggered payment plan for Germany's payment of war reparations. When: 1924 Why: The basic idea behind the plan was to make it easier for Germany to pay reparations and had two key parts. As a result, reparations payments resumed, and the French occupation of the Ruhr ended. The plan provided for the reorganization of the Reichsbank and for an initial loan of 800 million marks to Germany. The Dawes Plan seemed to work so well that by 1929 it was believed that the stringent controls over Germany could be removed and total reparations fixed How: The Dawes Plan was initially a great success. The currency was stabilized and inflation was brought under control. Large loans were raised in the United States and this investment resulted in a fall in unemployment. Germany was also able to meet her obligations under the Treaty of Versailles for the next five years.

Double V. Campaign

What: The Double V campaign was a slogan and drive to promote the fight for democracy in overseas campaigns and at the home front in the United States for African Americans during World War II. When: WWII; 1942 Why: In 1942 the Pittsburgh Courier, an African American newspaper, launched the Double Victory Campaign, which stood for "Victory Abroad and Victory at Home." Victory Abroad championed military success against fascism overseas, and Victory at Home demanded equality for African Americans in the United States How: The Double V campaign helped tremendously the plight of black Americans. Blacks everywhere were discriminated against based on their color, and the armed forces at this time was no exception. If blacks were allowed entrance into the army, they were only given menial jobs such as cooks or stewards.

Dust Bowl

What: The Dust Bowl was a period of severe dust storms that greatly damaged the ecology and agriculture of the American and Canadian prairies during the 1930s; severe drought and a failure to apply dryland farming methods to prevent the aeolian processes caused the phenomenon. When: 1930s Why: The Dust Bowl intensified the crushing economic impacts of the Great Depression and drove many farming families on a desperate migration in search of work and better living conditions. The Dust Bowl forced tens of thousands of poverty-stricken families, who were unable to pay mortgages or grow crops, to abandon their farms, and losses reached $25 million per day by 1936 (equivalent to $470,000,000 in 2020). How: The Dust Bowl killed off livestock, leading to further food shortages. Dust inhalation was probably the most dangerous aspect. The dust was so fine that it was almost impossible not to inhale. Many people, especially children, died from dust pneumonia, a lung condition resulting from inhaling excessive dust

Espionage Act

What: The Espionage Act of 1917 prohibited obtaining information, recording pictures, or copying descriptions of any information relating to the national defense with intent or reason to believe that the information may be used for the injury of the United States or to the advantage of any foreign nation. When: 1917 Why: Enforced largely by A. Mitchell Palmer, the United States attorney general under President Woodrow Wilson, the Espionage Act essentially made it a crime for any person to convey information intended to interfere with the U.S. armed forces prosecution of the war effort or to promote the success of the country's enemies. How: Espionage Act limited dissent to the war The act also created criminal penalties for anyone obstructing enlistment in the armed forces or causing insubordination or disloyalty in military or naval forces. United States in 1919, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that the Espionage Act did not violate freedom of speech

Fair Employment Practices Commission

What: The Fair Employment Practice Committee was created in 1941 in the United States to implement Executive Order 8802 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt "banning discriminatory employment practices by Federal agencies and all unions and companies engaged in war-related work." When: 1941 Why: The order prohibited racial discrimination by all federal agencies, unions, and companies engaged in war-related work. It also established the Fair Employment Practices Commission to ensure the order was carried out. Help prevent discrimination against African Americans in defense and government jobs. How: The Fair Employment Practice Committee did not end racial discrimination in employment practices during World War II, but it did have a lasting effect in that era. It opened some doors, as far more of its cases were based on "refusal to hire" than "refusal to upgrade" or "discriminatory working conditions".

FLSA

What: The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 29 U.S.C. § 203 is a United States labor law that creates the right to a minimum wage, and "time-and-a-half" overtime pay when people work over forty hours a week. It also prohibits employment of minors in "oppressive child labor". When: 1938 Why: The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (FLSA) originated in President Franklin Roosevelt's (1933-1945) New Deal. It was a landmark piece of legislation that had a significant impact on the labor movement in the United States. Under the Fair Labor Standards Act, the first minimum wage (25 cents per hour) was established. How: Perhaps most significantly, the Fair Labor Standards Act banned child labor

Four Freedoms Speech

What: The Four Freedoms were goals articulated by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt on Monday, January 6, 1941. In it he articulated a powerful vision for a world in which all people had freedom of speech and of religion, and freedom from want and fear When: January 6, 1941 Why: The four freedoms he outlined were freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear. As America became engaged in World War II, painter Norman Rockwell did a series of paintings illustrating the four freedoms as international war goals. it sought improved diplomatic relations between the United States and its Latin American neighbors. How: As America entered the war these "four freedoms" - the freedom of speech, the freedom of worship, the freedom from want, and the freedom from fear - symbolized America's war aims and gave hope in the following years to a war-wearied people because they knew they were fighting for freedom

Fourteen Points

What: The Fourteen Points was a statement of principles for peace that was to be used for peace negotiations in order to end World War I. The principles were outlined in a January 8, 1918 speech on war aims and peace terms to the United States Congress by President Woodrow Wilson. When: 1918 Why: The main purpose of the Fourteen Points was to outline a strategy for ending the war. He set out specific goals that he wanted to achieve through the war. If the United States was going to fight in Europe and soldiers were going to lose their lives, he wanted to establish exactly what they were fighting for. How: The Fourteen Points are important for several reasons. First of all, they translated many of the principles of American domestic reform, known as Progressivism, into foreign policy. Second, the Fourteen Points constituted the only statement by any of the belligerents of their war aims Yet Wilson's attempts to gain acceptance of his Fourteen Points ultimately failed after France and Britain refused to adopt some specific points and its core principles, although they tried to appease the American president by consenting to the establishment of his League of Nations

Glass Steagall Act (FDIC)

What: The Glass-Steagall Act effectively separated commercial banking from investment banking and created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, among other things. It was one of the most widely debated legislative initiatives before being signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in June 1933. When: June 16, 1933 Why: The Glass-Steagall Act prevented banks from operating as both commercial and investment banks. Its repeal was only one of many factors that contributed to the meltdown in the housing market. Unscrupulous lending practices were a major contributor to the 2008 financial crisis. The Glass-Steagall Act is a 1933 law that separated investment banking from retail banking. Investment banks organized the initial sales of stocks, called an initial public offering. They facilitated mergers and acquisitions. Many of them operated their own hedge funds How: The Glass-Steagall Act was repealed in 1999 amid long-standing concern that the limitations it imposed on the banking sector were unhealthy, and that allowing banks to diversify would actually reduce risk

Great White Fleet

What: The Great White Fleet was the popular nickname for the group of United States Navy battleships which completed a journey around the globe from December 16, 1907 to February 22, 1909 by order of President Theodore Roosevelt When: December 16, 1907 - February 22, 1909 Why: The Great White Fleet was an important show of America's naval power to the rest of the world. It was also an important event in the presidency of Theodore Roosevelt. Within two weeks of the fleet docking in Hampton Roads in February of 1909, Roosevelt left the presidency. How: The cruise of the Great White Fleet provided practical experience for US naval personnel in sea duty and ship handling. It also showed the viability of US warships for long-range operations as no major mechanical mishaps occurred. President Theodore Roosevelt sent the Great White Fleet from Hampton Roads, Virginia, on December 16, 1907, on a world tour to test naval readiness, establish global presence, generate international goodwill, and garner enthusiasm for the U.S. Navy

Harlem Renaissance

What: The Harlem Renaissance was an intellectual and cultural revival of African American music, dance, art, fashion, literature, theater, politics and scholarship centered in Harlem, Manhattan, New York City, spanning the 1920s and 1930s. When: 1920s and 1930s Why: The Harlem Renaissance was a turning point in Black cultural history. It helped African American writers and artists gain more control over the representation of Black culture and experience, and it provided them a place in Western high culture How: The Harlem Renaissance was a golden age for African American artists, writers and musicians. It gave these artists pride in and control over how the Black experience was represented in American culture and set the stage for the civil rights movement Most importantly, the Harlem Renaissance instilled in African Americans across the country a new spirit of self-determination and pride, a new social consciousness, and a new commitment to political activism, all of which would provide a foundation for the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s

Holocaust

What: The Holocaust, also known as the Shoah, was the genocide of European Jews during World War II. When: 1941 Why: The Holocaust illustrates the dangers of prejudice, discrimination, antisemitism and dehumanization. It also reveals the full range of human responses - raising important considerations about societal and individual motivations and pressures that lead people to act as they do - or to not act at all How: Between 1941 and 1945, Nazi Germany and its collaborators systematically murdered some six million Jews across German-occupied Europe, around two-thirds of Europe's Jewish population

HOLC

What: The Home Owners' Loan Corporation was a government-sponsored corporation created as part of the New Deal. The corporation was established in 1933 by the Home Owners' Loan Corporation Act under the leadership of President Franklin D. Roosevelt When: 1933 Why: Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC), former U.S. government agency established in 1933 to help stabilize real estate that had depreciated during the depression and to refinance the urban mortgage debt. It granted long-term mortgage loans to some 1 million homeowners facing loss of their property How: In 1933, the HOLC was established to assist homeowners who were in default on their mortgages and in foreclosure. The HOLC was one of many "New Deal" programs--policies intended to relieve the worst effects of the Great Depression--leading the way in establishing the modern government-backed mortgage system

Immigration Restriction Act of 1924

What: The Immigration Act of 1924 limited the number of immigrants allowed entry into the United States through a national origins quota. The quota provided immigration visas to two percent of the total number of people of each nationality in the United States as of the 1890 national census When: 1924 Why: The US president at the time, Calvin Coolidge, signed the Immigration Act of 1924. For him, restrictive immigration was, to a large extent, for economic purposes. It was designed to keep wages and living standards high for both the existing population and the new arrivals that made it through legally How: The 1924 law set annual quotas for each European country based on the foreign-born population from that nation living in the U.S. in 1890.

"Irreconciables"

What: The Irreconcilables were bitter opponents of the Treaty of Versailles in the United States in 1919. Specifically, the term refers to about 12 to 18 United States Senators, both Republicans and Democrats, who fought intensely to defeat the ratification of the treaty by the Senate in 1919 When: 1919 Why: Irreconcilables, who were completely against the Treaty of Versailles, wanted no part in the League of Nations, which might draw the nation into a new war How: the irreconcilables rejected every part of the treaty because it came from the League of Nations, the reservationists disagreed with the text and would accept it if manners were changed.

Talkies "Jazz Singer"

What: The Jazz Singer, American musical film, released in 1927, that was the first feature-length movie with synchronized dialogue. It marked the ascendancy of "talkies" and the end of the silent-film era. When: 1927 Why: It is notable as the first feature-length motion picture with both synchronized recorded music score as well as lip-synchronous singing and speech (in several isolated sequences). Its release heralded the commercial ascendance of sound films and effectively marked the end of the silent film era. How: Thus, we say that the 'talkies' were born with The Jazz Singer not because it was the first feature-length film to employ synchronized dialogue, but because it was the first to employ it in a realistic and seemingly undeliberate way"

Court packing plan

What: The Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937, frequently called the "court-packing plan", was a legislative initiative proposed by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt to add more justices to the U.S When: 1937 Why: The bill came to be known as Roosevelt's "court-packing plan," a phrase coined by Edward Rumely. In November 1936, Roosevelt won a sweeping re-election victory. In the months following, he proposed to reorganize the federal judiciary by adding a new justice each time a justice reached age 70 and failed to retire. How: The court-packing plan, asit came to be known, was a mistake because it created the impression that the president was trying to undermine the Court's independence

Jones Act

What: The Merchant Marine Act of 1920, known as the Jones Act, is a federal statute establishing support for the development and maintenance of a merchant marine in order to support commercial activity and serve as a naval auxiliary in times of war or national emergency When: Effective: June 5, 1920 Why: The Jones Act is a federal law that regulates maritime commerce in the United States. The Jones Act requires goods shipped between U.S. ports to be transported on ships that are built, owned, and operated by United States citizens or permanent residents. On March 2, 1917, President Woodrow Wilson signed the Jones-Shafroth Act. This law gave Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship. The Jones Act separated the Executive, Judicial, and Legislative branches of Puerto Rican government, provided civil rights to the individual, and created a locally elected bicameral legislature How: Most importantly, the Jones Act advances our national security by helping maintain a vibrant domestic shipbuilding industry and maritime workforce

League of Nations

What: The League of Nations, was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. The League of Nations was an international organization, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, created after the First World War to provide a forum for resolving international disputes. When: It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War Why: The League's goals included disarmament, preventing war through collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation diplomacy and improving global welfare How: Despite its failures, the League of Nations did bring countries and people together in new ways from new alignments of nations to new forms of grassroots internationalisms like League of Nations unions. Admission is free

Lend Lease Act

What: The Lend-Lease policy, formally titled An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States, was a program under which the United States supplied the United Kingdom, Free France, the Republic of China, and later the Soviet Union and other Allied nations with food, oil, and materiel between 1941 and 1945 When: between 1941 and 1945 Why: The Lend-Lease Act stated that the U.S. government could lend or lease (rather than sell) war supplies to any nation deemed "vital to the defense of the United States." Under this policy, the United States was able to supply military aid to its foreign allies during World War II while still remaining officially neutral How: The lend-lease program provided for military aid to any country whose defense was vital to the security of the United States. The plan thus gave Roosevelt the power to lend arms to Britain with the understanding that, after the war, America would be paid back in kind Roosevelt, the legislation allowed military aid and supplies to be offered other nations. Passed before the United States entered World War II, the Lend-Lease Program effectively ended American neutrality and offered a means for directly supporting Britain's war against Germany and China's conflict with Japan

Lost Generation

What: The Lost Generation was the social generational cohort that was in early adulthood during World War I. "Lost" in this context refers to the "disoriented, wandering, directionless" spirit of many of the war's survivors in the early postwar period. The Lost Generation refers to the generation of artists, writers, and intellectuals that came of age during the First World War (1914-1918) and the "Roaring Twenties." The utter carnage and uncertain outcome of the war was disillusioning, and many began to question the values and assumptions of Western civilization When: 1920s Why: The generation was "lost" in the sense that its inherited values were no longer relevant in the postwar world and because of its spiritual alienation from a United States that, basking under Pres. Warren G. The Lost Generation made an impact on society because the writings that came out of this period showed the effects war has on people. War was a terrible hing that made men lose their masculinity, gave people a sense of disillusionment, and made people want to return to a simpler, idealistic past How: The phrase "Lost Generation" is also used to describe the literary landscape of this era. After the war, American writers felt lost, aimless and without purpose. Many flocked to Paris during the 1920s to escape their traditions at home. These expatriates managed to capture the zeitgeist of the time. Disillusioned by the horrors of war, they rejected the traditions of the older generation. Their struggles were characterized in the works of a group of famous American authors and poets including Ernest Hemingway, Gertrude Stein

McNary-Haugen Bill

What: The McNary-Haugen Farm Relief Act, which never became law, was a controversial plan in the 1920s to subsidize American agriculture by raising the domestic prices of farm products. The plan was for the government to buy the wheat and then store it or export it at a loss When: 1920s Why: Congress tried to help out farmers with a piece of legislation called the McNary-Haugen bill. This called for federal price supports for key products such as wheat, corn, cotton, and tobacco. The government would buy surplus crops at guaranteed prices and sell them on the world market How: The McNary-Haugen Farm Relief Act, which never became law, was a controversial plan in the 1920s to subsidize American agriculture by raising the domestic prices of farm products. The plan was for the government to buy the wheat and then store it or export it at a loss

Rationing

What: The Ministry of Food was responsible for overseeing rationing. Every man, woman and child was given a ration book with coupons. These were required before rationed goods could be purchased. Basic foodstuffs such as sugar, meat, fats, bacon and cheese were directly rationed by an allowance of coupons When: WWII Why: Rationing would deeply affect the American way of life for most. The federal government needed to control supply and demand. Rationing was introduced to avoid public anger with shortages and not to allow only the wealthy to purchase commodities How: Supplies such as gasoline, butter, sugar and canned milk were rationed because they needed to be diverted to the war effort. War also disrupted trade, limiting the availability of some goods. Rationing helped to change attitudes - the fact that everyone was restricted to buying a certain amount of goods, created a sense of sharing and cooperation in Britain. It was accepted that the Government was more involved in people's health and food intake.

Wagner Act

What: The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 is a foundational statute of United States labor law that guarantees the right of private sector employees to organize into trade unions, engage in collective bargaining, and take collective action such as strikes. Central to the act was a ban on company unions When: 1935 Why: The purpose of the Wagner Act was to establish the legal right of most workers to join labour unions and to bargain collectively with their employers. It also prohibited employers from engaging in unfair labour practices. How: It provided, for the first time, federal support for unions. Because of this, union membership increased dramatically after 1935. The United Mine Workers, for example, experienced a membership jump from 150,000 to half a million within one year.

War Labor Board

What: The National War Labor Board, commonly the War Labor Board was an agency of the United States government established January 12, 1942 by executive order to mediate labor disputes during World War II. When: January 12, 1942 Why: The National War Labor Board was authorized in March 1918 for the purpose of preventing strikes that would disrupt production in war industries. It was charged with acting as an arbitration tribunal in labor-management dispute cases in order to prevent work stoppages which might hinder the war effort. It administered wage control in national industries such as automobiles, shipping, railways, airlines, telegraph lines, and mining. How: In WWI, the board convinced industry owners to raise wages and better their employee's working conditions. They also successfully pushed negotiations for labor agreements between worker and boss. As a result, union membership increased from 2.5 million to 4 million in just three years

Neutrality Acts

What: The Neutrality Acts were a series of acts passed by the US Congress in the 1930s in response to the growing threats and wars that led to World War II When: 1930s Why: Between 1935 and 1937 Congress passed three "Neutrality Acts" that tried to keep the United States out of war, by making it illegal for Americans to sell or transport arms, or other war materials to belligerent nations How: This Act lifted the arms embargo and put all trade with belligerent nations under the terms of "cash-and-carry." The ban on loans remained in effect, and American ships were barred from transporting goods to belligerent ports.

Roosevelt coalition

What: The New Deal Coalition was an American political coalition that supported the Democratic Party from 1932 until the late 1960s. The coalition is named after President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal programs and was composed of voting blocs who supported Roosevelt's response to the Great Depression. When: 1932 Why: The coalition is named after President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal programs and was composed of voting blocs who supported Roosevelt's response to the Great Depression. At various points, the coalition included labor unions, blue collar workers, racial and religious minorities (such as Jews, Catholics, and African-Americans), farmers, rural white Southerners, and urban intellectuals. The coalition played a significant role in American politics until the mid-1960s, when it fractured over racial and economic issues How: More African Americans voted Democratic

3R's (relief, recovery and reform)

What: The New Deal programs were known as the three "Rs"; Roosevelt believed that together Relief, Reform, and Recovery could bring economic stability to the nation. Reform programs focused specifically on methods for ensuring that depressions like that in the 1930s would never affect the American public again When: 1930s Why: relief for the unemployed and for the poor, recovery of the economy back to normal levels, and reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression. How: The New Deal is often summed up by the "Three Rs": relief (for the unemployed) recovery (of the economy through federal spending and job creation), and reform (of capitalism, by means of regulatory legislation and the creation of new social welfare programs

Open Door Policy

What: The Open Door Policy is the United States diplomatic policy established in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that called for a system of equal trade and investment and to guarantee the territorial integrity of Qing China. When: late 19th and early 20th centuries Why: The Open Door policy—first initiated in 1899, with a follow-up missive in 1900—was significant in its attempt by the United States to establish an international protocol of equal privileges for all countries trading with China and to support China's territorial and administrative integrity How: The creation of the Open Door Policy increased foreign influence in China, which led to a rise in anti-foreign and anti-colonial sentiment in the country. The backlash against foreigners led to widespread killings of missionaries working in China and an increase in nationalist feelings among the Chinese.

Palmer Raids

What: The Palmer Raids were a series of raids conducted in November 1919 and January 1920 by the United States Department of Justice under the administration of President Woodrow Wilson to capture and arrest suspected socialists, mostly Italian immigrants and Eastern European immigrants and especially anarchists and communists, and deport them from the United States When: 1919 and 1920 Why: Palmer Raids, also called Palmer Red Raids, raids conducted by the U.S. Department of Justice in 1919 and 1920 in an attempt to arrest foreign anarchists, communists, and radical leftists, many of whom were subsequently deported. The Palmer Raids were highly unsuccessful in finding radical communists. Palmer believed that on May 1, 1920 would be the day of communist rioting. The day passed without any incidents and he became discredited. How: Because the raids targeted entire organizations, agents arrested everyone found in organization meeting halls, not only arresting non-radical organization members but also visitors who did not belong to a target organization, and sometimes American citizens not eligible for arrest and deportation.

Panama Canal

What: The Panama Canal is a constructed waterway that connects the Atlantic and Pacific oceans across the Isthmus of Panama. It is owned and administered by Panama, and it is 40 miles long from shoreline to shoreline. When: 1914 Why: The canal permits shippers of commercial goods, ranging from automobiles to grain, to save time and money by transporting cargo more quickly between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The canal was a geopolitical strategy to make the United States the most powerful nation on earth. ... Americans knew they needed this to move ships from east to west quickly. If they did that, they would control power because they would control the oceans. It tremendously reduced the travel time between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans How: More than a century ago, the opening of the Panama Canal revolutionized international trade by making it much quicker and easier to travel between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

Philippine insurrection

What: The Philippine-American War or the Filipino-American War, previously referred to as the Philippine Insurrection or the Tagalog Insurgency by the United States, was an armed conflict between the First Philippine Republic and the United States that lasted from February 4, 1899, to July 2, 1902 When: February 4, 1899 - July 2, 1902 Why: After its defeat in the Spanish-American War of 1898, Spain ceded its longstanding colony of the Philippines to the United States in the Treaty of Paris. The ensuing Philippine-American War lasted three years and resulted in the death of over 4,200 American and over 20,000 Filipino combatants. While the Philippine-American War temporarily gave the United States colonial control of the Philippines, it ultimately brought about the final independence of the Philippines from foreign rule. How: The Philippine Insurrection caused uproar in the United States, as people against it created the Anti-Imperialist League. The ensuing Philippine-American War lasted three years and resulted in the death of over 4,200 American and over 20,000 Filipino combatants. As many as 200,000 Filipino civilians died from violence, famine, and disease. The decision by U.S. policymakers to annex the Philippines was not without domestic controversy.

Filipino-American War

What: The Philippine-American War or the Filipino-American War, previously referred to as the Philippine Insurrection or the Tagalog Insurgency by the United States, was an armed conflict between the First Philippine Republic and the United States that lasted from February 4, 1899, to July 2, 1902. When: February 4, 1899, to July 2, 1902. Why: While the Philippine-American War temporarily gave the United States colonial control of the Philippines, it ultimately brought about the final independence of the Philippines from foreign rule. Casualties (Estimated): 20,000 Filipino revolutionaries and 4,200 American soldiers were killed in combat. The causes of the conflict were many, but the immediate ones were America's support of Cuba's ongoing struggle against Spanish rule and the mysterious explosion of the U.S.S. The Spanish fleet guarding the Philippines was defeated by the U.S. Navy under the command of Commodore George Dewey on May 1, 1898 How: The ensuing Philippine-American War lasted three years and resulted in the death of over 4,200 American and over 20,000 Filipino combatants. As many as 200,000 Filipino civilians died from violence, famine, and disease. The decision by U.S. policymakers to annex the Philippines was not without domestic controversy

Jeanette Rankin

Who: Jeannette Pickering Rankin was an American politician and women's rights advocate, and the first woman to hold federal office in the United States. She was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives as a Republican from Montana in 1916, and again in 1940 When: June 11, 1880, Missoula County, MT Died: May 18, 1973 Why: first woman to hold federal office in the United States. She championed a multitude of diverse women's rights and civil rights causes throughout a career that spanned more than six decades. How: Since 1917, when Representative Jeannette Rankin of Montana became the first woman to serve in Congress, more than 300 women have followed.

Quarantine Speech

What: The Quarantine Speech was given by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt on October 5, 1937, in Chicago, calling for an international "quarantine" against the "epidemic of world lawlessness" by aggressive nations as an alternative to the political climate of American neutrality and non-intervention that was prevalent at the time. Franklin Roosevelt speaks of the atrocities taking place abroad, including the disregarding of treaties and invasions of foreign lands. When: October 5, 1937 Why: The speech was an act of condemnation of Japan's invasion of China in 1937 and called for Japan to be quarantined. FDR backed off the aggressive stance after criticism, but it showed that he was moving the country slowly out of isolationism How: The speech intensified America's isolationist mood, causing protest by non-interventionists and foes to intervene. No countries were directly mentioned in the speech, although it was interpreted as referring to the Empire of Japan, the Kingdom of Italy, and Nazi Germany

Lusitania

What: The RMS Lusitania was a British ocean liner torpedoed and sunk by the German submarine U-20 on 7 May 1915, becoming a casualty of World War I When: sunk on May 7, 1915 Why: Lusitania, British ocean liner, the sinking of which by a German U-boat on May 7, 1915, contributed indirectly to the entry of the United States into World War I. The sinking greatly turned American opinion against the Germans, helping the move towards entering the war. How: The sinking of the Lusitania was an important event in World War I. The death of so many innocent civilians at the hands of the Germans galvanized American support for entering the war, which eventually turned the tide in favor of the Allies

Rough Riders

What: The Rough Riders was a nickname given to the 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry, one of three such regiments raised in 1898 for the Spanish-American War and the only one to see combat. ... The regiment was also nicknamed "Wood's Weary Walkers" for its first commander, Colonel Leonard Wood. When: 1898 Why: The Rough Riders played a key role in the outcome of the Spanish-American War by assisting the American forces in forming a constricting ring around the city of Santiago de Cuba. They were led by former White House physician Col. Leonard Wood and future president Theodore Roosevelt. How: The Rough Riders helped fight the Battle of San Juan Hill, which helped win the war. Many of the members were from Arizona and included cowboys, ranchers and miners

Russo-Japanese War

What: The Russo-Japanese War was fought between the Empire of Japan and the Russian Empire during 1904 and 1905 over rival imperial ambitions in Manchuria and Korea. The major theatres of military operations were the Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden in Southern Manchuria, and the seas around Korea, Japan, and the Yellow Sea When: 1904 and 1905 Why: The Russo-Japanese War held great international significance, as it was the first all-out war of the modern era in which a non-European power defeated one of Europe's great powers. As a result, the Russian Empire and Tsar Nicholas II lost considerable prestige, along with two of their three naval fleets. Russo-Japanese War, (1904-05), military conflict in which a victorious Japan forced Russia to abandon its expansionist policy in East Asia, thereby becoming the first Asian power in modern times to defeat a European power. -inflicted humiliating defeats on Russia at land and sea. The war contributed to domestic unrest in both countries, catalysing the revolution of 1905 in Russia. The rise of Japan also sent reverberations across the world How: Although tensions in the region were far from over, the Russo-Japanese War did shift the balance of global power, marking the first time in modern history that an Asian nation had defeated a European one in military combat. It would also mark the beginning of warfare involving world powers in the Pacific region. The Russo-Japanese War is known as the first modern war in which an Asian country managed to defeat a European superpower. The Japanese victory gave a boost to nationalism and resistance to Western imperialism, not only in their own country but also in other Asian countries

Scopes Trial

What: The Scopes Trial, formally The State of Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes, and commonly referred to as the Scopes Monkey Trial, was an American legal case from July 10 to July 21, 1925 in which a high school teacher, John T. Scopes, was accused of violating Tennessee's Butler Act, which had made it unlawful to teach human evolution in any state-funded school When: July 10 to July 21, 1925 Why: The trial was viewed as an opportunity to challenge the constitutionality of the bill, to publicly advocate for the legitimacy of Darwin's theory of evolution, and to enhance the profile of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). How: The trial lasted eight days. John Scopes was found guilty but the verdict was overturned on a technicality. The true importance of the trial was not the verdict, however; the Scopes trial increased American awareness and interest in the issue of teaching theology and/or modern science in public schools

Sedition Act

What: The Sedition Act of 1918 curtailed the free speech rights of U.S. citizens during time of war. Passed on May 16, 1918, as an amendment to Title I of the Espionage Act of 1917, the act provided for further and expanded limitations on speech When: 1918 Why: Aimed at socialists, pacifists and other anti-war activists, the Sedition Act imposed harsh penalties on anyone found guilty of making false statements that interfered with the prosecution of the war; insulting or abusing the U.S. government, the flag, the Constitution or the military; agitating against the production of necessary war materials; or advocating, teaching or defending any of these acts How: It limited freedom of speech. It made it a crime made it a crime to "willfully utter, print, write, or publish any disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language about the form of the Government of the United States" or to "willfully urge, incite, or advocate any curtailment of the production" of the things "

Selective Service Act

What: The Selective Service Act of 1917 or Selective Draft Act authorized the United States federal government to raise a national army for service in World War I through conscription When: May 18, 1917 - July 2, 1980 Why: On May 18, 1917, Congress passed the Selective Service Act, which authorized the Federal Government to temporarily expand the military through conscription. The act eventually required all men between the ages of 21 to 45 to register for military service. The Selective Service System and the registration requirement for America's young men provide our Nation with a structure and a system of guidelines which will provide the most prompt, efficient, and equitable draft possible, if the country should need it. How: The Selective Service Act, signed by Pres. Woodrow Wilson on May 18, 1917, created the Selective Service System, which managed the induction of some 2.8 million men into the armed forces over the next two years and abolished the much maligned bounty system.

Nye Committee

What: The Senate created a special committee in 1934 to investigate the sale of munitions in World War I, known as the Nye Committee, after its chairman Senator Gerald P. Nye of North Dakota. When: 1934 Why: The committee investigated the financial and banking interests that underlay the United States' involvement in World War I and the operations and profits of the industrial and commercial firms supplying munitions to the Allies and to the United States. How: Nye of North Dakota held hearings to investigate the country's involvement on WW1; this committee documented the huge profits that arms factories had made during the war, Investigated arms manufacturers and bankers of World War I.

Smith-Connally Act

What: The Smith-Connally Act or War Labor Disputes Act was an American law passed on June 25, 1943, over President Franklin D. Roosevelt's veto. The legislation was hurriedly created after 400,000 coal miners, their wages significantly lowered because of high wartime inflation, struck for a $2-a-day wage increase When: June 25, 1943 Why: The Act allowed the federal government to seize and operate industries threatened by or under strikes that would interfere with war production, and prohibited unions from making contributions in federal elections How: giving the president power to seize and operate privately owned war plants when an actual or threatened strike or lockout interfered with war production. Subsequent strikes in such plants seized by the government were prohibited. In addition, war-industry unions failing to give 30 days' notice of intent to strike were held liable for damages.

Social Security

What: The Social Security Act, signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1935, created Social Security, a federal safety net for elderly, unemployed and disadvantaged Americans. Tens of millions of people in the United States have received financial assistance through the Social Security Act since its inception When: August 14 1935 Why: In addition to several provisions for general welfare, the new Act created a social insurance program designed to pay retired workers age 65 or older a continuing income after retirement How: Social Security provides a foundation of income on which workers can build to plan for their retirement. It also provides valuable social insurance protection to workers who become disabled and to families whose breadwinner dies. Social Security provides a foundation of income on which workers can build to plan for their retirement. It also provides valuable social insurance protection to workers who become disabled and to families whose breadwinner dies

Sussex

What: The Sussex Pledge was a promise made by Germany to the United States in 1916, during World War I before the latter entered World War I. Early in 1915, Germany had instituted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, allowing armed merchant ships but not passenger ships to be torpedoed without warning. When: 1916 Why: The Sussex Pledge was seen as an attempt by the Imperial German government to appease the United States to prevent a rupture in diplomatic relations as Germany pursued unrestricted submarine warfare. Germany promised not to sink passenger ships without warning and to give civilians thirty minutes to leave any ship. How: it created temporary peace. The Sussex pledge was, therefore, rescinded in January 1917, which started the decisive stage of the so-called First Battle of the Atlantic. The resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmermann Telegram caused the United States to declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917

Hawley-Smoot Tariff

What: The Tariff Act of 1930, commonly known as the Smoot-Hawley Tariff or Hawley-Smoot Tariff, was a law that implemented protectionist trade policies in the United States. Sponsored by Senator Reed Smoot and Representative Willis C. Hawley, it was signed by President Herbert Hoover on June 17, 1930 When: 1930 Why: The Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act of 1930 raised U.S. import duties with the goal of protecting American farmers and other industries from foreign competition. The act is now widely blamed for worsening the severity of the Great Depression in the U.S. and around the world. How: Smoot-Hawley contributed to the early loss of confidence on Wall Street and signaled U.S. isolationism. By raising the average tariff by some 20 percent, it also prompted retaliation from foreign governments, and many overseas banks began to fail

Teapot Dome Scandal

What: The Teapot Dome scandal was a bribery scandal involving the administration of United States President Warren G. Harding from 1921 to 1923. Convicted of accepting bribes from the oil companies, Fall became the first presidential cabinet member to go to prison; no one was convicted of paying the bribes When: 1921 to 1923 Why: Convicted of accepting bribes from the oil companies, Fall became the first presidential cabinet member to go to prison; no one was convicted of paying the bribes. Before the Watergate scandal, Teapot Dome was regarded as the "greatest and most sensational scandal in the history of American politics". How: Convicted of accepting bribes from the oil companies, Fall became the first presidential cabinet member to go to prison; no one was convicted of paying the bribes. Before the Watergate scandal, Teapot Dome was regarded as the "greatest and most sensational scandal in the history of American politics".

TVA

What: The Tennessee Valley Authority ("TVA") is a corporate agency and instrumentality of the United States ("U.S.") that was created in 1933 by legislation enacted by the U.S. Congress in response to a request by President Franklin D. When: 1933 Why: Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), U.S. government agency established in 1933 to control floods, improve navigation, improve the living standards of farmers, and produce electrical power along the Tennessee River and its tributaries How: FDR's ambitious plan transformed the Tennessee Valley by creating dams and reservoirs for electricity and flood control, controlling soil erosion through forest restoration and better farming techniques, and improving navigation and commerce along the Tennessee River. The TVA aimed to help reduce these problems by teaching better farming methods, replanting trees, and building dams. This agency was also important because it generated and sold surplus electricity, created jobs, and conserved water power.

Treaty of Paris of 1898

What: The Treaty of Peace between the United States of America and the Kingdom of Spain, commonly known as the Treaty of Paris of 1898 (Filipino: Kasunduan sa Paris ng 1898; Spanish: Tratado de París de 1898), was a treaty signed by Spain and the United States on December 10, 1898, that ended the Spanish-American War When: December 10, 1898 Why: The once-proud Spanish empire was virtually dissolved as the United States took over much of Spain's overseas holdings. Puerto Rico and Guam were ceded to the United States, the Philippines were bought for $20 million, and Cuba became a U.S. protectorate. How: The key provisions of the Treaty of Paris guaranteed both nations access to the Mississippi River, defined the boundaries of the United States, called for the British surrender of all posts within U.S. territory, required payment of all debts contracted before the war, and an end to all retaliatory measures against loyalists and their property

Treaty of Versailles

What: The Treaty of Versailles was signed by Germany and the Allied Nations on June 28, 1919, formally ending World War One. The terms of the treaty required that Germany pay financial reparations, disarm, lose territory, and give up all of its overseas colonies When: June 28 1919 Why: The Treaty of Versailles is one of the most controversial armistice treaties in history. The treaty's so-called "war guilt" clause forced Germany and other Central Powers to take all the blame for World War I. This meant a loss of territories, reduction in military forces, and reparation payments to Allied powers How: The treaty forced Germany to surrender colonies in Africa, Asia and the Pacific; cede territory to other nations like France and Poland; reduce the size of its military; pay war reparations to the Allied countries; and accept guilt for the war The Treaty of Versailles held Germany responsible for starting the war and imposed harsh penalties in terms of loss of territory, massive reparations payments and demilitarization

Tuskegee Airmen

What: The Tuskegee Airmen were a group of primarily African American military pilots and airmen who fought in World War II. They formed the 332d Expeditionary Operations Group and the 477th Bombardment Group of the United States Army Air Forces When: 1941 Why: The Tuskegee Airmen have become famous as the first African American pilots in United States military service, who proved that Black men could fly advanced aircraft in combat as well as their white counterparts. The first Black commander of an Air Force fighter squadron was a Tuskegee Airman. Trained at the Tuskegee Army Air Field in Alabama, they flew more than 15,000 individual sorties in Europe and North Africa during World War II. Their impressive performance earned them more than 150 Distinguished Flying Crosses, and helped encourage the eventual integration of the U.S. armed forces How: The Tuskegee Airmen were the first Black military aviators in the U.S. Army Air Corps (AAC), a precursor of the U.S. Air Force. Trained at the Tuskegee Army Air Field in Alabama, they flew more than 15,000 individual sorties in Europe and North Africa during World War II. The Tuskegee Airmen are best known for proving during World War II that Black men could be elite fighter pilots. Less widely known is the instrumental role these pilots, navigators and bombardiers played during the war in fighting segregation through nonviolent direct action

Food Administration

What: The United States Food Administration was created by an Act of Congress on August 10, 1917 to provide further for the national security and defense by encouraging the production, conserving the supply, and controlling the distribution of food products When: August 10, 1917 Why: The United States Food Administration, created in 1917 and headed by Herbert Hoover, campaigned to convince Americans to voluntarily change their eating habits in order to have enough food to feed our military and starving civilians in Europe How: The U.S. Food Administration advocated Americans conserve fats. But eating less fat was not for weight loss; it was so fats would be available for the war effort. The Administration promoted using less oil by baking, broiling, and boiling food rather than frying.

August 6, 1945

What: The United States detonated two nuclear weapons over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 and 9 August 1945, respectively. The two bombings killed between 129,000 and 226,000 people, most of whom were civilians, and remain the only use of nuclear weapons in armed conflict. When: August 6, 1945 Why: the blast killed more than 70,000 people and destroyed most of the city—in an effort to hasten the end of World War II. How: The explosion immediately killed an estimated 80,000 people; tens of thousands more would later die of radiation exposure

War Industries Board

What: The War Industries Board was a United States government agency established on July 28, 1917, during World War I, to coordinate the purchase of war supplies between the War Department and the Navy Department When: July 28, 1917 Why: The War Industries Board (WIB) was created by President Woodrow Wilson in July 1917. It was intended to help the U.S. prepare for World War I by increasing industrial production and coordinating the purchase of war materials by the Army and the Navy. The WIB was most significant it that it ensured the U.S. had the war materials necessary to fight in World War I. The agency successfully transitioned a peacetime to wartime economy and provided the productive capacity for the armed services How: Under the War Industries Board, industrial production in the U.S. increased 20 percent. The vast majority of the war material, however, was produced too late to do any good. The War Industries Board was decommissioned by an executive order on January 1, 1919.

War Production Board

What: The War Production Board (WPB) was an agency of the United States government that supervised war production during World War II. President Franklin D. Roosevelt established it in January 1942, with Executive Order 9024. The WPB replaced the Supply Priorities and Allocation Board and the Office of Production Management When: January 1942 Why: The WPB ensured that each factory received materials it needed to operate, in order to produce the most war goods in the shortest time. From 1942 to 1945 the WPB directed the production of $185 billion worth of armament and supplies How: The WPB converted and expanded peacetime industries to meet war needs, allocated scarce materials vital to war production, established priorities in the distribution of materials and services, and prohibited nonessential production.

WPA

What: The Works Progress Administration was an American New Deal agency, employing millions of jobseekers to carry out public works projects, including the construction of public buildings and roads. It was set up on May 6, 1935, by presidential order, as a key part of the Second New Deal. When: May 6, 1935 Why: The WPA was designed to provide relief for the unemployed by providing jobs and income for millions of Americans How: Headed by Harry Hopkins, the WPA supplied paid jobs to the unemployed during the Great Depression in the United States, while building up the public infrastructure of the US, such as parks, schools and roads. Of all of President Roosevelt's New Deal programs, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) is the most famous, because it affected so many people's lives. Roosevelt's work-relief program employed more than 8.5 million people

Zimmerman Note

What: The Zimmermann Telegram (or Zimmermann Note or Zimmerman Cable) was a secret diplomatic communication issued from the German Foreign Office in January 1917 that proposed a military alliance between Germany and Mexico if the United States entered World War I against Germany. When: January 1917 Why: The telegram was considered perhaps Britain's greatest intelligence coup of World War I and, coupled with American outrage over Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare, was the tipping point persuading the U.S. to join the war. How: The note revealed a plan to renew unrestricted submarine warfare and to form an alliance with Mexico and Japan if the United States declared war on Germany. The message was intercepted by the British and passed on to the United States; its publication caused outrage and contributed to the U.S. entry into World War I.

Zoot Suit Riots

What: The Zoot Suit Riots were a series of riots on June 3-8, 1943 in Los Angeles, California, United States, involving American servicemen stationed in Southern California and young Latino and Mexican American city residents When: June 3-8, 1943 Why: The Zoot Suit Riots and were important for the recognition of African - Americans and Mexican-Americans in the United States. It had a positive effect on ethnic consciousness among Americans of Mexican descent, and also for the recognition of separate MexicanAmerican identity, but no linguistic impact How: The Zoot Suit Riots and were important for the recognition of African - Americans and Mexican-Americans in the United States. It had a positive effect on ethnic consciousness among Americans of Mexican descent, and also for the recognition of separate MexicanAmerican identity, but no linguistic impact. While the 1992 riots revealed police brutality and discrimination against the Los Angeles Black community, the Zoot Suit riots illustrate how unrelated social pressures—such as war—can expose and inflame long-suppressed racism into violence even in a city as racially diverse as the City of Angels

Alliance System

What: The alliance system was a network of treaties, agreements and ententes that were negotiated and signed prior to 1914 When: prior to 1914 Why: National tensions and rivalries have made alliances a common feature of European politics, however, the alliance system became particularly extensive in the late 1800s. This led, in effect, to a Triple Entente among France, Russia, and Great Britain, competing with the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. However, Britain was not formally allied to either France or Russia and its commitment to the other powers was limited How: The impact of the alliance system as a cause of war is often overstated. Alliances did not, as is often suggested, make war inevitable. These pacts and treaties did not disempower sovereign governments or drag nations into war against their own will. The alliance system meant that countries were obliged to help other allies so if one declared war, the others had to do the same. Without the alliance system, WW1 would have been a lot smaller and probably not a world war since fewer countries would become involved

Dec. 7, 1941

What: The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service upon the United States against the naval base at Pearl Harbor in Honolulu, Territory of Hawaii, just before 08:00, on Sunday, December 7, 1941 When: December 7, 1941 Why: Pearl Harbor was the most important American naval base in the Pacific and home to the US Pacific Fleet. In strategic terms, the Japanese attack failed. Most of the US fleet and aircraft carriers were not present at the time of the attack How: In all, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor crippled or destroyed nearly 20 American ships and more than 300 airplanes. Dry docks and airfields were likewise destroyed. Most important, 2,403 sailors, soldiers and civilians were killed and about 1,000 people were wounded They destroyed many ships and killed many soldiers. It was this attack that forced the United States to enter World War II.

Pearl Harbor

What: The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service upon the United States against the naval base at Pearl Harbor in Honolulu, Territory of Hawaii, just before 08:00, on Sunday, December 7, 1941. When: December 7, 1941 Why: Pearl Harbor was the most important American naval base in the Pacific and home to the US Pacific Fleet. In strategic terms, the Japanese attack failed. Most of the US fleet and aircraft carriers were not present at the time of the attack How: In all, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor crippled or destroyed nearly 20 American ships and more than 300 airplanes. Dry docks and airfields were likewise destroyed. Most important, 2,403 sailors, soldiers and civilians were killed and about 1,000 people were wounded They destroyed many ships and killed many soldiers. It was this attack that forced the United States to enter World War II.

"Clear and present danger"

What: The clear and present danger test originated in Schenck v. the United States. The test says that the printed or spoken word may not be the subject of previous restraint or subsequent punishment unless its expression creates a clear and present danger of bringing about a substantial evil. When: 1919 Why: Clear and present danger was a doctrine adopted by the Supreme Court of the United States to determine under what circumstances limits can be placed on First Amendment freedoms of speech, press, or assembly How: The test says that the printed or spoken word may not be the subject of previous restraint or subsequent punishment unless its expression creates a clear and present danger of bringing about a substantial evil.

VE Day

What: The day the allied side won the world war When - May 8, 1945 Why: Cities in both nations, as well as formerly occupied cities in Western Europe, put out flags and banners, rejoicing in the defeat of the Nazi war machine during World War II on this day How: This was the day that war finally ended between Germany but there was still the ongoing conflict with Japan not surrendering that America decided to deal with.

Fireside chats

What: The fireside chats were a series of evening radio addresses given by Franklin D. Roosevelt, the 32nd President of the United States, between 1933 and 1944. On radio, he was able to quell rumors, counter conservative-dominated newspapers and explain his policies directly to the American people. When: March 12, 1933 - June 12, 1944 Why: Roosevelt continued to use fireside chats throughout his presidency to address the fears and concerns of the American people as well as to inform them of the positions and actions taken by the U.S. government. How: His tone and demeanor communicated self-assurance during times of despair and uncertainty. Roosevelt was regarded as an effective communicator on radio, and the fireside chats kept him in high public regard throughout his presidency

"speak softly but carry a big stick"

What: The idea is negotiating peacefully but also having strength in case things go wrong. Simultaneously threatening with the "big stick", or the military, ties in heavily with the idea of Realpolitik, which implies a pursuit of political power that resembles Machiavellian ideals. *negotiating peacefully while showing off your military power to intimidate* When: 1904 Why: Big Stick diplomacy is the policy of carefully mediated negotiation ("speaking softly") supported by the unspoken threat of a powerful military ("big stick"). The Great White Fleet, a group of American warships that toured the world in a show of peaceful strength, is the leading example of Big Stick diplomacy during Roosevelt's presidency. How: President Roosevelt used Big Stick diplomacy in many foreign policy situations. He brokered an agreement for an American-led canal through Panama, expanded American influence in Cuba, and negotiated a peace treaty between Russia and Japan. For this, Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906.

Back to Africa Movement

What: The so-called "back to Africa" movements, which sent American blacks, willingly and unwillingly, as colonists to West Africa and elsewhere during the 19th and 20th centuries, often have been considered as a kind of sidebar to American history When: 1920s Why: Marcus Garvey and his organization, the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), represent the largest mass movement in African-American history. Proclaiming a black nationalist "Back to Africa" message, Garvey and the UNIA established 700 branches in thirty-eight states by the early 1920s. How: Through the UNIA, Garvey also pushed to support the "back to Africa" movement, and created the Black Star Line to act as the Black owned passenger line that would carry patrons back and forth to Africa. He also fostered restaurants and shopping centers to encourage black economic independence

Axis

What: The three principal partners in the Axis alliance were Germany, Italy, and Japan. These three countries recognized German domination over most of continental Europe; Italian domination over the Mediterranean Sea; and Japanese domination over East Asia and the Pacific. When: WWII 1939-1945 Why: At its zenith in 1942, the Axis presided over large parts of Europe, North Africa, and East Asia, either through occupation, annexation, or puppet states. How: Germany and Japan had already secured firm control over the areas they invaded. Germany and Japan were better prepared for war. Germany had converted to military production while Japan had a military-led government. They lost WWII

"the war to end all wars"

What: The war to end war" is a term for the First World War of 1914-1918. Originally an idealistic slogan, it is now mainly used sardonically, since not only was WWI not history's final war, but its aftermath also directly contributed to the outbreak of the even more devastating Second World War When: 1914-1918 Why: World War I was known as the "war to end all wars" because of the great slaughter and destruction it caused. Unfortunately, the peace treaty that officially ended the conflict—the Treaty of Versailles of 1919—forced punitive terms on Germany that destabilized Europe and laid the groundwork for World War II How: French Marshal Ferdinand Foch judged it "not so much a peace as a 20-year armistice". The "war to end all wars" turned out to be the opposite. By ensuring Germany's economic ruin and political humiliation, the post-war settlement provided fertile ground for the rise of Nazism and its horrors.

"To make the world safe for democracy"

What: The world must be made safe for democracy is a quote from American President Woodrow Wilson. Wilson made this statement in 1917 during a speech before the US Congress, in support of the United States declaring war on Germany during World War I. When: 1917 Why: Woodrow Wilson, a leader of the Progressive Movement, was the 28th President of the United States (1913-1921). After a policy of neutrality at the outbreak of World War I, Wilson led America into war in order to "make the world safe for democracy." How: President Woodrow Wilson also said that the war will "make the world safe for democracy" to justify his call for a declaration of war on Germany.

Executive Order 9906

What: This order authorized the evacuation of all persons deemed a threat to national security from the West Coast to relocation centers further inland When: February 19, 1942 Why: As a result of this order, over 120,000 Japanese people were forced to relocate to one of ten different internment camps around the United States. Over 200,000 Japanese people were incarcerated in those camps How: This was caused by the increased discrimination towards Japanese people during the world war. Many Americans didn't feel safe having Japanese around not knowing whether they sided with their home country or Americans. Japanese people were discriminated against even after the war ended

Japanese Internment

What: This order authorized the evacuation of all persons deemed a threat to national security from the West Coast to relocation centers further inland When: February 19, 1942 Why: As a result of this order, over 120,000 Japanese people were forced to relocate to one of ten different internment camps around the United States. Over 200,000 Japanese people were incarcerated in those camps How: This was caused by the increased discrimination towards Japanese people during the world war. Many Americans didn't feel safe having Japanese around not knowing whether they sided with their home country or Americans. Japanese people were discriminated against even after the war ended

Bracero Program

What: This series of diplomatic accords between Mexico and the United States When: August 4, 1942 Why: Many U.S. farm owners created labor associations that increased labor market efficiency, reduced labor costs, and increased the average wages of all farmworkers. This permitted millions of Mexican men to work legally in the United States on short-term labor contracts How: The program came to an end in 1964 in part because of concerns about abuses of the program and the treatment of the Bracero workers. Although the program was supposed to guarantee a minimum wage, housing, and health care, many workers faced low wages, horrible living and working conditions, and discrimination

totalitarianism

What: Totalitarianism is a form of government and political system that prohibits all opposition parties, outlaws individual opposition to the state and its claims, and exercises an extremely high degree of control and regulation over public and private life When: early 1920s Why: Italian dictator Benito Mussolini coined the term totalitario in the early 1920s to characterize the new fascist state of Italy, which he further described as "all within the state, none outside the state, none against the state." By the beginning of World War II, totalitarian had become synonymous with absolute and oppressive single-party government How: Other modern examples of totalitarian states include the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin, Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler, the People's Republic of China under Mao Zedong, and North Korea under the Kim dynasty. Under totalitarian rule, traditional social institutions and organizations are discouraged and suppressed. Thus, the social fabric is weakened and people become more amenable to absorption into a single, unified movement

Trench warfare

What: Trench warfare is a type of land warfare using occupied fighting lines largely comprising military trenches, in which troops are well-protected from the enemy's small arms fire and are substantially sheltered from artillery When: 1914 Why: During World War I, trench warfare was a defensive military tactic used extensively by both sides, allowing soldiers some protection from enemy fire but also hindering troops from readily advancing and thus prolonging the war. Trench warfare was the major combat tactic in France and Belgium How: Trench warfare had a massive impact on soldiers as it caused huge amounts of casualties on the battlefield and also caused health problems of the battlefield. ... Rain flooded trenches making them muddy, clog up weapons and make it hard to move in battle. This caused soldiers to get an infection known as Trench Foot.

Sacco and Vanzetti

What: Two anarchists, Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, who were convicted of a robbery and two murders in Massachusetts in the early 1920s and sentenced to death When: 1920s Why: The Sacco and Vanzetti case is widely regarded as a miscarriage of justice in American legal history. Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, Italian immigrants and anarchists, were executed for murder by the state of Massachusetts in 1927 on the basis of doubtful ballistics evidence. Alongside their being immigrants, both Sacco and Vanzetti were also anarchists, which at the time loaded their case with political uneasiness: those beliefs played a significant role in the unfairness of their trial How: Sacco and Vanzetti were executed on 23 August 1927 after several appeals and the recommendation of a special advisory commission serving the Massachusetts governor. The execution sparked worldwide protests against repression of Italian Americans, immigrants, labor militancy, and radical political beliefs

"unrestricted submarine warfare"

What: Unrestricted submarine warfare is a type of naval warfare in which submarines sink merchant ships such as freighters and tankers without warning, as opposed to attacks per prize rules (also known as "cruiser rules") When: early 1915 Why: Because of its stealth and capabilities, it wreaked havoc on opposing vessels. The constant attacks without warning of all ships was known as unrestricted submarine warfare and led to the increased importance of this key military naval vessel How: On 4 February 1915, Germany declared a war zone around Britain, within which merchant ships were sunk without warning. This 'unrestricted submarine warfare' angered neutral countries, especially the United States. is most closely associated with the First World War when Germany's decision to use USW brought the US into the war and led to their defeat

Buying on Credit

What: Using credit means you borrow money to buy something. You borrow money (with your credit card or loan). You buy the thing you want. You pay back that loan later - with interest When: 1920s Why: The expansion of credit in the 1920s allowed for the sale of more consumer goods and put automobiles within reach of average Americans. Now individuals who could not afford to purchase a car at full price could pay for that car over time -- with interest How: The widespread use of credit and layaway buying plans meant that it was acceptable to go into debt to maintain what came to be seen as the American "standard of living" and this was a huge change in attitude

Victory Gardens

What: Victory gardens, also called war gardens or food gardens for defense, were vegetable, fruit, and herb gardens planted at private residences and public parks in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and Germany during World War I and World War II. When: 1942 Why: In 1942, roughly 15 million families planted victory gardens; by 1944, an estimated 20 million victory gardens produced roughly 8 million tons of food—which was the equivalent of more than 40 percent of all the fresh fruits and vegetables consumed in the United States. First promoted during World War I, war gardening, or victory gardens, provided American citizens an opportunity to assist with the war effort. Americans were encouraged to produce their own food, planting vegetable gardens in their backyards, churchyards, city parks, and playgrounds How: Planting Victory Gardens helped make sure that there was enough food for our soldiers fighting around the world. Because canned vegetables were rationed, Victory Gardens also helped people stretch their ration coupons (the amount of certain foods they were allowed to buy at the store). Victory Gardens in World War II were more than a way to increase morale. They produced a significant amount of healthy food, allowing agricultural produce to be used for the military and the Allies, and reducing the use of tin and transportation

VJ Day

What: Victory over Japan Day is the day on which Imperial Japan surrendered in World War II, in effect bringing the war to an end. When: Aug 15, 1945 - Sep 2, 1945 Why: In a radio address in the early afternoon of August 15 (August 14 in the United States), Emperor Hirohito urged his people to accept the surrender, blaming the use of the "new and most cruel bomb" on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for the country's defeat. How: marks the end of World War II

Washington Conference

What: Washington Conference, also called Washington Naval Conference, byname of International Conference on Naval Limitation, (1921-22), international conference called by the United States to limit the naval arms race and to work out security agreements in the Pacific area When: 1921-22 Why: Between 1921 and 1922, the world's largest naval powers gathered in Washington, D.C. for a conference to discuss naval disarmament and ways to relieve growing tensions in East Asia. In the wake of World War I, leaders in the international community sought to prevent the possibility of another war How: The Washington Naval Treaty led to an effective end to building new battleship fleets, and the few ships that were built were limited in size and armament. Many existing capital ships were scrapped. Some ships under construction were turned into aircraft carriers instead.

Ration

What: a fixed amount of a commodity officially allowed to each person during a time of shortage, as in wartime. Americans were asked to buy only what was necessary and to conserve and recycle what they could. By rationing, everyone got his or her fair share of goods. When: Rationing in the United States was introduced in stages during World War II. Americans received their first ration cards in May 1942 Why: Rationing was not only one of those ways, but it was a way Americans contributed to the war effort. When the United States declared war after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States government created a system of rationing, limiting the amount of certain goods that a person could purchase. The federal government needed to control supply and demand. Rationing was introduced to avoid public anger with shortages and not to allow only the wealthy to purchase commodities. Rationing regulated the amount of commodities that consumers could obtain How: Rationing involved setting limits on purchasing certain high-demand items. The government issued a number of "points" to each person, even babies, which had to be turned in along with money to purchase goods made with restricted items. Rationing was not only one of those ways, but it was a way Americans contributed to the war effort. Supplies such as gasoline, butter, sugar and canned milk were rationed because they needed to be diverted to the war effort. War also disrupted trade, limiting the availability of some goods. Rationing resulted in one serious side effect: the black market, where people could buy rationed items on the sly, but at higher prices

"Reservationists"

What: a group of Senators, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, who opposed the Treaty of Versailles, to end WWI unless specific changes were included. The reservationists were senators who believed that the part of the League of Nations that required its members to use military force to carry out its decisions was unconstitutional. When: after wwi Why: "Reservationists," led by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts, wanted reservations (amendments) added to the treaty before approving it. Lodge added 14 reservations to reinforce U.S. policy and protect congressional war powers. How: Reservationists would only ratify the Treaty of Versailles if some changes, called reservations, were added to it. 2. Reservationists were most concerned about Article 10 of the League of Nations charter, which required member nations to work together— and even supply troops—to keep the peace

Bolsheviks

What: a member of the majority faction of the Russian Social Democratic Party, which was renamed the Communist Party after seizing power in the October Revolution of 1917. member of a wing of the Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Party, which, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized control of the government in Russia (October 1917) and became the dominant political power When: 1917 Why: After forming their own party in 1912, the Bolsheviks took power during the October Revolution in the Russian Republic in November 1917, overthrowing the Provisional Government of Alexander Kerensky, and became the only ruling party in the subsequent Soviet Russia and later the Soviet Union. The United States responded to the Russian Revolution of 1917 by participating in the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War with the Allies of World War I in support of the White movement, in seeking to overthrow the Bolsheviks. The United States withheld diplomatic recognition of the Soviet Union until 1933 How: In the Revolution of 1917, a Bolshevik-led armed insurrection by workers and soldiers in Petrograd successfully overthrew the Provisional Government, transferring all its authority to the Soviets. They soon relocated the national capital to Moscow. The Bolshevik seizure of power in Petrograd in October 1917 was celebrated for over seventy years by the Soviet government as a sacred act that laid the foundation for a new political order which would transform "backward" Russia (and after 1923 the Soviet Union) into an advanced socialist society

Executive Order 8802

What: banned discriminatory employment practices by Federal agencies and all unions and companies engaged in war-related work When: June of 1941 Why: This is important because in order to appease the civil rights leaders the president issued Executive Order 8802, which specified that there would be no discrimination in the U.S. defense industry on the basis of race, color, or national origin. The order also established the Fair Employment Practices Commission to enforce the new policy. How: It was the first federal action, though not a law, to promote equal opportunity and prohibit employment discrimination in the United States. It was a really big win for civil rights activist who have protested for this all their lives

ERA

What: a person who makes or sells alcoholic liquor illegally The name is said to derive from the practice of American frontiersmen who carried bottles of illicit liquor in the tops of their boots When: 1920s Why: Bootlegging helped lead to the establishment of American organized crime, which persisted long after the repeal of Prohibition How: Bootleggers counterfeited prescriptions and liquor licenses to gain access to alcohol. The most common practice was to import liquor from other countries aboard ships bootlegging was the illegal manufacture, transport, distribution, or sale of alcoholic beverages during the Prohibition period (1920-33), when those activities were forbidden under the Eighteenth Amendment (1919) to the U.S. Constitution Bootleggers were becoming rich on the profits of illegal alcohol sales and violence was on the rise. ... Alcohol consumption and alcohol-related diseases did decrease overall due in large part to the expense of procuring illicit booze

Imperialism/Colonialism

What: a policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force When: late 1800s through the years following World War II Why: Imperialism is the state policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other territories and peoples. Imperialism was responsible for reforming the European alliances. Imperialist expansion played a major role in the growing tensions between Germany and Great Britain after the turn of the century. The growing imperialist rivalry was responsible for the slow formation of an anti-German alliance system in Europe How: Imperialism adversely affected the colonies. Under foreign rule, native culture and industry were destroyed. Imported goods wiped out local craft industries. By using colonies as sources of raw materials and markets for manufactured goods, colonial powers held back the colonies from developing industries.

Nationalism

What: an ideology that emphasizes loyalty, devotion, or allegiance to a nation or nation-state and holds that such obligations outweigh other individual or group interests. When: In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, nationalism was a force for unity in western Europe. Why: In the 19th and early 20th centuries, many Europeans, particularly citizens of the so-called Great Powers (Britain, France and Germany) had convinced themselves of the cultural, economic and military supremacy of their nation. Many nationalists also became blind to the faults of their own nation. The nationalism and patriotism of European nations, particularly the Great Powers, were significant factors in the road to World War I. How: Nationalism was a particularly important cause of World War I due to several key factors. For instance, it caused nations to build up their armies and led to increased militarism. As well, it created extremely high tensions in Europe in the decades before the outbreak of the First World War

Kamikaze

What: any of the Japanese pilots who in World War II made deliberate suicidal crashes into enemy targets, usually ships. When: October 25, 1944 (first time) Why: Kamikaze attacks were a Japanese suicide bombing tactic designed to destroy enemy warships during World War II. Pilots would crash their specially made planes directly into Allied ships. On October 25, 1944, the Empire of Japan employed kamikaze bombers for the first time. Kamikaze was a military tactic that used pilots as weapons, flying their planes straight into Allied ships. It was seen by pilots as a glorious, honorable suicide, a death to serve the emperor and save Japan from invasion. The kamikaze pilots flew their missions knowing they would never return How: About 19% of kamikaze attacks were successful. The Japanese considered the goal of damaging or sinking large numbers of Allied ships to be a just reason for suicide attacks; kamikaze was more accurate than conventional attacks and often caused more damage

"trickle down " economics

What: derogatory term applied to Reaganomics, or supply-side economics, trickle-down economics is the theory that tax cuts for the wealthy merely "trickled down" to the bottom groups and that the rich benefited at the expense of the economy. When: Great Depression Why: President Hoover believed that a trickle-down economic policy would stimulate economic growth. Hoover believed that trickle-down economics would stimulate economic growth by providing banks and businesses with government funds to increase production, create more jobs, and spur consumer spending How: Trickle-down economic theory states that benefits for the wealthy trickle down to everyone else in the economy. These benefits for the wealthy include tax cuts for dividends, capital gains, high-income earners, and businesses. Trickle-down economics assumes that company owners, savers, and investors drive growth

Fundamentalism

What: type of conservative religious movement characterized by the advocacy of strict conformity to sacred texts When: 1920 Why: Fundamentalism, in the narrowest meaning of the term, was a movement that began in the late 19th- and early 20th-century within American Protestant circles to defend the "fundamentals of belief" against the corrosive effects of liberalism that had grown within the ranks of Protestantism itself. The Fundamentalist campaign resulted in laws being passed in six southern states in the 'Bible Belt', prohibiting the use of Darwin's books in schools and making it illegal to teach the theory of evolution How: Fundamentalists believe that the statements in the Bible are literally true. Fundamentalists often argue against the theory of evolution

Armistice Day 11-11-1918 (11th hour)

What:The Allied powers signed a ceasefire agreement with Germany at Compiégne, France, at 11:00 a.m. on November 11, 1918, bringing the war now known as World War I to a close. Between the world wars, November 11 was commemorated as Armistice Day in the United States, Great Britain, and France When: November 11, 1918 Why: Veterans Day, formerly known as Armistice Day, was originally set as a U.S. legal holiday to honor the end of World War I How: marked a victory for the Allies and a complete defeat for Germany, although they did not formally surrender In 1938, Armistice Day, "a day dedicated to the cause of world peace," was designated an official holiday. Armistice Day remained an important part of national identity and global memory even as the world entered another war in 1939. In the aftermath of World War II, Nov. 11 took on additional meaning

D-Day

What:The Normandy landings were the landing operations and associated airborne operations on Tuesday, 6 June 1944 of the Allied invasion of Normandy in Operation Overlord during World War II. When:June 6, 1944 Why: How:

General Douglas MacArthur

Who: When: Why: How:

Adolph Hitler

Who: Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician who was the dictator of Germany from 1933 until his death in 1945. He rose to power as the leader of the Nazi Party, becoming the chancellor in 1933 and then assuming the title of Führer und Reichskanzler in 1934 When: April 20, 1889 - April 30, 1945 Why: Hitler was of great historical importance—a term that does not imply a positive judgment—because his actions changed the course of the world. He was responsible for starting World War II, which resulted in the deaths of more than 50 million people. How: Adolf Hitler came to power with the goal of establishing a new racial order in Europe dominated by the German "master race." This goal drove Nazi foreign policy, which aimed to: throw off the restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles He expanded the army tremendously, reintroduced conscription, and began developing a new air force—all violations of the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler's military spending and ambitious public-works programs, including building a German autobahn, helped restore prosperity. Upon achieving power, Hitler smashed the nation's democratic institutions and transformed Germany into a war state intent on conquering Europe for the benefit of the so-called Aryan race

A. Mitchell Palmer

Who: Alexander Mitchell Palmer, was an American attorney and politician who served as the 50th United States attorney general from 1919 to 1921. He is best known for overseeing the Palmer Raids during the Red Scare of 1919-20. When: May 4, 1872, White Haven, PA Died: May 11, 1936 Why: He is best known for overseeing the Palmer Raids during the Red Scare of 1919-20. He became a member of the Democratic Party and won election to the United States House of Representatives, serving from 1909 to 1915. How: Palmer believed that communism was "eating its way into the homes of the American workman." Palmer charged in this 1920 essay that communism was an imminent threat and explained why Bolsheviks had to be deported. The Palmer Raids were highly unsuccessful in finding radical communists. Palmer believed that on May 1, 1920 would be the day of communist rioting. The day passed without any incidents and he became discredited.

Alfred E. Smith

Who: Alfred Emanuel Smith was an American politician who served four terms as Governor of New York and was the Democratic Party's candidate for president in 1928 When: December 30, 1873, New York, NY Died: October 4, 1944 Why: Smith was the foremost urban leader of the Efficiency Movement in the United States and was noted for achieving a wide range of reforms as New York governor in the 1920s. Smith was the first Roman Catholic to be nominated for president of the United States by a major party How: "Al" Smith was elected Governor of New York four times, and was the Democratic U.S. presidential candidate in 1928. He was the first Roman Catholic and Irish-American to run for President as a major party nominee. He lost the election to Herbert Hoover. He then became president of the Empire State, Inc. and was instrumental in getting the Empire State Building built during the Great Depression, thus creating one of America's most well-known landmarks

Rosie the Riveter

Who: Allegorical cultural icon of World War II, representing the women who worked in factories and shipyards during World War II When: 1940s Why: This is important because these women sometimes took entirely new jobs replacing the male workers who joined the military. Rosie the Riveter is used as a symbol of American feminism and women's economic advantage How: Similar images of women war workers appeared in other countries such as Britain and Australia. Images of women workers were widespread in the media in formats such as government posters, and commercial advertising was heavily used by the government to encourage women to volunteer for wartime service in factories.

Eleanor Roosevelt

Who: Anna Eleanor Roosevelt was an American political figure, diplomat, and activist. She served as the first lady of the United States from 1933 to 1945, during her husband President Franklin D. Roosevelt's four terms in office, making her the longest-serving first lady of the United States When: October 11, 1884 - November 7, 1962 Why: Eleanor Roosevelt was heavily involved in championing civil rights and social activism. She was appointed chair of the UN Commission on Human Rights which drafted the UDHR. On the tenth anniversary of the UDHR, Eleanor gave a speech at the United Nations called 'Where Do Human Rights Begin? '. How: She advocated for expanded roles for women in the workplace, the civil rights of African Americans and Asian Americans, and the rights of World War II refugees. Following her husband's death in 1945, Roosevelt remained active in politics for the remaining 17 years of her life

Archduke Francis Ferdinand

Who: Archduke Franz Ferdinand Carl Ludwig Joseph Maria of Austria was the heir presumptive to the throne of Austria-Hungary When: December 18, 1863 Assassinated: June 28, 1914 Why: Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife Sophie are shot to death by a Bosnian Serb nationalist during an official visit to the Bosnian capital of Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. The killings sparked a chain of events that led to the outbreak of World War I by early August. How: The murder of Archduke Franz Ferdinand outraged Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary was furious and, with Germany's support, declared war on Serbia on July 28. Within days, Germany declared war on Russia—Serbia's ally—and invaded France via Belgium, which then caused Britain to declare war on Germany

Benito Mussolini

Who: Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was an Italian politician and journalist who founded and led the National Fascist Party When: July 29, 1883 - April 28, 1945 Why: Benito Mussolini was an Italian political leader who became the fascist dictator of Italy from 1925 to 1945. Originally a revolutionary socialist, he forged the paramilitary fascist movement in 1919 and became prime minister in 1922 How: Benito Mussolini changed the world forever as the founder of Fascism, his lack of attention and maintenance to his army, and the resurrection of Italy's economy. Mussolini influenced Hitler and was the basis for his mass genocide which caused millions of death in Europe

Calvin Coolidge

Who: Calvin Coolidge was the 30th president of the United States from 1923 to 1929. A Republican lawyer from New England, born in Vermont, Coolidge worked his way up the ladder of Massachusetts state politics, eventually becoming governor of Massachusetts When: July 4, 1872, Plymouth Notch, Plymouth, VT Died: January 5, 1933 Why: His response to the Boston Police Strike of 1919 thrust him into the national spotlight and gave him a reputation as a man of decisive action. The next year, he was elected the 29th vice president of the United States, and he succeeded to the presidency upon the sudden death of Warren G. Harding in 1923. How: He presided over a strong economy and sought to shrink the regulatory role of the federal government. Along with Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon, Coolidge won the passage of three major

Charles Lindbergh

Who: Charles Augustus Lindbergh was an American aviator, military officer, author, inventor, and activist. At the age of 25, he went from obscurity as a U.S. Air Mail pilot to instantaneous world fame by winning the Orteig Prize for making the first nonstop flight from New York City to Paris on May 20-21, 1927 When: February 4, 1902 - August 26, 1974 Why: Charles Lindbergh was an American aviator who rose to international fame in 1927 after becoming the first person to fly solo and nonstop across the Atlantic Ocean in his monoplane, Spirit of St. Late in life, Lindbergh became a conservationist, arguing that he would rather have "birds than airplanes." How: Charles Lindbergh was a famous aviator. In 1927 he became the first man to successfully fly an airplane across the Atlantic Ocean. He called his airplane the Spirit of St. Louis, and his courageous feat helped make Missouri a leader in the developing world of aviation.

Charles Lindbergh

Who: Charles Augustus Lindbergh was an American aviator, military officer, author, inventor, and activist. At the age of 25, he went from obscurity as a U.S. Air Mail pilot to instantaneous world fame by winning the Orteig Prize for making the first nonstop flight from New York City to Paris on May 20-21, 1927 When: February 4, 1902, Detroit, MI Died: August 26, 1974 Why: Charles Lindbergh was an American aviator who rose to international fame in 1927 after becoming the first person to fly solo and nonstop across the Atlantic Ocean in his monoplane, Spirit of St. Late in life, Lindbergh became a conservationist, arguing that he would rather have "birds than airplanes." How: Charles Lindbergh was a famous aviator. In 1927 he became the first man to successfully fly an airplane across the Atlantic Ocean. He called his airplane the Spirit of St. Louis, and his courageous feat helped make Missouri a leader in the developing world of aviation

Pancho Villa

Who: Francisco Villa was initially a bandit, who became a general in the Mexican Revolution. He was a key figure in the revolutionary violence that forced out President Porfirio Díaz and brought Francisco I. Madero to power in 1911. When: Born: June 5, 1878 Assassinated: July 20, 1923 Why: Pancho Villa was a Mexican revolutionary and guerrilla leader who fought against the regimes of both Porfirio Díaz and Victoriano Huerta. After 1914 he engaged in civil war and banditry. He became notorious in the United States for his attack on Columbus, New Mexico, in 1916. How: Mexican revolutionary leader who advocated for the poor and land reform. He helped lead the Mexican Revolution, which ended the reign of Porfirio Díaz and led to the creation of a new government in Mexico

General Dwight D. Eisenhower

Who: Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower was an American military officer and statesman who served as the 34th president of the United States from 1953 to 1961. During World War II, he served as Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force in Europe, and achieved the rare five-star rank of General of the Army. When: October 14, 1890 - March 28, 1969 Why: He signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and sent Army troops to enforce federal court orders which integrated schools in Little Rock, Arkansas. His largest program was the Interstate Highway System. He promoted the establishment of strong science education via the National Defense Education Act. Eisenhower led the opening phases of the Italian campaign, but was subsequently assigned to lead the Allied invasion of Western Europe in December 1943. He served as the supreme commander of Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion of Normandy, and took command of subsequent operations in France How: He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942-1943 and the successful invasion of Normandy in 1944-1945 from the Western Front. Under the Eisenhower Doctrine, a Middle Eastern country could request American economic assistance or aid from U.S. military forces if it was being threatened by armed aggression

Duke Ellington

Who: Edward Kennedy "Duke" Ellington was an American composer, pianist, and leader of a jazz orchestra from 1923 through the rest of his life. Born in Washington, D.C., Ellington was based in New York City from the mid-1920s and gained a national profile through his orchestra's appearances at the Cotton Club in Harlem When: April 29, 1899, Washington, D.C. Died: May 24, 1974 Why: Duke Ellington was the greatest jazz composer and bandleader of his time. His gift of melody and mastery of sonic textures, rhythms, and compositional forms translated into a body of music unequaled in jazz history. One of the originators of big-band jazz, he led his band for more than 50 years and composed thousands of scores. How: Ellington became a staple in the Harlem Renaissance. This opened the door for Ellington as an artist. He increased his band to eleven people, meeting the Club's requirements. He began a weekly radio broadcast, increasing his exposure, especially to the white and wealthy clients of the Cotton Club

Ernest Hemingway

Who: Ernest Miller Hemingway was an American novelist, short-story writer, journalist, and sportsman. His economical and understated style—which he termed the iceberg theory—had a strong influence on 20th-century fiction, while his adventurous lifestyle and his public image brought him admiration from later generations When: July 21, 1899, Oak Park, IL Died: July 2, 1961 Why: The influential American literary icon became known for his straightforward prose and use of understatement. Hemingway, who tackled topics such as bullfighting and war in his work, also became famous for his own macho, hard-drinking persona How: In 1952 The Old Man and the Sea won the Pulitzer Prize, and in 1954 Hemingway was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. His prolific literary contributions also include collections of short stories, many of which have appeared in anthologies and textbooks Ernest Hemingway, who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1954, had a great impact on other writers through his deceptively simple, stripped-down prose, full of unspoken implication, and his tough but vulnerable masculinity

Eugene V. Debs

Who: Eugene Victor "Gene" Debs was an American socialist, political activist, trade unionist, one of the founding members of the Industrial Workers of the World, and five times the candidate of the Socialist Party of America for President of the United States When: November 5, 1855 - October 20, 1926 Why: Debs was noted for his oratorical skills, and his speech denouncing American participation in World War I led to his second arrest in 1918. He was convicted under the Sedition Act of 1918 and sentenced to a ten-year term. President Warren G. Harding commuted his sentence in December 1921. Eugene Debs, a labor activist, was arrested under the 1917 Espionage Act and the 1918 Sedition Act, for giving an antiwar speech during the First World War. Debs argued that his arrest and sentencing under the act were unconstitutional under the First Amendment, which protects freedom of speech How: Debs helped motivate the American left to organize political opposition to corporations and World War I. American socialists, communists, and anarchists honor his work for the labor movement and motivation to have the average working man build socialism without large state involvement

F Scott Fitzgerald

Who: Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald was an American novelist, essayist, short story writer and screenwriter. He was best known for his novels depicting the flamboyance and excess of the Jazz Age—a term he popularized. During his lifetime, he published four novels, four story collections, and 164 short stories When: September 24, 1896, Saint Paul, MN Died: December 21, 1940 Why: Fitzgerald is famous for his depictions of the Jazz Age (the 1920s), especially in his novel The Great Gatsby. Fitzgerald conveyed in The Great Gatsby the sense of hope America promised to its youth and the disappointment its youth felt when America failed to deliver How: Scott Fitzgerald presented his life through his writing because life experiences and relationships influenced the characters in The Great Gatsby, and the time period in which he lived in provided a theme for the story. Best known for The Great Gatsby (1925) and Tender Is the Night (1934)—two keystones of modernist fiction—Francis Scott Fitzgerald (1896-1940) was the poet laureate of the "Jazz Age," a term he popularized to convey the post-World War I era's newfound prosperity, consumerism, and shifting sexual mores

FDR

Who: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, often referred to by his initials FDR, was an American politician and attorney who served as the 32nd president of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945 When: January 30, 1882 - April 12, 1945 Why: As a dominant leader of his party, he built the New Deal Coalition, which defined modern liberalism in the United States throughout the middle third of the 20th century. His third and fourth terms were dominated by World War II, which ended shortly after he died in office How: Established the New Deal to provide relief, recovery, and reform in response to the Great Depression. After leading the United States through nearly a decade of Depression, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt took on the role of Commander-in-Chief when the United States entered the Second World War.

FDR

Who: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, often referred to by his initials FDR, was an American politician and attorney who served as the 32nd president of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945 When: January 30, 1882, Hyde Park, NY Died: April 12, 1945 Why: As a dominant leader of his party, he built the New Deal Coalition, which defined modern liberalism in the United States throughout the middle third of the 20th century. His third and fourth terms were dominated by World War II, which ended shortly after he died in office. How: He created numerous programs to provide relief to the unemployed and farmers while seeking economic recovery with the National Recovery Administration and other agencies. He also instituted major regulatory reforms related to finance, communications, and labor

Babe Ruth

Who: George Herman "Babe" Ruth Jr. was an American professional baseball player whose career in Major League Baseball spanned 22 seasons, from 1914 through 1935. When: February 6, 1895 - August 16, 1948 Why: As a full-time outfielder with the Yankees, Ruth quickly emerged as the greatest hitter to have ever played the game. Nicknamed by sportswriters the "Sultan of Swat," in his first season with the Yankees in 1920, he shattered his own single-season record by hitting 54 home runs, 25 more than he had hit in 1919. Over the course of his career, Babe Ruth went on to break baseball's most important slugging records, including most years leading a league in home runs, most total bases in a season, and highest slugging percentage for a season How: The Babe helped save baseball from the ugly Black Sox scandal, and gave hope to millions during The Great Depression. He impacted the game in a way never seen before, or since. He continues to be the benchmark by which all other players are measured. Ruth became the first star of a world where virtually every citizen could share in common media experiences

Albert Einstein

Who: He was a German born theoretical physicist, widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest physicists of all time When - March 14, 1879 Why - Einstein is best known for developing the theory of relativity, but he also made important contributions to the development of the theory of quantum mechanics. His work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science How - Einstein, of Jewish origin, objected to the policies of the newly elected Nazi government; he settled in the United States and became an American citizen in 1940. On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential German nuclear weapons program and recommending that the US begin similar research

Philip Randolph

Who: He was an American labor unionist and civil rights activist When: April 15, 1889 Why: In 1925, he organized and led the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, the first successful African-American-led labor union. In the early Civil Rights Movement and the Labor Movement, Randolph was a prominent voice How: Randolph directed the March on Washington Movement to end employment discrimination in the defense industry and a national civil disobedience campaign to ban segregation in the armed forces. The nonviolent protest and mass action effort inspired the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s.

Henry Cabot Lodge

Who: Henry Cabot Lodge was an American Republican politician, historian, and statesman from Massachusetts. He served in the United States Senate from 1893 to 1924 and is best known for his positions on foreign policy. When: May 12, 1850, Beverly, MA Died: November 9, 1924, Why: His successful crusade against Woodrow Wilson's Treaty of Versailles ensured that the United States never joined the League of Nations and his reservations against that treaty influenced the structure of the modern United Nations. How: Henry Cabot Lodge and other Republicans opposed joining the League of Nations because they did not want the US to be pulled into more international conflicts where American soldiers would have to fight for the interests of other countries.

Herbert Hoover

Who: Herbert Clark Hoover was an American politician and engineer who served as the 31st president of the United States from 1929 to 1933 and a member of the Republican Party, holding office during the onset of the Great Depression When: August 10, 1874, West Branch, IA Died: October 20, 1964 Why: He was influential in the development of air travel and radio. He led the federal response to the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927. Hoover won the Republican nomination in the 1928 presidential election, and decisively defeated Democratic candidate Al Smith. How: Did not really interfere during Great Depression and didn't really help people directly. He utilized the "trickle down economics", hoping that it would repair the economy.

Langston Hughes

Who: James Mercer Langston Hughes was an American poet, social activist, novelist, playwright, and columnist from Joplin, Missouri. One of the earliest innovators of the literary art form called jazz poetry, Hughes is best known as a leader of the Harlem Renaissance When: February 1, 1901 - May 22, 1967 Why: Langston Hughes was a central figure in the Harlem Renaissance, the flowering of black intellectual, literary, and artistic life that took place in the 1920s in a number of American cities, particularly Harlem. A major poet, Hughes also wrote novels, short stories, essays, and plays How: Langston Hughes was one of the most important writers and thinkers of the Harlem Renaissance, which was the African American artistic movement in the 1920s that celebrated black life and culture. Hughes's creative genius was influenced by his life in New York City's Harlem, a primarily African American neighborhood. Through his poetry, novels, plays, essays, and children's books, he promoted equality, condemned racism and injustice, and celebrated African American culture, humor, and spirituality.

J. Edgar Hoover

Who: John Edgar Hoover was an American law enforcement administrator who served as the first Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation of the United States for nearly 48 years. When: January 1, 1895, Washington, D.C. Died: May 2, 1972 Why: J. Edgar Hoover (1895-1972) was director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation for 48 years, serving under every president from Calvin Coolidge to Richard M. Nixon. His supporters praised him for building the FBI into one of the world's outstanding law-enforcement agencies. J. Edgar Hoover was a United States government official who served as director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) from 1924 until his death in 1972. He built the agency into a highly effective, and occasionally controversial, arm of federal law enforcement How: He established a fingerprint file, which became the world's largest; a scientific crime-detection laboratory; and the FBI National Academy, to which selected law enforcement officers from all parts of the country were sent for special training.

John Scopes

Who: John Thomas Scopes was a teacher in Dayton, Tennessee, who was charged on May 5, 1925, with violating Tennessee's Butler Act, which prohibited the teaching of human evolution in Tennessee schools. He was tried in a case known as the Scopes Trial, in which he was found guilty and fined $100 When: August 3, 1900, Paducah, KY Died: October 21, 1970 Why: The trial was viewed as an opportunity to challenge the constitutionality of the bill, to publicly advocate for the legitimacy of Darwin's theory of evolution, and to enhance the profile of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). How: The trial lasted eight days. John Scopes was found guilty but the verdict was overturned on a technicality. The true importance of the trial was not the verdict, however; the Scopes trial increased American awareness and interest in the issue of teaching theology and/or modern science in public schools

Joseph Stalin

Who: Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin, born Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili, was a Georgian revolutionary and Soviet political leader who governed the Soviet Union from 1922 until his death in 1953 When: December 18, 1878 - March 5, 1953 Why: From 1928 until his death in 1953, Joseph Stalin ruled the Soviet Union as a dictator, transforming the country from an agrarian peasant society into a global superpower. The cost was tremendous, however: Stalin was responsible for the deaths of millions of Soviet citizens. As war leader, Stalin maintained close personal control over the Soviet battlefronts, military reserves, and war economy How: Joseph Stalin ruled the Soviet Union for more than two decades, instituting a reign of death and terror while modernizing Russia and helping to defeat Nazism Stalin forced rapid industrialization and the collectivization of agricultural land, resulting in millions dying from famine while others were sent to labor camps. His Red Army helped defeat Nazi Germany during World War II

Louis Armstrong

Who: Louis Daniel Armstrong, nicknamed "Satchmo", "Satch", and "Pops", was an American trumpeter and vocalist. He is among the most influential figures in jazz. His career spanned five decades and different eras in the history of jazz. Armstrong was born and raised in New Orleans. When: August 4, 1901, New Orleans, LA Died: July 6, 1971 Why: Louis Armstrong is considered the leading trumpeter and one of the most influential artists in jazz history, who helped develop jazz into a fine art. How: Many scholars call Louis Armstrong the first great jazz soloist. From the beginning of his career as a bandleader, Armstrong created ensembles to showcase his spectacular trumpet playing. His music had such an important effect on jazz history that many scholars, critics, and fans call him the first great jazz soloist Louis Armstrong's trumpet playing revolutionized the world of music, and he became one of our century's most recognized and best loved entertainers. His trumpet playing revolutionized the world of music, and he became one of our century's most recognized and best loved entertainers

Marcus Garvey

Who: Marcus Mosiah Garvey Sr. ONH was a Jamaican political activist, publisher, journalist, entrepreneur, and orator. He was the founder and first President-General of the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League, through which he declared himself Provisional President of Africa When: August 17, 1887, Saint Ann's Bay, Jamaica Died: June 10, 1940 Why: Garvey was known as the founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA). Formed in Jamaica in July 1914, the UNIA aimed to achieve Black nationalism through the celebration of African history and culture How: Despite his controversial reputation, Garvey's legacy continued to instill pride and inspiration among many black people throughout the diaspora. His ideology has influenced members of the Nation of Islam, the Black Power movement, and the Rastafari movement. Experts say Garvey's philosophies of black nationalism and Pan-Africanism - movements that called for people of African descent to unify and establish an independent nation in Africa - helped pave the way for the civil rights movement. Garvey's quest for black self-reliance, they say, would be felt for generations

Charlie Chaplin

Who: Sir Charles Spencer Chaplin Jr. KBE was an English comic actor, filmmaker, and composer who rose to fame in the era of silent film. He became a worldwide icon through his screen persona, the Tramp, and is considered one of the film industry's most important figures When: April 16, 1889, Walworth, London, United Kingdom Died: December 25, 1977 Why: Charlie Chaplin was one of the greatest and widely loved silent movie stars. From "Easy Street" (1917) to "Modern Times" (1936), he made many of the funniest and most popular films of his time. He was best known for his character, the naive and lovable Little Tramp. How: Not only did he change the face of cinema in Hollywood forever but also had a worldwide impact. His skill lay in his innate ability to blend in everyday struggles and tragedy into a comic everyman character which made him funny and relatable at the same time.

Warren G. Harding

Who: Warren Gamaliel Harding served as the 29th president of the United States from 1921 until his death in 1923. He was a member of the Republican Party and one of the most popular sitting U.S. presidents. When: November 2, 1865, Blooming Grove, OH Died: August 2, 1923 Why: Harding was able to solve the problems by paying the workers more money. The President was able to encourage many nations cut down on their spending on military, navy, and air to prevent another world war. . Harding also signed the Budget and Accounting Act, which established the country's first formal budgeting process and created the Bureau of the Budget. How: "Return to normalcy" was United States presidential candidate Warren G. Harding's campaign slogan for the election of 1920. It evoked a return to the way of life before World War I, the First Red Scare, and the Spanish flu pandemic.

William Borah

Who: William Edgar Borah was an outspoken Republican United States Senator, one of the best-known figures in Idaho's history When: June 29, 1865, Fairfield, IL Died: January 19, 1940 Why: A progressive who served from 1907 until his death in 1940, Borah is often considered an isolationist, because he led the Irreconcilables, senators who would not accept the Treaty of Versailles, Senate ratification of which would have made the U.S. part of the League of Nations. Senator William Borah was affectionately known as the "Lion of Idaho" during his 33 years in the United States Senate. Elected as a Republican in 1907, Borah established himself as a prominent progressive with a fiercely independent spirit. How: Senator Borah was instrumental in the passage of the Pact of Paris Treaty (also known as the Kellogg-Briand Peace Pact) which outlawed war as an instrument of national policy which the Senate ratified in 1928 by an 85-1 vote.

William Jennings Bryan

Who: William Jennings Bryan was an American orator and politician. Beginning in 1896, he emerged as a dominant force in the Democratic Party, running three times as the party's nominee for President of the United States in the 1896, 1900, and the 1908 elections When: March 19, 1860, Salem, IL Died: July 26, 1925 Why: Bryan won election to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1890 and served until 1895, championing Populist causes such as the free coinage of silver, national income tax, and direct election of Senators. How: Bryan supported bimetallism, or free silver, which he believed would bring the naiton prosperity. He vehemently oposed the gold standard, and famously said, "you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold". The speech helped put him on as the Democratic presidential nomination

William McKinley

Who: William McKinley was the 25th president of the United States, serving from 1897 until his assassination in 1901. When: January 29, 1843 - September 14, 1901 Why: He was president during the Spanish-American War of 1898, raised protective tariffs to boost American industry, and rejected the expansionary monetary policy of free silver, keeping the nation on the gold standard. How: During his tenure, the United States acquired overseas territories, fought and won a war with a European power, and attempted to set international norms regarding trade with China. In short, the United States emerged on the world stage in new and unprecedented ways

Winston Churchill

Who: a British statesman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945, during the Second World War, and again from 1951 to 1955. When: November 30, 1874 - January 24, 1965 Why: Churchill is best remembered for successfully leading Britain through World War Two. He was famous for his inspiring speeches, and for his refusal to give in, even when things were going badly. Many people consider him the greatest Briton of all time and he's almost certainly the most famous British prime minister How: As prime minister (1940-45) during most of World War II, Winston Churchill rallied the British people and led the country from the brink of defeat to victory. He shaped Allied strategy in the war, and in the war's later stages he alerted the West to the expansionist threat of the Soviet Union

Emilio Aguinaldo

Who: a Filipino revolutionary, statesman, and military leader who is officially recognized as the first and the youngest president of the Philippines and the first president of a constitutional republic in Asia When: March 22, 1869 - February 6, 1964 Why: Emilio Aguinaldo fought for a free and independent Philippines, first against Spain and then against the United States. When the Philippines declared itself an independent republic in 1898 and Aguinaldo became its president, a significant milestone was reached in the struggle against colonial rule in Asia. led a Filipino insurrection against the Spanish in 1896 and assisted the U.S. invasion. He served as leader of the provisional government but was removed by the U.S. because he wanted to make the Philippines independent before the U.S. felt it was ready for independence. How: Emilio Aguinaldo led a revolutionary movement against the Spanish colonial government in the Philippines. He cooperated with the U.S. during the Spanish-American War but subsequently broke with the U.S. and led a guerrilla campaign against U.S. authorities during the Philippine-American War.

Herbert Hoover

Who: an American politician and engineer who served as the 31st president of the United States from 1929 to 1933 and a member of the Republican Party, holding office during the onset of the Great Depression When: August 10, 1874 - October 20, 1964 Why: Hoover was an unusually active and visible Cabinet member, becoming known as "Secretary of Commerce and Under-Secretary of all other departments". He was influential in the development of air travel and radio. He led the federal response to the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927. Before serving as America's 31st President from 1929 to 1933, Herbert Hoover had achieved international success as a mining engineer and worldwide gratitude as "The Great Humanitarian" who fed war-torn Europe during and after World War I. How: Hoover's accomplishments include: -signed into law the Agricultural Marketing Act. This law created the Federal Farm Board to help regulate farm prices. Republican candidate who assumed the presidency in March 1929 promising the American people prosperity and attempted to first deal with the Depression by trying to restore public faith in the community

John Hay

Who: an American statesman and official whose career in government stretched over almost half a century. Beginning as a private secretary and assistant to Abraham Lincoln, Hay's highest office was United States Secretary of State under Presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt When: October 8, 1838 - July 1, 1905 Why: Hay is probably best remembered as the promoter of the Open Door policy, which was designed to counter the trend toward divisive spheres of influence in the Orient. In 1899 he sent diplomatic notes to six interested nations proposing equal trading rights in China for all nations How: Private secretary to Lincoln and secretary of state to Theodore Roosevelt, Hay was both witness and author of many of the most significant chapters in American history—from the birth of the Republican Party, the Civil War, the Spanish-American War, to the prelude to World War I.

Muckrakers

Who: any of a group of American writers identified with pre-World War I reform and exposé writing; Muckrakers were a group of writers, including the likes of Upton Sinclair, Lincoln Steffens, and Ida Tarbell, during the Progressive era who tried to expose the problems that existed in American society as a result of the rise of big business, urbanization, and immigration. When: 1890s-1920s Why: The muckrakers provided detailed, accurate journalistic accounts of the political and economic corruption and social hardships caused by the power of big business in a rapidly industrializing United States. How: The work of muckrakers influenced the passage of key legislation that strengthened protections for workers and consumers. According to Fred J. Cook, the muckrakers' journalism resulted in litigation or legislation that had a lasting impact, such as the end of Standard Oil's monopoly over the oil industry, the establishment of the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906, the creation of the first child labor laws in the United States around 1916

Social welfare

What: A social welfare system offers assistance to individuals and families in need, with such programs as health care assistance, food stamps, and unemployment compensation. Lesser known parts of a social welfare system include disaster relief and educational assistance When: 1935 Why: Social insurance, such as unemployment benefits, create a risk-sharing economy in which the threat of potential economic difficulties befalling any one person is protected by the majority. How: During this period, new major spending programs were launched that addressed education, medical care, urban problems, rural poverty and transportation. Social welfare history describes the changes in helping activities and services initiated in the United States to combat a variety of social ills of complex origins

Keating-Owen Child Labor Act

What: Congress restricted child labor through its power to regulate interstate commerce. The act limited children's working hours and prohibited the interstate sale of goods produced by child labor. When: 1916 Why: United States struck down the Keating-Owen Act, which had regulated child labour. The act, passed in 1916, had prohibited the interstate shipment of goods produced in factories or mines in which children under age 14 were employed or adolescents between ages 14 and 16 worked more than an eight-hour day. An attempt to regulate child labor How: This act limited the working hours of children and forbade the interstate sale of goods produced by child labor. The 1900 census revealed that approximately 2 million children were working in mills, mines, fields, factories, stores, and on city streets across the United States.

Conservation

What: Conservation in the United States can be traced back to the 19th century with the formation of the first National Park. John Muir and the Sierra Club started the modern movement, history shows that the Boone and Crockett Club, formed by Theodore Roosevelt, spearheaded conservation in the United States When: 19th/20th century Why: The goal of the conservation movement was to preserve important natural features in America. The Conservation Movement advocated the establishment of state and national and state parks, wildlife refuges and national monuments. Conservation was the first nationwide political movement in American history to grapple with environmental problems like waste, pollution, resource exhaustion, and sustainability. How: New forestry laws prevented widespread clear-cutting, erosion, and fires. Game preservation laws protected wildlife from overhunting. After becoming president in 1901, Roosevelt used his authority to establish 150 national forests, 51 federal bird reserves, four national game preserves, five national parks and 18 national monuments on over 230 million acres of public land

dollar diplomacy

What: Dollar Diplomacy, foreign policy created by U.S. Pres. William Howard Taft (served 1909-13) and his secretary of state, Philander C. Knox, to ensure the financial stability of a region while protecting and extending U.S. commercial and financial interests there. When: 1909 - 1913 Why: Taft's dollar diplomacy not only allowed the United States to gain financially from countries but also restrained other foreign countries from reaping any sort of financial gain. Consequently, when the United States benefited from other countries, other world powers could not reap those same benefits How: Dollar diplomacy caused immigration, low wages, a shift in land ownership, a broken family structure, and an increase in population and illegitimate births.

18th amendment

What: Eighteenth Amendment, amendment (1919) to the Constitution of the United States imposing the federal prohibition of alcohol; Ratified on January 16, 1919, the 18th Amendment prohibited the "manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors" When: 1919 Why: the Eighteenth Amendment prohibited "the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquours" but not the consumption, private possession, or production for one's own consumption How: Though the advocates of prohibition had argued that banning sales of alcohol would reduce criminal activity, it in fact directly contributed to the rise of organized crime. After the Eighteenth Amendment went into force, bootlegging, or the illegal distillation and sale of alcoholic beverages, became widespread; Prohibition was enacted to protect individuals and families from the "scourge of drunkenness." However, it had unintended consequences including: a rise in organized crime associated with the illegal production and sale of alcohol, an increase in smuggling, and a decline in tax revenue

eugenics

What: Eugenics is the selection of desired heritable characteristics in order to improve future generations, typically in reference to humans. The term eugenics was coined in the 1880s. a set of beliefs and practices that aim to improve the genetic quality of a human population, historically by excluding people and groups judged to be inferior or promoting those judged to be superior.[ When: 1880s Why: Eugenics is the scientifically erroneous and immoral theory of "racial improvement" and "planned breeding," which gained popularity during the early 20th century. Eugenicists worldwide believed that they could perfect human beings and eliminate so-called social ills through genetics and heredity How: Eugenics is the practice or advocacy of improving the human species by selectively mating people with specific desirable hereditary traits. It aims to reduce human suffering by "breeding out" disease, disabilities and so-called undesirable characteristics from the human population

Jacob Riis How the Other Half Lives

What: How the Other Half Lives was a pioneering work of photojournalism by Jacob Riis, documenting the squalid living conditions in New York City slums in the 1880s. It served as a basis for future muckraking journalism by exposing the slums to New York City's upper and middle class When: 1890 Why: His book, How the Other Half Lives (1890), stimulated the first significant New York legislation to curb poor conditions in tenement housing. It was also an important predecessor to muckraking journalism, which took shape in the United States after 1900 How: Riis was among the first in the United States to conceive of photographic images as instruments for social change; he was also among the first to use flash powder to photograph interior views, and his book How the Other Half Lives was one of the earliest to employ halftone reproduction successfully

Good trusts/Bad trusts

What: If a trust controlled an entire industry but provided good service at reasonable rates, it was a "good" trust to be left alone. Only the "bad" trusts that jacked up rates and exploited consumers would come under attack. The bear labeled "bad trust" represents the corrupt trusts whereas the bear labeled "good trusts" represents the trusts that are not/are not as corrupt The bear that is not labeled on the right side is considered a hard-working, non-corrupt corporations When: 20th century; esp when Roosevelt was President 1933-45 Why: Roosevelt believed that it was his diligence to get rid of the bad trusts who inflated rates, and caused corruption. He believed that he should protect the good trusts, which were for the benefit of the people. William Taft did not support any trusts; "trust buster" How: Roosevelt prosecuted bad trusts, but not good trusts

Dr. Harvey Wiley "The Poison Squad"

What: In 1883, Dr. Harvey Wiley joined the U.S. Department of Agriculture as chief chemist. After two decades, President Theodore Roosevelt signed the Pure Food and Drugs Act in 1906, largely written by Wiley. Harvey Washington Wiley was an American chemist who fought for the passage of the landmark Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 and subsequently worked at the Good Housekeeping Institute laboratories. He was the first commissioner of the United States Food and Drug Administration When: October 18, 1844 - June 30, 1930 Why: In 1901, government chemist Harvey Wiley set out to prove that Americans were being harmed by chemicals in food. Wiley organized volunteers for human trials to test the effects of chemical food preservatives. he became known as the "Father of the Pure Food and Drugs Act" and then at Good Housekeeping magazine How: Based on the book by Deborah Blum, 'The Poison Squad' tells the story of government chemist Dr. Harvey Wiley who, determined to banish these dangerous substances from dinner tables, took on the powerful food manufacturers and their allies.

jingoism

What: Jingoism is nationalism in the form of aggressive and proactive foreign policy, such as a country's advocacy for the use of threats or actual force, as opposed to peaceful relations, in efforts to safeguard what it perceives as its national interests When: 1890s Why: Jingoism is a term used to describe a political perspective that advocates the use of threats or military force in foreign relations, as opposed to finding a peaceful or diplomatic solution. How: The term jingoism came to America and was used during the 1890s, when some Americans fervently promoted entry into what became the Spanish-American War. The term was also later used to criticize the foreign policy of Theodore Roosevelt.

Jones Act

What: Jones-Shafroth Act, also called Jones Act, U.S. legislation (March 2, 1917) that granted U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans When: March 2, 1917 Why: It also provided Puerto Rico with a bill of rights and restructured its government. The act takes its name from the two legislators who sponsored it, U.S. Representative William Jones of Virginia and U.S. Senator John Shafroth of Colorado. How: This law gave Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship. The Jones Act separated the Executive, Judicial, and Legislative branches of Puerto Rican government, provided civil rights to the individual, and created a locally elected bicameral legislature.

USS Maine

What: Maine was a United States Navy ship that sank in Havana Harbor on February 15, 1898, contributing to the outbreak of the Spanish-American War in April. American newspapers, engaging in yellow journalism to boost circulation, claimed that the Spanish were responsible for the ship's destruction When: Launched: November 18, 1889 Explosion date: February 15, 1898 Why: On February 15, 1898, an explosion of unknown origin sank the battleship U.S.S. Maine in the Havana, Cuba harbor, killing 266 of the 354 crew members. The sinking of the Maine incited United States' passions against Spain, eventually leading to a naval blockade of Cuba and a declaration of war How: The sinking of the Maine incited United States' passions against Spain, eventually leading to a naval blockade of Cuba and a declaration of war. Ostensibly on a friendly visit, the Maine had been sent to Cuba to protect the interests of Americans there after riots broke out in Havana in January

Muller v. Oregon

What: Muller v. Oregon, 208 U.S. 412, was a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court. Women were provided by state mandate lesser work-hours than allotted to men. The posed question was whether women's liberty to negotiate a contract with an employer should be equal to a man's When: 1908 Why: Muller v. Oregon, one of the most important U.S. Supreme Court cases of the Progressive Era, upheld an Oregon law limiting the workday for female wage earners to ten hours. The case established a precedent in 1908 to expand the reach of state activity into the realm of protective labor legislation How: State of Oregon, U.S. Supreme Court case decided in 1908 that, although it appeared to promote the health and welfare of female workers, in fact led to additional protective legislation that was detrimental to equality in the workplace for years to come

New Freedom

What: New Freedom, in U.S. history, political ideology of Woodrow Wilson, enunciated during his successful 1912 presidential campaign, pledging to restore unfettered opportunity for individual action and to employ the power of government in behalf of social justice for all. When: 1912 Why: the New Freedom was a collection of speeches Woodrow Wilson made during his presidential campaign of 1912. The speeches promised significant reforms for greater economic opportunity for all, while ensuring the tradition of limited government How: His domestic progressive policies, which became collectively known as the New Freedom, included reduction of the tariff on imported goods, reform of the inept national banking system, and strengthening of the Sherman Act to combat trusts.

New Nationalism

What: New Nationalism (Theodore Roosevelt), a Progressive political philosophy during the 1912 U.S. presidential election. New Nationalism (21st century), a type of nationalism that rose in the mid-2010s especially in Western Europe and the United States. When: 1912 Why: Roosevelt made the case for what he called "the New Nationalism" in a speech in Osawatomie, Kansas, on August 31, 1910. The central issue he argued was government protection of human welfare and property rights, but he also argued that human welfare was more important than property rights How: New Nationalism, in U.S. history, political philosophy of Theodore Roosevelt, an espousal of active federal intervention to promote social justice and the economic welfare of the underprivileged; its precepts were strongly influenced by Herbert Croly's The Promise of American Life (1910).

Northern Securities Case

What: Northern Securities Co. v. United States, 193 U.S. 197, was a case heard by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1903. The Court ruled 5 to 4 against the stockholders of the Great Northern and Northern Pacific railroad companies, who had essentially formed a monopoly, and to dissolve the Northern Securities Company When: 1904 Why: The Northern Securities case was significant because: It overturned the previous decision of United States vs E. C. Knight Co. in which the Court ruled that the Sherman Antitrust Act was insufficient in regulating that monopoly How: In Northern Securities Co. v. United States, 193 U.S. 197 (1904), the U.S. Supreme Court held that a holding company formed to create a railroad monopoly violated the Sherman Antitrust Law. The government's victory in the case helped solidify President Theodore Roosevelt's reputation as a "trustbuster." Roosevelt's Department of Justice prosecuted the Northern Securities Company for violating the Sherman Act. In 1904, the Supreme Court agreed with the administration's position, and ordered the Northern Securities company dissolved. For Roosevelt, this proved a great victory

Desert Lands Act

What: On March 3, 1877, the Desert Land Act was passed by Congress to encourage and promote the economic development of the arid and semiarid public lands of the Western United States. When: 1877 Why: The original intent of the Desert Land Act was to instigate growth in the West by incentivizing people to move out West in the late 19th century and develop irrigation systems that would transform the land into usable space. While it encouraged growth, it also played a large role in water rights of the era How: Through the Act, individuals may apply for a desert-land entry to reclaim, irrigate, and cultivate arid and semiarid public lands

17th amendment

What: Seventeenth Amendment, amendment (1913) to the Constitution of the United States that provided for the direct election of U.S. senators by the voters of the states When: 1913 Why: The 17th Amendment helped eliminate corruption and reduce the influence of political machines by allowing Americans to directly elect U.S. senators How: Most importantly, the Seventeenth Amendment removed state government representation from the legislative arm of the federal government. Originally, the people themselves did not elect Senators; instead, states appointed Senators.

Newlands Act

What: Sometimes referred to as the Newlands Reclamation Act after its chief sponsor, Representative Francis Newlands of Nevada, the legislation authorized the Secretary of the Interior to designate irrigation sites and to establish a reclamation fund from the sale of public lands to finance the projects When: June 17, 1902 Why: The Newlands Reclamation Act, also called the U.S. Reclamation Act, authorized the federal government to commission water diversion, retention and transmission projects in arid lands, particularly in the far west. The purpose of the National Reclamation Act was to "reclaim" the land for agriculture in order to salvage the agrarian roots of the United States. Any funds earned from public land sold in the states of Arizona, California, Colorado, Montana, Utah, and about eleven others, would go to the irrigation projects. How: The act set aside money from sales of semi-arid public lands for the construction and maintenance of irrigation projects. The newly irrigated land would be sold and money would be put into a revolving fund that supported more such projects. This led to the eventual damming of nearly every major western river.

Federal Reserve Act

What: The 1913 Federal Reserve Act created the Federal Reserve System, known simply as "The Fed." It was implemented to establish economic stability in the U.S. by introducing a central bank to oversee monetary policy When: 1913 Why: The Federal Reserve Act is one of the most influential laws shaping the U.S. financial system. The landmark legislation created the Federal Reserve, which was intended to reform the country's banking system and help secure economic stability. it regulated banking to help smaller banks stay in business How: banking and monetary reform, the Federal Reserve Act of 1913, which created a federal reserve system to mobilize banking reserves and issue a flexible new currency—federal reserve notes—based on gold and commercial paper; uniting and supervising the entire system was a federal reserve board of presidential appointees

John Spargo The Bitter Cry of Children

What: The Bitter Cry of Children is a book by a socialist writer John Spargo, a muckraker in the Progressive Period. Published in 1906, it is an exposé of the horrific working conditions of child laborers When: 1906 Why: John Spargo's The Bitter Cry of Children, published in 1906, was among the most influential and widely read accounts of child labor written during the Progressive era How: led people to want reform and establish anti child labor laws

Clayton Anti-Trust Act

What: The Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914, is a part of United States antitrust law with the goal of adding further substance to the U.S. antitrust law regime; the Clayton Act seeks to prevent anticompetitive practices in their incipiency. When: 1914 Why: The newly created Federal Trade Commission enforced the Clayton Antitrust Act and prevented unfair methods of competition. Aside from banning the practices of price discrimination and anti-competitive mergers, the new law also declared strikes, boycotts, and labor unions legal under federal law. How: The Clayton Antitrust Act is a piece of legislation, passed by the U.S. Congress and signed into law in 1914, that defines unethical business practices, such as price fixing and monopolies, and upholds various rights of labor. The Clayton Antitrust Act helped regulate the economy by prohibiting business monopolies. The 1914 Clayton Antitrust Act was important legislation during the Progressive Era and addressed the issues of Price Discrimination, Tying And Exclusive Dealing, Private Lawsuits, Mergers and included a Labor Exemption

Anthracite coal strike of 1902

What: The Coal strike of 1902 was a strike by the United Mine Workers of America in the anthracite coalfields of eastern Pennsylvania. Miners striked for higher wages, shorter workdays, and the recognition of their union. The strike threatened to shut down the winter fuel supply to major American cities. When: 1902 Why: The victory in the anthracite coalfields breathed new life into the American labor movement. 55 It strengthened moderate labor leaders and progressive businessmen who championed negotiations as a way to labor peace. It enhanced the reputation of President Theodore Roosevelt. The unions were willing to negotiate but the coal miners refused to participate in the conciliation process until President Roosevelt intervened. The Anthracite Coal Strike of 1902 resulted in a victory for the hard-coal miners with a 10% increase in wages and an hours reduction in their working day. How: On October 23, 1902, the miners returned to work after both sides agreed to settle the strike based on the recommendations of the Anthracite Coal Commission, a body appointed by the president. Ultimately, the miners won a ten percent increase in pay and a nine-hour workday

16th amendment

What: The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration When: 1909 Why: The Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution allows Congress to levy an income tax without apportioning it among the states on the basis of population. It was passed by Congress in 1909 in response to the 1895 Supreme Court case of Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. How: The Sixteenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, played a central role in building up the powerful American federal government of the twentieth century by making it possible to enact a modern, nationwide income tax. Before long, the income tax would become by far the federal government's largest source of revenue

De Lome Letter

What: The De Lôme letter, a note written by Señor Don Enrique Dupuy de Lôme, the Spanish Ambassador to the United States, to Don José Canalejas, the Foreign Minister of Spain, reveals de Lôme's opinion about the Spanish involvement in Cuba and US President McKinley's diplomacy When: February 9, 1898 Why: Publication of the letter helped generate public support for a war with Spain over the issue of independence for the Spanish colony of Cuba. How: it, a Spaniard referred to President McKinley as a weak and cowardly leader, which increased the likelihood of war with Spain. The letter outraged Americans and embarrassed Spain. Dupuy du Lome was forced to resign over the matter, and tensions between the US and Spain increased. Six days after Hearst published the Lome letter, the USS Maine sailed into Havana harbor.

Elkins Act

What: The Elkins Act is a 1903 United States federal law that amended the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. The Act authorized the Interstate Commerce Commission to impose heavy fines on railroads that offered rebates, and upon the shippers that accepted these rebates When: 1903 Why: The Elkins Act prohibits railroad companies from giving rebates to businesses that ship large quantities of goods and giving power to those businesses to artificially lower shipping prices. How: The Elkins Act gave federal courts the power to end rate discrimination. Widely supported by larger railroad companies, the Elkins Act upheld the rates published by the Interstate Commerce Commission. The result of the Elkins Act was that railroads had a stronger mechanism to protect their collusive prices and corporate trusts were weakened in their ability to gain shipping discounts. Farmers and other railroad users, instead of benefiting from greater competition, were unaffected by the Act

Federal Farm Loan Act

What: The Federal Farm Loan Act of 1916 was a United States federal law aimed at increasing credit to rural family farmers. It did so by creating a federal farm loan board, twelve regional farm loan banks and tens of farm loan associations. The act was signed into law by President of the United States Woodrow Wilson When: July 17, 1916 Why: The purpose of the Federal Farm Loan Act was designed implement the recommendations of the farming commissions to help small farmers and ranchers by making it easier for farmers to secure loans, obtain credit, restore free enterprise and a competitive market for agriculture. Meant to increase credit to rural family farmers. It did so by creating a federal farm loan board, twelve regional farm loan banks and tens of farm loan associations. Offered low-interest loans to farmers. How: The Act established the Federal Farm Loan Board to oversee and supervise federal land banks and national farm loan associations. It was also responsible for setting benchmark rates of interest for mortgages and bonds. Finally, it could intervene when it thought specific banks were making irresponsible loans

Forest Reserve Act

What: The General Revision Act of 1891, also known as the Forest Reserve Act of 1891, was a federal legislation signed in 1891 by President Benjamin Harrison. The Forest Reserve Act of 1891 had mixed purposes -- to protect watersheds from erosion and flooding, and to preserve the nation's timber supply from over-exploitation. When: February 1, 1905 - March 3, 1891 Why: The Forest Reserve Act of 1891 is a law that allowed the U.S. President to set aside lands as national forests. The law preserves water resources until forested lands can be opened for settlement and exploitation, but is part of a growing conservation movement to preserve natural resources for future generations How: The Forest Reserve Act of 1891 was signed into law by President Benjamin Harrison after two decades of debate about public land policy and concern about exploitative logging, putting in place the means to protect wooded areas as "forest reserves," to be managed by the Department of the Interior. The passage of the Forest Reserve Act, along with recent establishments of national parks and monuments, signaled a shift in public land policy, from disposal to homesteaders to retention for the public good.

Hepburn Act

What: The Hepburn Act of 1906 was a bill that fortified the powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) and strengthened federal regulation of railroads. It also prohibited giving free passes except to railroad employees and created standard bookkeeping methods. When: 1906 Why: The Hepburn Act of 1906 conveyed those powers and created the federal government's first true regulatory agency. It set a precedent by giving a government commission the power to investigate private business records and to set rates How: The Hepburn Act empowered the ICC to change a railroad rate to one it considered "just and reasonable," after a full hearing of a complaint.

Ida Tarbell The History of the Standard Oil Company

What: The History of the Standard Oil Company is a 1904 book by journalist Ida Tarbell. It is an exposé about the Standard Oil Company, run at the time by oil tycoon John D. Rockefeller, the richest figure in American history When: 1904 Why: Tarbell's study of Standard Oil excoriated Rockefeller and his company and helped spur new legislation and litigation to regulate interstate commerce and counter monopoly. In 1911, the United States Supreme Court broke up the Standard Oil Trust into more than thirty different independent companies. How: The History of the Standard Oil Company, originally a serial that ran in McClure's, is one of the most thorough accounts of the rise of a business monopoly and its use of unfair practices; her reporting contributed to the subsequent breakup of Standard Oil, which was found to be in violation of the Sherman Antitrust

Alfred Thayer Mahan The Influence of Sea Power Upon History

What: The Influence of Sea Power upon History: 1660-1783 is a history of naval warfare published in 1890 by the American naval officer and historian Alfred Thayer Mahan When: 1890 Why: Mahan argued that British control of the seas, combined with a corresponding decline in the naval strength of its major European rivals, paved the way for Great Britain's emergence as the world's dominant military, political, and economic power How: Scholars considered it the single most influential book in naval strategy. Its policies were quickly adopted by most major navies, ultimately leading to the World War I naval arms race. It is also cited as one of the contributing factors of the United States becoming a great power.

Upton Sinclair The Jungle

What: The Jungle is a 1906 novel by the American journalist and novelist Upton Sinclair. The novel portrays the harsh conditions and exploited lives of immigrants in the United States in Chicago and similar industrialized cities When: Publication date: February 26, 1906 Upton Sinclair (1878-1968) Why: Upton Sinclair wrote The Jungle to expose the appalling working conditions in the meat-packing industry. His description of diseased, rotten, and contaminated meat shocked the public and led to new federal food safety laws. Before the turn of the 20th century, a major reform movement had emerged in the United States How: "Following the publication of The Jungle, the public outcry about the unsafe food production made it all the way to the White House. Then-President Theodore Roosevelt called a special commission to investigate the claims made in Sinclair's novel. To everyone's horror, the commission's report, released in 1906, seemed to confirm the deplorable conditions written about in 'The Jungle. The commission moved to require more routine inspections and stricter rules to government these types of operations. After the commission's report, Roosevelt called on Congress to address food manufacturing conditions. His advocating led to the Meat Inspection Act of 1906. This act gave the federal government more oversight over meatpacking facilities, requiring inspections and the ability to prevent contaminated meat from being sold. The passage of the Meat Inspection Act was not the only regulatory change to come as a result of Sinclair's novel. It opened the door for more laws regulating the sale of other foods and drugs. On the same day the Meat Inspection Act passed, Roosevelt also signsd the Pure Food and Drug Act"

Meat Inspection Act

What: The Meat Inspection Act of 1906 was a piece of U.S. legislation, signed by President Theodore Roosevelt on June 30, 1906, that prohibited the sale of adulterated or misbranded livestock and derived products as food and ensured sanitary slaughtering and processing of livestock. When: 1906 Why: the law set strict standards of cleanliness in the meatpacking industry. In addition to sanitation and inspection requirements, the Meat Inspection Act also impacted food labeling. In accordance with the Meat Inspection Act, all labels on food had to be accurate, although not all ingredients were required to be listed. Labels additionally had to be legible and conform to technical requirements, such as size and style How: The Meat Inspection Act enforced much-needed regulations in an industry that was revealed to be have widespread sanitation and health issues

NAACP

What: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People is a civil rights organization in the United States, formed in 1909 as an interracial endeavor to advance justice for African Americans by a group including W. E. B. Du Bois, Mary White Ovington, Moorfield Storey and Ida B. Wells When: February 12, 1909 Why: National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), interracial American organization created to work for the abolition of segregation and discrimination in housing, education, employment, voting, and transportation; to oppose racism; and to ensure African Americans their constitutional rights How: The NAACP played a pivotal role in the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. One of the organization's key victories was the U.S. Supreme Court's 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education that outlawed segregation in public schools. The NAACP's political advocacy has garnered numerous victories such as the passing of anti-lynching laws in some states

National Women's Part

What: The National Woman's Party was an American women's political organization formed in 1916 to fight for women's suffrage. After achieving this goal with the 1920 adoption of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, the NWP advocated for other issues including the Equal Rights Amendment When: June 5, 1916 Why: The National Woman's Party (NWP) fought for women's rights for more than a century. Starting in 1913, members marched, picketed, and demanded gender equality, and used those lessons, triumphs, and victories to carry their work forward How: The National Woman's Party (NWP) fought for women's rights for more than a century. Founded in the crucial final years of the suffrage movement by Alice Paul and Lucy Burns, the National Woman's Party played a groundbreaking role in securing passage of the 19th Amendment and women's Constitutional right to vote.

Ballinger-Pinchot Controversy

What: The Pinchot-Ballinger controversy, also known as the "Ballinger Affair", was a dispute between U.S. Forest Service Chief Gifford Pinchot and U.S. Secretary of the Interior Richard A. Ballinger that contributed to the split of the Republican Party before the 1912 presidential election and helped to define the U.S. conservation movement in the early 20th century. When: early 20th century Why: The Ballinger-Pinchot scandal erupts when Colliers magazine accuses Secretary of the Interior Richard Ballinger of shady dealings in Alaskan coal lands. It is, in essence, a conflict rooted in contrasting ideas about how to best use and conserve western natural resources. The controversy over the Ballinger-Pinchot affair soon became a major factor in splitting the Republican Party. After returning from an African safari, Roosevelt concluded that Taft had so badly betrayed the ethics of conservation that he had to be ousted How: The controversy over the Ballinger-Pinchot affair soon became a major factor in splitting the Republican Party. After returning from an African safari, Roosevelt concluded that Taft had so badly betrayed the ethics of conservation that he had to be ousted

Pure Food and Drug Act

What: The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 prohibited the sale of misbranded or adulterated food and drugs in interstate commerce and laid a foundation for the nation's first consumer protection agency, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) When: January 1, 1907 Why: The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 was the first of a series of significant consumer protection laws which was enacted by Congress in the 20th century and led to the creation of the Food and Drug Administration. The law provided improved medical care for people sickened by unsafe food. The law required that food be inspected by the government to ensure its safety How: The Pure Food and Drug Act was the first legislation in the country that sought to regulate pharmaceuticals and food products by requiring truth-in-labeling on products, creating inspectors of the drug and food manufacturing process, and creating a list of 10 dangerous drugs that had to be labeled at all times. signed by President Theodore Roosevelt, created to prevent the "manufacture, sale, or transportation of adulterated or misbranded or poisonous or deleterious food, drugs, medications, and liquors..."

Underwood Tariff (1913)

What: The Revenue Act of 1913, also known as the Underwood Tariff or the Underwood-Simmons Act, re-established a federal income tax in the United States and substantially lowered tariff rates. The Revenue Act of 1913 lowered average tariff rates from 40 percent to 26 percent When: 1913 Why: In 1913 Wilson supported the Underwood Tariff Act, cutting or eliminating tariff rates. The legislation, sponsored by Representative Oscar Underwood (1862-1929), passed both houses of Congress. The reduced tariffs encouraged the import of foreign materials and manufactured goods, and prices of goods came down. How: the Underwood Tariff Act of 1913, reduced average rates from 40 percent to 25 percent, greatly enlarged the free list, and included a modest income tax. The first major reduction in tariffs occurred under the Underwood Tariff Bill. The average tariffs was decreased from 41 percent to 27 percent. One hundred items became free of tariff. To replace the lost income, a graduated income tax was imposed

Underwood Tariff Bill

What: The Revenue Act of 1913, also known as the Underwood Tariff or the Underwood-Simmons Act, re-established a federal income tax in the United States and substantially lowered tariff rates. The Revenue Act of 1913 lowered average tariff rates from 40 percent to 26 percent When: 1913 Why: In 1913 Wilson supported the Underwood Tariff Act, cutting or eliminating tariff rates. The legislation, sponsored by Representative Oscar Underwood (1862-1929), passed both houses of Congress. The reduced tariffs encouraged the import of foreign materials and manufactured goods, and prices of goods came down. How: the Underwood Tariff Act of 1913, reduced average rates from 40 percent to 25 percent, greatly enlarged the free list, and included a modest income tax. The first major reduction in tariffs occurred under the Underwood Tariff Bill. The average tariffs was decreased from 41 percent to 27 percent. One hundred items became free of tariff. To replace the lost income, a graduated income tax was imposed

Lincoln Steffens The Shame of the Cities

What: The Shame of the Cities is a book written by American author Lincoln Steffens. Published in 1904, it is a collection of articles which Steffens had written for McClure's Magazine. It reports on the workings of corrupt political machines in several major U.S. cities, along with a few efforts to combat them When: 1904 Why: In The Shame of the Cities, Steffens sought to bring about political reform in urban America by appealing to the emotions of Americans. He tried to provoke outrage with examples of corrupt governments throughout urban America. It reports on the workings of corrupt political machines in several major U.S. cities, along with a few efforts to combat them How: It reports on the workings of corrupt political machines in several major U.S. cities, along with a few efforts to combat them. It is considered one of several early major pieces of muckraking journalism, though Steffens later claimed that this work made him "the first muckraker." He is remembered for investigating corruption in municipal government in American cities and for his leftist values

Hawaii & Alaska

What: The states of Alaska and Hawaii have two major attributes in common. They are the two most recent states. Alaska was admitted to the Union in January of 1959, Hawaii in August of that year. When: 1867; 1898 Why: Alaska was a Russian colony from 1744 until the USA bought it in 1867 for $7,200,000. It was made a state in 1959. Hawaii was a kingdom until 1893 and became a republic in 1894. It then ceded itself to the USA in 1898 and became a state in 1959 How: United States acquisition of Hawaii enabled the American Navy to access Hawaii's naval base, Pearl Harbor. Acquisition of Alaska enabled the United States to expand, find valuable resources and become more of a world power. A key provisioning spot for American whaling ships, fertile ground for American protestant missionaries, and a new source of sugar cane production, Hawaii's economy became increasingly integrated with the United States

Spanish American War

What: The Spanish-American War was an armed conflict between Spain and the United States. Hostilities began in the aftermath of the internal explosion of USS Maine in Havana Harbor in Cuba, leading to U.S. intervention in the Cuban War of Independence When: Apr 21, 1898 - Dec 10, 1898 Why: The Spanish-American War of 1898 ended Spain's colonial empire in the Western Hemisphere and secured the position of the United States as a Pacific power. The United States emerged from the war as a world power with significant territorial claims stretching from the Caribbean to Southeast Asia. How: The major effects that stemmed from the war were that Cuba gained their independence from Spain, the United States gained Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, and the Spanish Empire collapsed. Cuba had been fighting for its independence from Spain for many years before the start of the Spanish-American War. The war ended with the 1898 Treaty of Paris, negotiated on terms favorable to the U.S. It ceded ownership of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine islands from Spain to the U.S. and granted the U.S. temporary control of Cuba.

Square Deal

What: The Square Deal was Theodore Roosevelt's domestic program, which reflected his three major goals: conservation of natural resources, control of corporations, and consumer protection. These three demands are often referred to as the "three Cs" of Roosevelt's Square Deal. When: 1904 Why: The Square Deal was based on three basic ideas: conservation of natural resources, control of corporations, and consumer protection. The Square Deal sought to protect both business and labor, and to ease the radical voice in both and reach a compromise. Enacted through Theodore Roosevelt's presidency in the early 20th century, the Square Deal was a set of policies that attempted to prevent further labor abuses and improve workplace safety, protect the natural landscape, and improve the overall health and well-being of Americans How: The Square Deal sought to protect both business and labor, and to ease the radical voice in both and reach a compromise. Roosevelt sought to break up large monopolies and did so aggressively, gaining him the name " Trust Buster." His Elkins Act made it illegal for railroads to give rebates to favored companies

Teller Amendment

What: The Teller Amendment was an amendment to a joint resolution of the United States Congress, enacted on April 20, 1898, in reply to President William McKinley's War Message. It placed a condition on the United States military's presence in Cuba When: April 20, 1898 Why: It placed a condition on the United States military's presence in Cuba. According to the clause, the U.S. could not annex Cuba but only leave "control of the island to its people." In short, the U.S. would help Cuba gain independence and then withdraw all its troops from the country. How: The significance of the Platt Amendment was that it established the terms under which the U.S. would end its military occupation of Cuba (which had begun in 1898 during the Spanish-American War) and "leave the government and control of the island of Cuba to its people."

Workingman's Compensation Act

What: The WCA is formally known as the Federal Employees' Compensation Act (FECA), and it provides financial assistance to federal employees who have been injured at work. It also gives injured workers access to medical services and rehabilitation, if needed, as well as providing help to their families When: 1916 Why: The Workingmen's Compensation Act also gave way to an increased number of labor laws meant to prevent workplace accidents from ever happening. These laws increased the number of labor unions, workplace illness commissions and insurance company watchdogs whose purpose is to keep workers safe. How: The Kern-McGillicuddy Workmen's Compensation Act of 1916 enabled workers to collect compensation for injuries sustained in the workplace. Prior to 1900, state and federal courts interpreted this rule to mean that employers were almost never responsible for work-related injuries

Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU)

What: The Woman's Christian Temperance Union is an active international temperance organization that was among the first organizations of women devoted to social reform with a program that "linked the religious and the secular through concerted and far-reaching reform strategies based on applied Christianity";a religious organization with the primary goal of destroying the influence liquor had on the family unit and home When: 1874 Why: The initial purpose of the WCTU was to promote abstinence from alcohol, which they protested with pray-ins at local taverns. The WCTU advocated for temperance as a way to make home life safer for women and children. How: The WCTU began working to reform labor laws, child welfare laws, and age of consent laws. It advocated for prison reform, temperance education in schools, and woman suffrage, while continuing to seek individual commitments to personal abstinence, and legislative mandates for local, state, and national prohibition.

Triangle Shirtwaist factory

What: The factory was owned by Isaac Harris and Max Blanck, Russian Jewish immigrants known as the "Shirtwaist Kings." They founded the Triangle Waist Company in 1900, producing ready-to-wear shirtwaists, tailored, button-down blouses that were the era's most popular women's garments. The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City, on March 25, 1911, was the deadliest industrial disaster in the history of the city, and one of the deadliest in U.S. history When: March 25, 1911 Why: The tragedy brought widespread attention to the dangerous sweatshop conditions of factories, and led to the development of a series of laws and regulations that better protected the safety of workers How: In its aftermath, the Triangle fire inspired a great campaign of workplace reform. About thirty separate laws were passed, including those regulating the minimum wage and working conditions

19th amendment

What: The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex; The 19th amendment legally guarantees American women the right to vote. When: August 18, 1920 Why: The 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution granted American women the right to vote, a right known as women's suffrage, and was ratified on August 18, 1920, ending almost a century of protest How: The 19th Amendment helped millions of women move closer to equality in all aspects of American life. Women advocated for job opportunities, fairer wages, education, sex education, and birth control. After women were enfranchised, candidates catered to women in an effort to get elected, and women took advantage, advocating for laws that would allow them to have individual economic security, such as inheritance and divorce laws. Women voted and eventually ran for office to improve not only government but also their individual lives.

Initiative

What: Through these processes, voters can adopt a change in law (an initiative), disapprove a law passed by the Legislature (a referendum), or remove an elected official from office (a recall) (In 1911, California voters approved the constitutional processes of initiative, referendum, and recall. Through these processes, voters can adopt a change in law (an initiative), disapprove a law passed by the Legislature (a referendum), or remove an elected official from office (a recall).) When: Progressive Era Why: an initiative (also known as a popular initiative or citizens' initiative) is a means by which a petition signed by a certain number of registered voters can force a government to choose either to enact a law or hold a public vote in the legislature How: The initiative process is the direct power of the voters to enact new or change existing laws. It allows the voters to place proposed legislation on the ballot

Referendum

What: Through these processes, voters can adopt a change in law (an initiative), disapprove a law passed by the Legislature (a referendum), or remove an elected official from office (a recall). A referendum is a process for constitutional change in which proposal is voted on by the public. When: Progressive Era Why: a direct vote by the electorate on a particular proposal or issue. This is in contrast to an issue being voted on by a representative. It can have nationwide or local forms. This may result in the adoption of a new policy or specific law. How: The referendum allows citizens, through the petition process, to refer acts of the Legislature to the ballot before they become law. The primary purpose of both is to give voters an opportunity to approve or reject laws either proposed or enacted by the Legislature

Yellow Journalism

What: Yellow journalism and yellow press are American terms for journalism and associated newspapers that present little or no legitimate, well-researched news while instead using eye-catching headlines for increased sales. Techniques may include exaggerations of news events, scandal-mongering, or sensationalism When: 1895-1898 Why: Yellow journalism was a style of newspaper reporting that emphasized sensationalism over facts. The term originated in the competition over the New York City newspaper market between major newspaper publishers Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst How: Yellow journalism helped to push Spain and the United States into war in 1898. The Maine, a U.S. battleship, sank from an explosion. Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst published false articles about a plot to sink the ship, thereby increasing tensions.

Adamson Act

What: a United States federal law passed in 1916 that established an eight-hour workday, with additional pay for overtime work, for interstate railroad workers When: With the passage of the Adamson Act, President Woodrow Wilson effectively avoids a nationwide strike of railroad workers. The act sets an eight-hour work day and establishes overtime compensation for railroad workers, marking the first time the U.S. government regulates the labor conditions of non-government workers. Why: 1916 How: Named for Georgia representative William C. Adamson, this was the first federal law that regulated the hours of workers in private companies. The United States Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Act in 1917. In August 1916, nearly 400,000 railway workers voted to authorize a strike if an eight-hour day was not implemented. The railroads refused to meet the workers' demands, and fearing a nationwide rail strike, Congress and President Woodrow Wilson stepped in. On September 2, 1916, Congress passed the Adamson Act

Hunger strikes

What: a method of non-violent resistance in which participants fast as an act of political protest, or to provoke a feeling of guilt in others, usually with the objective to achieve a specific goal, such as a policy change When: 19th/20th century Why: The Suffragette prisoners' hunger strike protest remains one of the most poignant and disturbing aspects of the struggle for the vote. Suffragettes refused to eat and often drink while imprisoned, threatening to starve themselves to force a response from the authorities How: The Suffragette hunger strike protest remains one of the most poignant and disturbing aspects of the struggle for Votes for Women

Niagara Movement

What: a movement of African-American intellectuals that was founded in 1905 at Niagara Falls by such prominent men as W. E. B. DuBois and William Monroe Trotter. The movement was dedicated to obtaining civil rights for African-Americans When: 1905 Why: With its comparatively aggressive approach to combating racial discrimination and segregation, the Niagara Movement served as a forerunner to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the civil rights movement. The Niagara Movement forcefully demanded equal economic and educational opportunity as well as the vote for black men and women. Members of the Niagara Movement sent a powerful message to the entire country through their condemnation of racial discrimination and their call for an end to segregation How: The organization they formed, the Niagara Movement, met annually until 1910. It was one of the organizations that paved the way for the formation of the NAACP. The Niagara Movement was pivotal in the long history of American Civil Rights because it promoted public dialogue and effectual social interactions

Sierra Club

What: an environmental organization with chapters in all 50 United States, Washington D.C., and Puerto Rico. The Sierra Club was founded by a Scottish-American by the name of John Muir on 1892. Just 2 years earlier, John Muir and his friend, journalist Robert Johnson, had just succeeded in making Yosemite, which is in the Sierra Nevada, a national park. In 1892, along with professors from several prestigious universities, John Muir and co. created the Sierra Club, of which organization they based on the Appalachian Mountain Club. John Muir was elected president by SC's founding members, where he remained until his death (1914) When: May 28, 1892 Why: It instantly doubles the size of the national park system and protects more than 157 million acres of public lands in Alaska. The Sierra Club helps defeat Reagan administration attacks on the Clean Air Act and other environmental laws How: The Sierra Club established a charitable foundation (1960) and a legal defense fund (1971), and it opened chapters in all 50 states. In the early 21st century it continued to advocate for environmental protection and to lobby local, state, and federal bodies for environmental legislation

Federal Trade Commission

What: an independent agency of the United States government whose principal mission is the enforcement of civil U.S. antitrust law and the promotion of consumer protection. a federal agency established in 1914 to investigate and stop unfair business practices When: 1914 Why: empowered a president-appointed position to investigate the activities of trusts and stop unfair trade practices such as unlawful competition, false advertising, mislabeling, adulteration, & bribery How: Gave the power to an already existing, presidential appointed commission to investigate illegal business practices in interstate commerce. Such as mislabeling of goods, which were suppose to be inspected under the Pure Food and Drug Act.

Municipal reform

What: changes in city governments made to encourage greater efficiency, honesty, and responsiveness. This movement was particularly strong in cities controlled by political machines, the undemocratic and corrupt arrangements through which bosses could profit by controlling city governments When: the late 1800s and early 1900s. Why: Municipal market reform in the Progressive Era generated state and local projects that used public markets for combatting the urban "evils" of high food costs, lack of fresh food, traffic congestion, and unsanitary conditions How: Progressives replaced the rule of "political bosses" and "political machines" with public-minded mayors. They also expanded city services to deal with urban overcrowding, fire hazards, and the lack of public services. Municipal governments often took direct ownership of utilities, such as water, electricity and gas.

Anti-Imperialists

What: characterized by or expressing opposition to or hostility toward imperialist policies and institutions In one of the great ironies of history, what became the established religion of empire started as an anti-imperial movement When: 19th and early 20th centuries Why: The anti-imperialists opposed expansion, believing that imperialism violated the fundamental principle that just republican government must derive from "consent of the governed." The League argued that such activity would necessitate the abandonment of American ideals of self-government and non-intervention—ideals How: On June 15, 1898, the Anti-imperialist league formed to fight U.S. annexation of the Philippines, citing a variety of reasons ranging from the economic to the legal to the racial to the moral

Payne-Aldrich Act

What: law passed by the U.S. Congress in 1909 in response to a call from Republican Pres. William Howard Taft for lower tariffs When: 1909 Why: Taft signed the bill into law and later praised it as "the best tariff bill the Republican Party ever passed." It lowered rates on 650 items, raised rates on 220, and made no change on 1,150. It also included a corporate tax and provided for a commission to study rates and recommend changes How: It met bitter opposition by Conservative Republicans who wanted to protect high tariffs which led to the Aldrich proposal. The compromise Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act had the effect of reducing tariff rates but also enacted a corporation tax. The Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act split the Republican party. The debate over the tariff thus split the Republican Party into Progressives and Old Guards and led the split party to lose the 1910 congressional election

Recall

What: the people can petition and vote to have an elected official removed from office. Through these processes, voters can adopt a change in law (an initiative), disapprove a law passed by the Legislature (a referendum), or remove an elected official from office (a recall) When: Progressive Era Why: Like most populist innovations, the practice of recalling officeholders was an attempt to minimize the influence of political parties on representatives. Widely adopted in the United States, the recall was originally designed to ensure that elected officials would act in the interests of their constituencies rather than in the interests of their political parties or according to their own consciences. The actual instrument of recall is usually a letter of resignation signed by the elected representative before assuming office. During the term of office, the letter can be evoked by a quorum of constituents if the representative's performance fails to meet their expectations How: In the United States the recall has been used successfully against various types of officials, including judges, mayors, and even state governors. Although in practice the recall is not used extensively, even in jurisdictions where it is provided for constitutionally, it has been used to remove governors in North Dakota (1921) and California (2003).

Imperialists

What: the policy of extending the rule or authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies. advocacy of imperial or sovereign interests over the interests of the dependent states. When: 19th and early 20th centuries Why: Imperialism was responsible for reforming the European alliances. Imperialist expansion played a major role in the growing tensions between Germany and Great Britain after the turn of the century. The growing imperialist rivalry was responsible for the slow formation of an anti-German alliance system in Europe How: Through it, Western countries established the beginning of a global economy in which the transfer of goods, money, and technology needed to be regulated in an orderly way to ensure a continuous flow of natural resources and cheap labor for the industrialized world. Imperialism adversely affected the colonies. Imperialism also gives a boost to the economy, not just for the United States who uses the resources for trade, but for the territory itself. The United States brings technology, industries, government policies, and privileges American citizens possess to these territories

Prohibition

What: the prevention by law of the manufacture and sale of alcohol between 1920 and 1933; wanted to eliminate drunkenness. National prohibition of alcohol (1920-33) — the "noble experiment" — was undertaken to reduce crime and corruption, solve social problems, reduce the tax burden created by prisons and poorhouses, and improve health and hygiene in America. When: between 1920 and 1933 Why: This amendment made it federal law in all states starting in 1919 that the sale, transportation, and manufacture of alcohol for beverage purposes was illegal. This led to the bootlegging and gangsters in the 1920s How: Prohibition was enacted to protect individuals and families from the "scourge of drunkenness." However, it had unintended consequences including: a rise in organized crime associated with the illegal production and sale of alcohol, an increase in smuggling, and a decline in tax revenue

Civil Disobedience

What: the refusal to comply with certain laws or to pay taxes and fines, as a peaceful form of political protest. When: 20th century Why: Civil disobedience is an important part of a democratic country because it is one of the driving factors that allow individuals to exercise their rights to free speech and speak up against an unfair and unjust government and its laws. How: Civil disobedience has been in place for many centuries and has always led to something good and better. In America it led to firstly its freedom, then women's rights, desegregation for African Americans, the ending of the Vietnam War, and countless other things

Francis Galton

Who: Sir Francis Galton, FRS FRAI, was an English Victorian era polymath: a statistician, sociologist, psychologist, anthropologist, tropical explorer, geographer, inventor, meteorologist, proto-geneticist, psychometrician and a proponent of social Darwinism, eugenics and scientific racism. He was knighted in 1909 When: February 16, 1822 - January 17, 1911 Why: known for his pioneering studies of human intelligence. His psychological studies also embraced mental differences in visualization, and he was the first to identify and study "number forms", now called "synaesthesia". He also invented the word-association test, and investigated the operations of the sub-conscious mind. How:

George Dewey

Who: Admiral of the Navy, the only person in United States history to have attained that rank. He is best known for his victory at the Battle of Manila Bay during the Spanish-American War, with the loss of only a single crewman on the American side. When: December 26, 1837 - January 16, 1917 Why: U.S. naval commander who defeated the Spanish fleet at the Battle of Manila Bay during the Spanish-American War (1898). He is best known for his victory at the Battle of Manila Bay during the Spanish-American War, with the loss of only a single crewman on the American side How: Dewey was appointed to lead the US Asiatic Squadron in 1897 and was in place when war with Spain began the following year. Moving on the Philippines, he won a stunning victory at the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1 which saw him destroy the Spanish fleet and only sustain one fatality in his squadron

Josiah Strong

Who: American Protestant clergyman, organizer, editor, and author. He was a leader of the Social Gospel movement, calling for social justice and combating social evils. He supported missionary work so that all races could be improved and uplifted and thereby brought to Christ When: April 14, 1847 - June 26, 1916 Why: In the 1890s he also emerged as one of the country's strongest voices in support of American imperialism, a philosophy that held that the nation needed to expand its sphere of influence around the world to ensure its continued primacy and to save heathen cultures. How: In the early 1900s Strong extended his involvement beyond America's shores. He extended a "Safety First" movement intended to curb accidents to several South American nations, and in 1904 he founded the British Institute of Social Service in England. He wanted the United States to have the ability to expand outside the borders of North America to the rest of the world. To do this, Strong believed the government would have to place a stronger emphasis on Christian values in American cities, where the majority of immigrants were settling

Nellie Bly

Who: Elizabeth Cochran Seaman (born Elizabeth Jane Cochran); better known by her pen name Nellie Bly, was an American journalist, industrialist, inventor, and charity worker who was widely known for her record-breaking trip around the world in 72 days, in emulation of Jules Verne's fictional character Phileas Fogg, and an exposé in which she worked undercover to report on a mental institution from within. When: May 5, 1864 - January 27, 1922 Why: She was a pioneer in her field and launched a new kind of investigative journalism. Nellie Bly was the most famous American woman reporter of the 19th century. Her investigation of conditions at an insane asylum sparked outrage, legal action, and improvements of the treatment of the mentally ill. Her trip around the world in 72 days brought her even further fame How: Nellie Bly changed the world by creating the practice of investigative journalism. She did this for her first story with the New York World newspaper, a six-part report of conditions in a mental institution. To research her subject, Bly faked mental illness and had herself confined to a facility on Blackwell's Island

Queen Liliuokalani

Who: Liliʻuokalani was the only queen regnant and the last sovereign monarch of the Hawaiian Kingdom, ruling from January 29, 1891, until the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom on January 17, 1893 When: September 2, 1838 - November 11, 1917 Why: When Kalākaua died in early 1891, Liliuokalani succeeded him, becoming the first woman ever to rule Hawaii. As queen, she acted to implement a new constitution that would restore the powers lost to the monarchy through the Bayonet Constitution How: Hawaii's monarchy was overthrown when a group of businessmen and sugar planters forced Queen Liliuokalani to abdicate. In effect, the US forced the Hawaiian queen to give up her control over the islands, her people, and their resources. Hawaii became a part of the United States imperialistic expansions without the consent of the governed and denied the indigenous peoples a political voice. Under the proposed 1893 constitution, the Queen would be obligated to sign all bills repassed by the legislature with a two-thirds majority. The pay of the legislators would be increased from $250 to $500. Nobles would be appointed by the Queen instead of elected

Margaret Sanger

Who: Margaret Higgins Sanger, also known as Margaret Sanger Slee, was an American birth control activist, sex educator, writer, and nurse When: September 14, 1879 - September 6, 1966 Why: Margaret Sanger devoted her life to legalizing birth control and making it universally available for women. Born in 1879, Sanger came of age during the heyday of the Comstock Act, a federal statute that criminalized contraceptives How: Margaret Sanger was the founder of the birth control movement in the United States and an international leader in the field. She founded the American Birth Control League, one of the parent organizations of the Birth Control Federation of America, which in 1942 became the Planned Parenthood Federation of America.

Robert LaFollette

Who: Robert Marion "Fighting Bob" La Follette Sr., was an American lawyer and politician. He represented Wisconsin in both chambers of Congress and served as the 20th Governor of Wisconsin When: June 14, 1855 - June 18, 1925 Why: A Republican for most of his life, he ran for president of the United States as the nominee of his own Progressive Party in the 1924 presidential election. How: Robert La Folltette came up with this idea that the people of the states would be able to elect their own senator. He was part of the Wisconsin legislature, so he called it the Wisconsin Idea. It was passed by Congress and is still used today. He also used his political influence and gave a speech on April 4, 1917, against the entry of the United States into WWI. Lafollette was a progressive politician, represented Wisconsin in both chambers of Congress and served as the Governor of Wisconsin.

Mark Twain

Who: Samuel Langhorne Clemens, known by his pen name Mark Twain, was an American writer, humorist, entrepreneur, publisher, and lecturer. He was lauded as the "greatest humorist the United States has produced," and William Faulkner called him "the father of American literature". When: November 30, 1835 - April 21, 1910 Why: Mark Twain was an American humorist, novelist, and travel writer. Today he is best remembered as the author of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885). Twain is widely considered one of the greatest American writers of all time How: Twain's written works challenged the fundamental issues that faced the America of his time; racism, evolving landscapes, class barriers, access to education and more. He is celebrated for works such as The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) and his memoir, Life on the Mississippi (1883). The novel The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is an extremely important work of literature that addresses many world problems such as: poverty, race relations, and our role in society. He makes the most morally upstanding decisions while under stress and the disapproval of society

"Butcher" Weyler

Who: Spanish general whose brutal tactics against Cuban rebels outraged American public opinion When: 17 September 1838 - 20 October 1930 Why: Came to Cuba in 1896; tried to crush the rebels by herding civilians into reconcentration camps where they could not help the rebels; removed in 1897 How: Spanish general, and Governor General of the Philippines and Cuba. He was famous for his Reconcentración policy, which was the first of the similar acts known today as internment

Theodore Roosevelt

Who: Theodore Roosevelt Jr., often referred to as Teddy or his initials T. R., was an American politician, statesman, conservationist, naturalist, historian, and writer who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909 When: October 27, 1858 - January 6, 1919 Why: He remains the youngest person to become president of the United States. Roosevelt was a leader of the progressive movement and championed his "Square Deal" domestic policies, promising the average citizen fairness, breaking of trusts, regulation of railroads, and pure food and drugs. How: His presidency saw the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act, which established the Food and Drug Administration to regulate food safety, and the Hepburn Act, which increased the regulatory power of the Interstate Commerce Commission.

Joseph Pulitzer

Who: a Hungarian-American politician and newspaper publisher of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch and the New York World. He became a leading national figure in the Democratic Party and was elected congressman from New York When: April 10, 1847 - October 29, 1911 Why: American newspaper editor and publisher who helped to establish the pattern of the modern newspaper. In his time he was one of the most powerful journalists in the United States. Joseph Pulitzer focused on human interest, scandal, and exposing corruption in big business. He was known for his support of the common man. Joseph Pulitzer's newspaper was in competition with William Hearst's newspaper How: Today, his name is best known for the Pulitzer Prizes, which were established in 1917 as a result of his endowment to Columbia University. The prizes are given annually to recognize and reward excellence in American journalism, photography, literature, history, poetry, music, and drama

Carrie A. Nation

Who: a radical member of the temperance movement, which opposed alcohol before the advent of Prohibition. Nation is noted for attacking alcohol-serving establishments with a hatchet When: November 25, 1846 - June 9, 1911 Why: Carry Nation was a famous leader and activist before women could vote in America. She believed that drunkenness was the cause of many problems in society. Though she was beaten and jailed many times for "smashing" saloons, Carry Nation remained opposed to drinking and smoking throughout her life. How: Carry Nation's work paved the way for two amendments to the United States Constitution. The Eighteenth Amendment, passed in 1919, prohibited the sale of alcohol, and the Nineteenth Amendment, ratified in 1920, allowed women to vote. In 1933 Prohibition ended with another constitutional amendment

Florence Kelley

Who: a social and political reformer and the pioneer of the term wage abolitionism. Her work against sweatshops and for the minimum wage, eight-hour workdays, and children's rights is widely regarded today When: September 12, 1859 - February 17, 1932 Why: Kelley's work helped create 10-hour workdays and some state minimum wage laws. Kelley also worked to end child labor. In 1911, she founded the National Labor Committee. She also joined the fight for women's rights as the Vice President of the National American Woman Suffrage Association. How: Florence Kelley was a social reformer and political activist who defended the rights of working women and children. She served as the first general secretary of the National Consumers League and helped form the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909.

William Hard

Who: a social reformist and journalist. Born to a missionary father, Hard often moved around as a child. He became a resident of Hull House in 1902 and started a neighborhood magazine called The Neighbor, which called for social reform When: 1878 - 1962 Why: From there he started writing for the Chicago Tribune and became known as a muckraker, which was an early name for an investigative journalist who appeared in popular magazines and newspapers. He made the first transatlantic daily news report How: called for social reform and became a muckraker

John Muir

Who: also known as "John of the Mountains" and "Father of the National Parks", was an influential Scottish-American naturalist, author, environmental philosopher, botanist, zoologist, glaciologist, and early advocate for the preservation of wilderness in the United States of America When: April 21, 1838 - December 24, 1914 Why: John Muir was perhaps this country's most famous and influential naturalist. If it weren't for John Muir and his writings, we probably would not have Yosemite National Park as we know it today. He was also involved in the creation of the Grand Canyon, Kings Canyon, Petrified Forest, and Mt. Rainier National Parks. How: He was the founder of the idea of conservationism and greatly inspired others to value everything our Earth has provided for us. He advocated building national parks, preserving nature in its original form, and allowing others to find the beauty in earth's wilderness.

Alice Paul

Who: an American Quaker, suffragist, feminist, and women's rights activist, and one of the main leaders and strategists of the campaign for the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which prohibits sex discrimination in the right to vote When: January 11, 1885 - July 9, 1977 Why: Alice Paul was one of the most prominent activists of the 20th-century women's rights movement. An outspoken suffragist and feminist, she tirelessly led the charge for women's suffrage and equal rights in the United States How: A vocal leader of the twentieth century women's suffrage movement, Alice Paul advocated for and helped secure passage of the 19th Amendment to the US Constitution, granting women the right to vote. Paul next authored the Equal Rights Amendment in 1923, which has yet to be adopted

George Frisbie Hoar

Who: an American attorney and politician who represented Massachusetts in the United States Senate from 1877 to 1904. He belonged to an extended family that became politically prominent in 18th- and 19th-century New England When: August 29, 1826 - September 30, 1904 Why: He authored the Presidential Succession Act of 1886. Hoar argued in the Senate in favor of women's suffrage as early as 1886. Hoar was one of only seven senators, and one of only two Republican senators How: American politician who was one of the leading organizers of the Republican Party and a lifelong crusader for good government.

William Randolph Hearst

Who: an American businessman, newspaper publisher, and politician known for developing the nation's largest newspaper chain and media company, Hearst Communications When: April 29, 1863 - August 14, 1951 Why: American newspaper publisher who built up the nation's largest newspaper chain and whose methods profoundly influenced American journalism. William Randolph Hearst is best known for publishing the largest chain of American newspapers in the late 19th century, and particularly for sensational "yellow journalism." How: William Randolph Hearst (1863-1951) launched his career by taking charge of his father's struggling newspaper the San Francisco Examiner in 1887. As America's first media tycoon, Hearst pioneered the sensationalized, attention-grabbing methods that would change journalism forever

Booker T. Washington

Who: an American educator, author, orator, and adviser to several presidents of the United States. Between 1890 and 1915, Washington was the dominant leader in the African American community and of the contemporary black elite When: April 5, 1856 - November 14, 1915 Why: Booker T. Washington, educator, reformer and the most influentional black leader of his time (1856-1915) preached a philosophy of self-help, racial solidarity and accomodation. He urged blacks to accept discrimination for the time being and concentrate on elevating themselves through hard work and material prosperity How: Born into slavery, Booker T. Washington put himself through school and became a teacher after the Civil War. In 1881, he founded the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute in Alabama (now known as Tuskegee University), which grew immensely and focused on training African Americans in agricultural pursuits

Frances Willard

Who: an American educator, temperance reformer, and women's suffragist. Willard became the national president of Woman's Christian Temperance Union in 1879 and remained president until her death in 1898 When: September 28, 1839 - February 17, 1898 Why: American educator, temperance reformer, and women's suffragist, Willard's influence was instrumental in the passage of the 18th and 19th Amendments to the United States Constitution. Willard became the national president of Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), in 1879, and remained president for 19 years. How: During her lifetime, Willard succeeded in raising the age of consent in many states, as well as passing labor reforms including the eight-hour work day. Her vision also encompassed prison reform, scientific temperance instruction, Christian socialism, and the global expansion of women's rights. The Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), a national organization dedicated to Prohibition, was led by Frances Willard from 1879 to 1898. Evangelist Carry Nation spread the message of Prohibition by smashing up saloons and making fiery speeches. In 1919 the states ratified the Eighteenth Amendment.

Gifford Pinchot

Who: an American forester and politician. Pinchot led American forestry services for over a decade. He served as 1st Chief of the United States Forest Service and served as the 4th Chief of the U.S. Division of Forestry, as the 1st head of the United States Forest Service, and as the 28th Governor of Pennsylvania When: August 11, 1865 - October 4, 1946 Why: Gifford Pinchot was an important figure in the American conservation movement. As the first chief of the US Forest Service, Pinchot tripled the nation's forest reserves, protecting their long term health for both conservation and recreational use How: Gifford Pinchot is generally regarded as the "father" of American conservation because of his great and unrelenting concern for the protection of the American forests. He was the primary founder of the Society of American Foresters, which first met at his home in Washington in November 1900.

Albert Beveridge

Who: an American historian and US senator from Indiana. He was an intellectual leader of the Progressive Era and a biographer of Chief Justice John Marshall and President Abraham Lincoln When: October 6, 1862 - April 27, 1927 Why: Beveridge is known as one of the most prominent American imperialists. He supported the annexation of the Philippines and, along with Republican leader Henry Cabot Lodge, campaigned for the construction of a new navy How: Expansionists like Senator Albert Beveridge of Indiana argued that the islands would be invaluable as way stations for American exporters and the U.S. military, lending credence to his theory that the Pacific would dominate "the commerce of the future

Charlotte Perkins Gilman

Who: an American humanist, novelist, writer of short stories, poetry and nonfiction, and a lecturer for social reform When: July 3, 1860 - August 17, 1935 Why: Today, she is best known for a short story "The Yellow Wallpaper." During her lifetime, Gilman worked to promote woman suffrage, the professionalization of domestic work, and the social purity movement (which sought to abolish prostitution and establish a common "age of consent" How: While she is best known for her fiction, Gilman was also a successful lecturer and intellectual. One of her greatest works of nonfiction, Women and Economics, was published in 1898. A feminist, she called for women to gain economic independence, and the work helped cement her standing as a social theorist

Ida B. Wells

Who: an American investigative journalist, educator, and early leader in the civil rights movement. She was one of the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People When: July 16, 1862 - March 25, 1931 Why: African-American journalist and activist who led an anti-lynching crusade in the United States in the 1890s. She also fought for woman suffrage. After her relocation to Chicago in 1894, she worked tirelessly to advance the cause of black equality and black power. Wells established the first black kindergarten, organized black women, and helped elect the city's first black alderman, just a few of her many achievements How: Wells established the first black kindergarten, organized black women, and helped elect the city's first black alderman, just a few of her many achievements. The work she did paved the way for generations of black politicians, activists, and community leaders

Ray Stannard Baker

Who: an American journalist, historian, biographer, and author When: April 17, 1870 - July 12, 1946 Why: Ray Stannard Baker was a leading national journalist whose belief in social reform led to a close personal and professional relationship with Woodrow Wilson. How: In 1908 after the 1906 Atlanta Race Riot got him involved, Baker published the book Following the Color Line: An Account of Negro Citizenship in the American Democracy, becoming the first prominent journalist to examine America's racial divide; it was extremely successful.

Theodore Dreiser

Who: an American novelist and journalist of the naturalist school. His novels often featured main characters who succeeded at their objectives despite a lack of a firm moral code, and literary situations that more closely resemble studies of nature than tales of choice and agency When: August 27, 1871 - December 28, 1945 Why: He was the leading figure in a national literary movement that replaced the observance of Victorian notions of propriety with the unflinching presentation of real-life subject matter. Among other themes, his novels explore the new social problems that had arisen in a rapidly industrializing America How: Capitalism and consumerism started to flourish at the turn of the century, and their development was, among other things, documented by Theodore Dreiser in his novel, "Sister Carrie". Dreiser provided a strong critique of the American society through his representation of consumerism.

Lillian Wald

Who: an American nurse, humanitarian and author. She was known for contributions to human rights and was the founder of American community nursing. She founded the Henry Street Settlement in New York City and was an early advocate to have nurses in public schools When: March 10, 1867 - September 1, 1940 Why: Wald pioneered public health nursing by placing nurses in public schools, and by helping found the National Organization for Public Health Nursing and Columbia University's School of Nursing. The Visiting Nurse Service of New York, started by Wald at the Settlement, broke off as a separate entity in 1944. She supported and worked for a women's right to birth control and was a part of the women's suffrage movement. She also lobbied for workplace health and safety. How: Wald was a major force in the campaigns for social reform and public health, and she was an international crusader for human rights. She worked to abolish child labor and helped establish the Federal Children's Bureau. She advocated for civil rights, women's suffrage, and for peace

John Dewey

Who: an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer whose ideas have been influential in education and social reform. He was one of the most prominent American scholars in the first half of the twentieth century When: October 20, 1859 - June 1, 1952 Why: John Dewey was an American philosopher and educator who was a founder of the philosophical movement known as pragmatism, a pioneer in functional psychology, and a leader of the progressive movement in education in the United States. As a philosopher, social reformer and educator, he changed fundamental approaches to teaching and learning. His ideas about education sprang from a philosophy of pragmatism and were central to the Progressive Movement in schooling How: John Dewey was the most significant educational thinker of his era and, many would argue, of the 20th century. As a philosopher, social reformer and educator, he changed fundamental approaches to teaching and learning. ohn Dewey's main influence was in education and social reform. He believed that learning should be hands on and he was highly against teachers lecturing their students all day every day. He wanted students to get more involved with learning and make education more child-centered

Woodrow Wilson

Who: an American politician and academic who served as the 28th president of the United States from 1913 to 1921. A member of the Democratic Party, Wilson served as the president of Princeton University and as the governor of New Jersey before winning the 1912 presidential election When: December 28, 1856 - February 3, 1924 Why: He established the Federal Reserve, signed a major antitrust law, initiated the modern income tax and led the nation to victory in World War I. Wilson was also the first Democrat to win two consecutive terms in the White House since Andrew Jackson Woodrow Wilson created the League of Nations after World War I (1914-18). He presided over ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, giving women the right to vote, and laws that prohibited child labour and that mandated an eight-hour workday for railroad workers How: Woodrow Wilson claimed his place within the Progressive movement with his economic reform package, "the New Freedom." This agenda, which passed congress at the end of 1913, included tariff, banking, and labor reforms and introduced the income tax.

Eugene V. Debs

Who: an American socialist, political activist, trade unionist, one of the founding members of the Industrial Workers of the World, and five times the candidate of the Socialist Party of America for President of the United States When: November 5, 1855 - October 20, 1926 Why: Debs helped motivate the American left to organize political opposition to corporations and World War I. American socialists, communists, and anarchists honor his work for the labor movement and motivation to have the average working man build socialism without large state involvement. How: American union leader, one of the founding members of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW or the Wobblies), and five times the candidate of the Socialist Party of America for President of the United States. Eugene Debs delivered a public speech that incited his audience to interfere with military recruitment during World War I. He was indicted for violating the Espionage Act of 1917 for allegedly attempting to cause insubordination and refusal of duty in the US military

Lewis Hine

Who: an American sociologist and muckraker photographer. His photographs were instrumental in bringing about the passage of the first child labor laws in the United States When: September 26, 1874 - November 3, 1940 Why: To raise awareness of the abuses of child labor, the NCLC hired sociologist Lewis Hine to photograph children working in fields, factories, mines, and city streets. His photos and reports, produced between 1908 and 1924, fueled public opinion and inspired Congress to enact national child labor legislation. How: Hine's photographs were instrumental for the state of American workers and American children, ultimately helping to reform the child labor laws in the U.S. His use of free speech and free press influenced and awakened Americans' consciences, effectively proving that the camera can be a powerful tool to promote social reform

W.E.B. Dubois

Who: an American sociologist, socialist, historian, civil rights activist, Pan-Africanist, author, writer and editor When: February 23, 1868, - August 27, 1963 Why: W.E.B. Du Bois was an American sociologist, historian, author, editor, and activist who was the most important black protest leader in the United States during the first half of the 20th century. He shared in the creation of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). How: Du Bois was a prolific author. His collection of essays, The Souls of Black Folk, is a seminal work in African-American literature; and his 1935 magnum opus, Black Reconstruction in America, challenged the prevailing orthodoxy that blacks were responsible for the failures of the Reconstruction Era. Du Bois may be best known for the concept of the "talented tenth." He believed that full citizenship and equal rights for African Americans would be brought about through the efforts of an intellectual elite; for this reason, he was an advocate of a broad liberal arts education at the college level

Samuel Hopkins Adams

Who: an American writer, best known for his investigative journalism and muckraking When: January 26, 1871 - November 16, 1958 Why: Adams was widely known for his writings on public health and patent medicines; he is often given much of the credit for the passage of the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act. How: Adams contributed to Collier's, the National Weekly in 1905 a series of articles exposing quack patent medicines, followed by The Great American Fraud (1906), which furthered the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906. In a series of 11 articles he wrote for the magazine in 1905, "The Great American Fraud", Adams exposed many of the false claims made about patent medicines, pointing out that in some cases these medicines were damaging the health of the people using them

Mother Mary Harris Jones

Who: an Irish-born American schoolteacher and dressmaker who became a prominent union organizer, community organizer, and activist. She helped coordinate major strikes and co-founded the Industrial Workers of the World When: May 1, 1837 - November 30, 1930 Why: Mary Harris "Mother" Jones rose to prominence as a fiery orator and fearless organizer for the Mine Workers during the first two decades of the 20th century. Her voice had great carrying power. Her energy and passion inspired men half her age into action and compelled their wives and daughters to join in the struggle. A champion of the working class, Jones was a campaigner for the United Mine Workers Union, founded the Social Democratic Party and helped establish the Industrial Workers of the World. How: The most famous female labor activist of the nineteenth century, Mary Harris Jones—aka "Mother Jones"—was a self-proclaimed "hell-raiser" in the cause of economic justice. She was so strident that a US attorney once labeled her "the most dangerous woman in America.

Theodore Roosevelt

Who: often referred to as Teddy or his initials T. R., was an American politician, statesman, conservationist, naturalist, historian, and writer who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909 When: October 27, 1858 - January 6, 1919 Why: He remains the youngest person to become president of the United States. Roosevelt was a leader of the progressive movement and championed his "Square Deal" domestic policies, promising the average citizen fairness, breaking of trusts, regulation of railroads, and pure food and drugs How: His presidency saw the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act, which established the Food and Drug Administration to regulate food safety, and the Hepburn Act, which increased the regulatory power of the Interstate Commerce Commission. His presidency endowed the progressive movement with credibility, lending the prestige of the White House to welfare legislation, government regulation, and the conservation movement. The desire to make society more fair and equitable, with economic possibilities for all Americans, lay behind much of Roosevelt's program

William Howard Taft

Who: the 27th president of the United States and the tenth chief justice of the United States, the only person to have held both offices When: September 15, 1857 - March 8, 1930 Why: He signed the first tariff revision since 1897; established a postal savings system; formed the Interstate Commerce Commission; and prosecuted over 75 antitrust violations, far more than pursued by the "trust- buster" Theodore Roosevelt How: His reforms addressed the progressive goals of democracy, social welfare, and economic reform. Two of the major progressive achievements under President Taft were constitutional amendments. The Sixteenth Amendment was passed in 1909 and ratified in 1913. It gave Congress the power to create income taxes.