APUSH Key Terms (Unit 1-8)

Roosevelt's proposal in 1937 to "reform" the Supreme Court by appointing an additional justice for every justice over age 70; following the Court's actions in striking down major New Deal laws; FDR came to believe that some justices were out of touch with the nation's needs. Congress believed Roosevelt's proposal endangered the Court's independence and said no.

Court-packing plan

Unemployed workers led by Jacob Coxey who marched to Washington demanding a government road-building program and currency inflation for the needy; Coxey was arrested for stepping on grass as the Capitol and the movement collapsed

Coxey's Army

utopian society established by transcendentalist George Ripley near Boston in 1841; members shared equally in farm work and leisure discussions of literature and art. Author Nathaniel Hawthorne and others became disenchanted with the experiment, and it collapsed after a fire in 1847.

Brook Farm

An act passed in Maryland in 1649 that granted freedom of worship to all Christians; although it was enacted to protect the Catholic minority in Maryland; it was a benchmark of religious freedom in all the colonies. It did not extend to non-Christians, however.

Act of Toleration

first national temperance organization, founded in1826, which sent agents to preach total abstinence from alcohol; the society pressed individuals to sign pledges of sobriety and states to prohibit the use of alcohol.

American Society for the promotion of Temperance

organization founded in 1840 and led by the Tappan brothers that opposed the radical ideas of William Lloyd Garrison, especially his attacks on the churches and the Constitution; it followed a more moderate approach and supported the political activities of the Liberty Party.

American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society

a body of non-elective government officials; those involved in the administration of policy

Bureaucracy

area of New York along the Erie Canal that was constantly aflame with revivalism and reform; as wave after wave of fervor broke over the region, groups such as the Mormons, Shakers, Millerites found support among the residents.

Burned-over district

document secretly written by Vice President John Calhoun in support of nullification; calling on compact theory, he argued the tariff of 1828 was unconstitutional and that South Carolina could lawfully refuse to collect it.

Exposition and Protest

Granted black males the right to vote and split former abolitionists and women's rights supporters, who wanted women included as well.

Fifteenth Amendment (1870)

Roosevelt's informal radio addresses throughout his presidency; they gave the people a sense of confidence that he understood their problems and was trying to help solve them. With these "chats", FDR was the first president to use the electronic media to spread his message.

Fireside chats

Religious revival in the colonies in 1730s and 1740s; George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards preached a message of atonement for sins by admitting them to God. The movement attempted to combat the growing secularism and rationalism of mid-eighteenth century America.

First Great Awakening

Widespread occurrence of an infectious disease, such as smallpox, in a community at a particular time.

Epidemic

reformer who led a crusade to improve public education in America; as secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, he established a minimum school term, formalized teacher training, and moved curriculum away from religious training toward more secular subjects.

Horace Mann

Congressional committee formed in the 1930s to investigate perceived threats to democracy; in the 1940s, the committee laid foundation for the Red Scare as it investigated allegations of Communist subversion in Hollywood and pursued Alger Hiss.

House Un-American Activities Committee

Term applied to the first weeks of the Roosevelt Administration, during which Congress passed 13 emergency relief and reform measures that were the backbone of the early New Deal; these included the Civilian Conservation Corp, the Glass Stegal Act (FDIC), Agricultural Adjustment Act, Federal Emergency Relief Act, and the National Industrial Recovery Act.

Hundred Days

crusading journalist who wrote "The History of the Standard Oil Company" a critical expose that documented John D. Rockefeller's ruthlessness and questionable business tactics.

Ida Tarbell

lead diplomat in negotiating the Treaty of Paris (1783); he secretly dealt with the British representatives at Paris and gained all of America's goals for independence despite the deviousness and meddling of France and Spain.

John Jay

Influential editor of the Democratic Review who coined the phrase "manifest destiny" in 1845.

John L. O'Sullivan

English philosopher who wrote that governments have a duty to protect people's life, liberty, and property; many colonial leaders read his ideas and incorporated them into their political rhetoric and thinking.

John Locke

Labor union founded in 1869 and built by Terence V. Powderly; the Knights called for one big union, replacement of the wage system with producers' cooperatives, and discouraged use of strikes; by 1886, they claimed membership of 700,00; membership declined after the union's association with the Haymarket Riot of 1886

Knights of Labor

Program authorizing the president to lend or lease equipment to nations whose defense was deemed vital to the US security; it was designed to help a bankrupt Britain continue fighting the Nazis. By 1945, the US had extended $50 billion in wartime aid to Britain and the Soviet Union.

Lend Lease (1941)

Democratic senator who proposed popular sovereignty to settle the slavery question in the territories; he lost the presidential election in 1848 against Zachary Taylor but continued to advocate his solution to the slavery issue throughout the 1850s.

Lewis Cass

founders of the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society; as successful businessmen, they funded many antislavery activities in the 1830s and 1840s. They also supported the Liberty Party in the 1840s.

Lewis and Arthur Tappan

lacking power

Marginalized

the process that took place in nineteenth-century America in which an economy dominated by small farms and work-shops was transformed into an economy in which farmers and manufacturers produced for a distant cash market; it was also characterized by the emergence of a permanent "working class". These changes had significant consequences for American social institutions, religious practices, political ideology, and cultural patterns.

Market Revolution

Secretary of Stage George Marshall's economic aid program to rebuild war-torn Western Europe; it amounted to an enlarged version of the Truman Doctrine, with billions of dollars going to revive European economies and contain Communism.

Marshall Plan (1947-1954)

senator, vice president, and president of the US; the Panic of 1837 ruined his presidency, and he was voted out of office in 1840. He later supported the Free Soil Party.

Martin Van Buren

Idea that US should depend on nuclear weapons to stop Communist aggression; prompted by the frustration of the Korean war stalemate and the desire to save money on military budgets, the concept reduced reliance on conventional forces.

Massive retaliation

British colonies between the New England and Chesapeake Colonies, inclusive of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, and Delaware. The Middle Colonies were primarily characterized by their religious and social diversity.

Middle Colonies

financial institutions friendly to Andrew Jackson's administration that received federal funds when he vetoed the Second National Bank's re-charter in 1832 and removed all government deposits from it.

Pet banks

Trans-denominational movement within Protestant Christianity that stressed the preaching of the gospel, personal conversion experiences, the Bible as the sole basis for faith, and active spreading of the faith.

Protestant Evangelicalism

one who wants to return to an idealized past

Reactionary

name given to a high tariff passed in 1828; after years of steadily rising duties, this tariff raised rates on certain goods to an all-time high, leading to the nullification crisis of 1832.

Tariff of Abominations

Scottish-born industrialist who developed the US steel industry; his is a rags-to-riches story, as he made a fortune in business and sold his holdings in 1901 for $447 million; spent the rest of his life giving away $350 millions to worthy cultural and educational causes

Andrew Carnegie

controversial Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (1953-1969); he led the Court in far-reaching racial, social, and political rulings, including school desegregation and protecting rights of persons accused of crimes; presided over the Brown v. the Board of Education case.

Earl Warren

The announced policy of President Truman to provide aid to free nations who faced internal or external threats of a Communist takeover; announced in conjunction with a $400 million economic aid package to Greece and Turkey, it was successful in helping those countries put down Communist guerrilla movements and is considered to be the first US action of the Cold War.

Truman Doctrine (1947)

showing ill will

malevolent

female-dominated

matriarchal

an early advocate of independence who was a strong opponent of the Stamp Act and great defender of individual rights; in 1775, he declared: "Give me liberty, or give me death."

Patrick Henry

Joint statement issued by President Roosevelt and Britain's Prime Minister Winston Churchill of principals and goals for an Allied victory in WWII; it provided for self-determination for all conquered nations, freedom of seas, economic security, and free trade. Later, it became the embodiment of the United Nations Charter.

Atlantic Charter (1941)

schoolteacher turned reformer; she was a pioneer for humane treatment of the mentally ill. She lobbied state legislatures to create hospitals for the insane and to remove them from the depravity of the penal system.

Dorothea Dix

WWII hero who led UN forces during the Korean War; his outspoken opposition to President Truman's decisions to limit the war cost him his command. He wanted to bomb China, and Truman rejected the idea as too reckless.

Douglas MacArthur

WWII hero and President, 1953-1961; his internationalist foreign policy continued Truman's policy of containment but put greater emphasis on military cost-cutting, the threat of nuclear weapons to deter Communist aggression, and Central Intelligence Agency activities to halt communists.

Dwight Eisenhower

Labor leader arrested during the Pullman Strike (1894); a covert to socialism, Debs ran for president five times between 1900 and 1920; in 1920, he campaigned from prison where he was being held for opposition to American in World War I

Eugene V. Debs

presidential message in which Washington warned the nation to avoid both entangling foreign alliances and domestic "factions" (political parties); the ideas of the address became the basis of isolationist arguments for the next 150 years.

Farewell Address

Political movement to inflate currency by government issuance of $16 of silver for every $1 of gold in circulation; it was supported by farmers, who sought to counter declining crop prices and increase the money supply; it became a symbol of liberating from the group of wealthy easterners

"Free silver"

effective public speaker in the American Anti-Slavery Society; her election to an all-male committee caused the final break between William Garrison and his abolitionist critics in 1840 that split the organization.

Abby Kelley

an underlying (often ideological) plan or program

Agenda

set of proposals by Henry Clay that called for a national bank, protective tariffs, and internal improvements; their goal was American economic self-sufficiency.

American System

civil rights law passed in 1990 that prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities in all areas of public life, including jobs, schools, transportation, and all public and private places that are open to the general public

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

US general who defeated the Native Americans at Horseshoe Bend and commanded the victory over the British at New Orleans; he became a national hero as a result of his record in the War of 1812 and later rode that fame to the presidency.

Andrew Jackson

Vice president who took over after Lincoln's assassination; an ex-Democrat with little sympathy for former slaves, his battles with Radical Republicans resulted in his impeachment in 1868. He avoided conviction and removal from office by one vote.

Andrew Johnson

America's leading diplomat of the time who served as a statesman and advisor throughout the Revolutionary era. he was active in all the prerevolutionary congresses and helped to secure the French alliance of 1778 and the Treaty of Paris, which formally ended the Revolution in 1783.

Ben Franklin

Catholic priest who used his popular radio program to criticize the New Deal; he grew increasingly anti-Roosevelt and anti-Semitic until the Catholic Church pulled him off the air.

Charles Coughlin

groups allied for a common purpose

Coalition

Believed the Anglican Church retained too many Catholic ideas and sought to purify the Church of England; the Puritans believed in predestination (man saved or damned at birth) and also held the that God was watchful and granted salvation only to those who adhered to His goodness as interpreted by the church. The Puritans were strong in New England and very intolerant of other religious groups.

Congregationalist (Puritans)

document drafted under the leadership of Republican congressman Newt Gingrich that promised to enact ten items if they won control of Congress. They included congressional term limits, a balanced budget amendment, tax cuts, tougher crime laws, and welfare reform.

Contract with America

agreement between presidential candidates Henry Clay and John Quincy Adams during the disputed election of 1824; Clay threw his support to Adams in the house of Representatives, which decided the election, and in return, Adams appointed Clay secretary of state. Andrew Jackson, who had a plurality (but not a majority) of the popular and electoral votes, believed he had been cheated out of the presidency.

Corrupt Bargain

A failed southern strategy to embargo cotton from England until Great Britain recognized and assisted the Confederacy; southerners hoped the economic pressure resulting from Britain's need for cotton its text factories would force Britain to aid the South. But direct aid was never forthcoming.

Cotton Diplomacy

Major scandal in Grant's second term; a construction company, aided by members of Congress, bilked the government out of $20-40 million in building the transcontinental railroad; members of Congress were bribed to cover up overcharges

Credit Mobilier

Televised national address by President Carter in which he complained that a weak national spirit struck "at the very heart and soul of our nation will". Carter's address made many Americans feel that their president had given up.

Crisis of Confidence (Malaise) Speech

series of resolutions issued at the end of the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848; modeled after the Declaration of Independence, the list of grievances called for economic and social equality for women, along with the demand for the right to vote.

Declaration of Sentiments

the modern-day, major political party whose antecedents can be traced to the Democratic Republican Party of the 1790s and early 1800s; it was born after the disputed election of 1824, in which the candidates-all Democratic Republicans-divided on issues and by sections. Supporters of Andrew Jackson, outraged by the election's outcome, organized around Jackson to prepare for the election of 1828. After the election, this organization became known as the Democratic Party.

Democratic Party

political party led by Thomas Jefferson; it feared centralized political power, supported states' rights, opposed Hamilton's financial plan, and supported ties to France. It was heavily influenced by agrarian interests in the southern states.

Democratic Republican Party

characteristics relating to population

Demographic

the cutting back of federal regulation of industry. In the 1980's, Reagan removed price controls on oil, eliminated federal health and safety inspections for nursing homes, reduced rules governing the airline industry and the savings/loan industry.

Deregulation

to show partiality in treatment

Discrimination

President Taft's policy that encouraged American business and financial interests to invest in Latin American countries to achieve US economic/ foreign policy goals and maintain control; if problems persisted, the US reverted to the Big Stick option of the Roosevelt administration, turning military intervention and employment of force to restore stabilizing ability and peace

Dollar Diplomacy

pioneer in the women's movement; she organized the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 and fought for women's suffrage throughout the 1800s.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

Executive order issued January 1, 1863, granting freedom to all slaves in states that were in rebellion; Lincoln issued it using his constitutional authority as commander-in-chief; as a region under northern control on January 1. However, it was a stepping stone to the Thirteenth Amendment.

Emancipation Proclamation

belief that one is deserving of certain privileges

Entitlement

relating to public revenue or public debt

Fiscal

A US government-sponsored agency that provided food, established schools, and tried to redistribute land to former slaves as part of Radical Reconstruction; it was most effective in education, where it created over 4000 schools in the South.

Freedmen's Bureau

US acquisition of land south of the Gila River from Mexico for $10 million; the land was needed for a possible trans-continental railroad line through the southern US. However, the route was never used.

Gadsden Purchase (1853)

Naval hero of the Spanish-American War; his fleet defeated the Spanish at Manila Bay and gave the US a tenuous claim to the Philippine Islands

George Dewey

President of the US, 1989-1993. He ran his 1988 campaign building on President's Reagan's legacy with the promise, "Read my lip: no new taxes." Despite a swift and successful military campaign against Saddam Hussein in the Persian Gulf War, the 1980's economic recession and his ultimate reversal of that promise cost him his bid for re-election in 1992.

George H.W. Bush

king of England during the American Revolution. Until 1776, the colonists believed he supported their attempt to keep their rights. In reality, he was a strong advocate for harsh policies toward them.

George III

State Department official who was architect of the containment concept; in his article "The Source of Soviet Conduct" he said the USSR was historically and ideologically driven to expand and that the US must practice "vigilant containment" to stop this expansion.

George Kennan

Union general who was reluctant to attack Lee because of military/ political reasons; his timidity prompted Lincoln to fire him twice during the war. He ran unsuccessfully for president against Lincoln in 1864 on an antiwar platform.

George McClellan

unsuccessful Democratic candidate for president in 1972; he called for immediate withdrawal from Vietnam and a guaranteed income for the poor. When his vice presidential choice got into trouble, he waffled in his defense, which cost him further with the electorate.

George McGovern

landmark case in which the Supreme Court struck down a New York law that granted a monopoly to certain steamboats operating between New York and New Jersey; the ruling expanded the powers the Constitution gave Congress to regulate interstate commerce. It was another of the cases during this period whereby the Supreme Court expanded federal power and limited states' rights.

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)

approach to ending slavery that called for the phasing out of slavery over a period of time; many gradual emancipation proposals were built around the granting of freedom to children of slaves who were born after a specified date, usually when they attained a specified age; in this way, as existing slaves aged and died, slavery would gradually die too. Many of the northern states, which abolished slavery following the American Revolution, adopted this method of ending the institution.

Gradual Emancipation

advisor to Presidents Nixon and Ford; he was architect of the Vietnam settlement, the diplomatic opening to China, and détente with the Soviet Union.

Henry Kissinger

A farmers' organization and movement that started as a social/ educational association; the Grange later organized politically to pass a series of laws to regulate railroads in various states

Granger Movement (National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry) (1867)

broke the impasse at the Constitutional Convention over congressional representation. Congress would consist of two houses-seats in the lower assigned according to each state's population and states having equal representation in the upper chamber.

Great Compromise

movement of southern, rural blacks to northern cities around 1915 and continuing through much of the twentieth century; blacks left the South as the cotton economy declined and Jim Crow persisted. Thousands came north for wartime jobs in large cities during World Wars I and II.

Great Migration

President Lyndon Johnson's social and economic program that helped the poor, the aged, and the young. The program of civil rights and a "war on poverty" included the passage of Medicare, Medicaid, Immigration Act of 1965, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Great Society

Only Democratic elected to presidency from 1856 to 1912; he served two nonconsecutive terms; elected in 1884, losing in 1888, and winning again in 1892; his second term was marred by the Depression of 1893

Grover Cleveland

black artistic movement in New York City in the 1920s, when writers, poets, painters, and musicians came together to express feelings and experiences, especially about the injustices of Jim Crow; leading figures of the movement included Countee Cullen, Claude McKay, Duke Ellington, Zora Neale Hurston, and Langston Hughes.

Harlem Renaissance

Author of Uncle Tom's Cabin, a best-selling novel about the cruelty of slavery; often called the greatest propaganda novel in US history, the book increased tension between sections and helped bring on the Civil War.

Harriet Beecher Stowe

Vice president who became president when FDR died in April 1945; he was elected on his own in 1948. Truman ordered the use of atomic bombs on Japan to end WWII, set the course of postwar containment of Communism in the Cold War, and created a Fair Deal program to carry on the New Deal's domestic agenda.

Harry S. Truman

meeting of New England state leaders in 1814; among other things, the delegates called for restrictions on embargoes and limits on presidential tenure. The end of the war brought an end to the gathering, but it was later branded as unpatriotic and helped bring on the collapse of the Federalist Party.

Hartford Convention

Raised the duties on imported foreign goods to all-time highs; intended to boost American industry and employment, it actually deepened the Depression when European countries could not repay their loans (WWI war debts) and retaliated against American exports.

Hawley-Smoot Tariff (1930)

Violent incident at a worker's rally held in Chicago's Haymarket Square; political radicals and labor leaders called the rally to support a strike at the nearby McCormick Reaper works; when police tried to break it up, a bomb was thrown in their midst, killing 8 and wounding 67 others; the incident hurt the Knights of Labor and Governor John Altgeld, who pardoned some of the anarchist suspects

Haymarket Riot (1886)

President (1929-1933) who is blamed for the Great Depression; although he tried to use government power to bring on recovery, his inflexibility and refusal to give direct relief doomed his programs and his presidency.

Herbert Hoover

Conquered Aztecs in Mexico. He captured the capital of Tenochititlan, with its leader Montezuma in 1521; pillaged and destroyed the Aztec civilization.

Hernándo Cortes

Means of attracting settlers in colonial America; the system gave land to a family head and to anyone he sponsored coming to the colony, including indentured servants. The amount of land varied from fifty to two-hundred acres per person.

Headright system

chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee who accepted the Treaty of Versailles and membership in the League but demanded reservations to the League to maintain congressional authority in foreign affairs; Wilson's unwillingness to accept these conditions caused the Senate to reject the treaty.

Henry Cabot Lodge

a leading American statesman from 1810 to 1852; he served as a member of Congress, Speaker of the House, senator, and secretary of state and made three unsuccessful presidential bids. He was known as the Great Compromiser for his role in the compromises of 1820, 1833, and 1850.

Henry Clay

Encouraged westward settlement by allowing heads of families to buy 160 acres of land for a small fee ($10-30); settlers were required to develop and remain on the land for five years; over 400,000 families got land through this law

Homestead Act (1862)

Camps and shantytowns of unemployed and homeless on the outskirts of major cities during the early days of the Depression; they were symbols of the failure of Hoover's program and the way the nation held him responsible for the hard times.

Hoovervilles

First popularly-elected legislative assembly in America; it met in Jamestown in 1619.

House of Burgesses

Flamboyant Louisiana governor and US senator; he challenged FDR to do more for the poor and needy and proposed a popular "Share-Our-Wealth" program to tax the wealthy in order to provide a guaranteed income for the poor. He was assassinated in 1935.

Huey Long

a law that opened the door for many non-European immigrants to settle in the US by ending quotas based on nationality

Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1965

the forceful drafting of American sailors in the British navy; between 1790 and 1812, over ten thousand Americans were impressed, the British claiming they were deserters from the Royal navy. This was the principle cause of the War of 1812.

Impressment

rising prices

Inflation

Former Civil War general who ran for president with the Greenback Party (1880) and the Populist Party (1892)

James B. Weaver

former slaveholder who at one time was a member of the American Colonization Society, the American Anti-Slavery Society, and the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society; in 1840 and 1844, he ran for president on the Liberty Party ticket.

James Birney

Weak, vacillating president of the US, 1857-1861; historians rate him as a failure for his ineffective response to secession and the formation of the Confederacy in 1860 and 1861.

James Buchanan

Louis XIV's minister who rejuvenated the French empire int he Western Hemisphere. In 1660s, he reorganized and strengthened the colonies of New France.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

Series of laws passed in southern states in the 1880s and 1890s that segregated the races in many facets of life, including public conveyances, waiting areas, bathrooms, and theaters; it legalized segregation and was upheld as constitutional by Plessy v. Ferguson

Jim Crow laws

Historian and expansionist who argued that, with the superiority of its democracy, the US was destined to spread over "every land on the earth's surface"

John Fiske

Explorer, soldier, politician, and first presidential nominee of the Republican Party (1856); his erratic personal behavior and his radical views on slavery made him controversial and unelectable.

John Fremont

person who believes that the "elastic clause" of the Constitution (Article 1, Section 8, paragraph 18) gives the central government wide latitude of action; loose constructionists hold that even powers not explicitly set forth in the Constitution may be exercised if it is "necessary and proper" to carry out powers that are specifically stated.

Loose constructionist

an 828,000 square mile region purchased from France in 1803 for $15 million; the acquisition doubled the size of the US and gave it control of the Mississippi River and New Orleans. Jefferson uncharacteristically relied on implied powers in the Constitution (loose construction) for the authority to make the purchase.

Louisiana Purchase

colonists who remained loyal to England; they often were older, better educated people who were members of the Anglican Church. The British hoped to use them as a pacification force but failed to organize them properly.

Loyalists (Tories)

modified embargo that replaced the Non-Intercourse Act of 1809; this measure reopened trade with both Britain and France but held that if either agreed to respect America's neutrality in their conflict, the US would end trade with the other.

Macon's Bill No. 2 (1810)

Meeting of representatives of nine southern states in the summer of 1850 to monitor the negotiations over the Compromise of 1850; it called for extension of the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific Ocean and a stronger Fugitive law. The convention accepted the Compromise but laid the groundwork for a southern confederacy in 1860-1861.

Nashville Convention

Law that authorized the use of federal funds to improve the nation's elementary and high schools; inspired by Cold War fears that the US was falling behind the Soviet Union in the arms and space race, it was directed at improving science, math, and foreign-language education.

National Defense Education Act (1958)

Created a National Labor Relations Board that could compel employers to recognize and bargain with unions; this law helped promote the growth of organized labor in the 1930s and for decades thereafter.

National Labor Relations Act (1935)

Series of English laws to enforce the mercantile system, the laws established control over colonial trade, excluded all but British ships in commerce, and enumerated goods that had to be shipped to England or other English colonies. The acts also restricted colonial manufacturing.

Navigation Acts

cartel of oil-exporting nations, which used oil as a weapon to alter America's Middle East policy; it organized a series of oil boycotts that roiled the United States economy throughout the 1970s.

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

severe depression that followed the economic boom of the post-War of 1812 years; the Second National Bank, trying to dampen land speculation and inflation, called loans, raised interest rates, and received the blame for the panic. All this helped divide the commercial interests of the East from the agrarian interest of an expanding West.

Panic of 1819

United States naval base in Hawaii that was attacked by Japan on December 7, 1941, with serious US losses; 19 ships sunk or destroyed and over 2000 deaths; the attack brought the US into WWII.

Pearl Harbor

a division into two extremes of groups or interests

Polarization

Indian uprising in the Ohio Valley region that killed 2,000 settlers; as a result, the British sought peace with the Indians by prohibiting colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains (the Proclamation of 1763). The Americans saw this ban as an unlawful restriction of their rights and generally ignored it.

Pontiac's Rebellion (1763)

an increase in the number of something

Proliferation

one who wants immediate, extreme change

Radical

Republican faction in Congress who demanded immediate emancipation of the slaves at the war's beginning; after the war, they favored racial equality, voting rights, and land distribution for the former slaves. Lincoln and Johnson opposed their ideas as too extreme.

Radical Republicans

period of hysteria after WWI over the possible spread of Communism to the United States; aroused by the Russia Revolution (1917), the large number of Russian immigrants in the US, and a series of terrorist bombings in 1919, it resulted in the denial of civil liberties, mass arrests and deportations, and passage of the restrictive Immigration Act of 1920.

Red Scare

Political party formed in 1854 in response to the Kansas-Nebraska Act; it combined remnants of Whig, Free Soil, and Know-Nothing Parties as well as disgruntled Democrats. Although not abolitionist, it sought to block the spread of slavery in the territories. It also favored tariffs, homesteads, and a transcontinental railroad.

Republican Party

British writer who, in the 1580s, encouraged England to explore and settle in North America. His writings prompted England to embark on its North American empire.

Richard Hakluyt

president, 1969-1974; he extracted the United States from Vietnam slowly, recognized Communist China, and improved relations with the Soviet Union. His foreign policy achievements were overshadowed by the Watergate scandal.

Richard Nixon

Highly regarded Confederate general who was first offered command of the Union armies but declined; Lee was very successful until he fought Ulysses S. Grant in 1864 and 1865. He surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia to Grant on April 9, 1865, to end major fighting in the war.

Robert E. Lee

Hoover's philosophy that called on American to help each other during the Depression without direct government relief; he feared too much government help would weaken the American character, endanger liberty, and lead to totalitarianism in the US

Rugged individualism

Italian radicals who became symbols of the Red Scare of the 1920s; arrested (1920), tried, and executed (1927) for a robbery/ murder, they were believed by many to have been innocent but convicted because of their immigrant status and radical political beliefs.

Sacco and Vanzetti

fought between England and France, 1756-1763; known as the French and Indian War in the colonies, it started in 1754, over control of the Ohio River Valley and resulted in France's withdrawal from North America. It was the impetus for Parliament's taxing policy that led to the American Revolution.

Seven Years War

First federal action against monopolies; the law gave government power to regulate combinations "in restraint of trade"; until the early 1900s, however, this power was used more often against labor unions than against trusts

Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890)

relating to class, wealth, and status

Socioeconomic

Inclusive of South Carolina, North Carolina, and Georgia. South Carolina in particular became increasingly reliant on slavery because of an economy dependent on labor-intensive crops like rice and indigo.

Southern Colonies

practice of appointing people to government positions as a reward for their loyalty and political support; Jackson was accused of abusing this power, yet he only removed about 20% of office holders during his tenure.

Spoils system

a proposed defense system popularly known as "Star Wars," intended to protect the United States against missile attacks.

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)

Part of the declaration of war against Spain in which Congress pledged that Cuba would be freed and not annexed by the US as a result of the conflict

Teller Amendment

Uncompromising Radical Republican who wanted to revolutionize the South by giving equality to blacks; a leader in the impeachment of Andrew Johnson, he hoped for widespread land distribution to former slaves.

Thaddeus Stevens

Abolished slavery everywhere in the United States.

Thirteenth Amendment (1865)

writer of Common Sense, an electrifying pamphlet of January 1776 calling for a break with England; written with great passion and force; it swept the colonies and provided a clear rationale for colonial independence.

Thomas Paine

the removal of some 18,000 Cherokees, evicted from lands in southeastern US and marched to Indian Territory (Oklahoma); nearly 25 percent of the people perished from disease and exhaustion during the trip.

Trail of Tears (1838)

Scandal in New York City 1886-1871); William Marcy Tweed headed a corrupt Democratic political machine (Tammany Hall) that looted $100-200 million from the city; crusading journalists and others pointed to this organization and its activities as another example of the need for social/ political reform

Tweed Ring

socialist muckraker who wrote "The Jungle" (1906), in which he hoped to indict the capitalist system but instead helped convince Congress to pass the Meat Inspection Act (1906), which cleaned up the meat industry.

Upton Sinclair

Spanish governor in charge of suppressing the Cuban revolution, 1896-1898; his brutal "reconcentration" tactics earned him the nickname of the "Butcher" in America's yellow press

Valeriano Weyler

political party formed in 1832 in opposition to Andrew Jackson; led by Henry Clay, it opposed executive usurpation (a strong president) and advocated re-chartering the National Bank, distributing western lands, raising the tariff, and funding internal improvements. It broke apart over the slavery issue in the early 1850s.

Whigs

uprising in western Pennsylvania in 1794 over an excise tax levied on whiskey; farmers saw the tax as an unjust and illegal levy, like the Stamp Act. President Washington crushed the rebellion with overwhelming force and thereby demonstrated the power of the new government to maintain order and carry out the law.

Whiskey Rebellion

A spokesman for agrarian western values, 1896-1925, and three-time Democratic presidential candidate (1896, 1900, 1908); in 1896 his "Cross of Gold" speech and a free-silver platform gained support from Democrats and Populists, but he lost the election

William Jennings Bryan

led a group of senators who were irreconcilably opposed to joining the League of Nations; he promoted ideals of traditional isolationism and believed the League was "an entangling foreign alliance".

William Borah

most prominent abolitionist leader of the antebellum period; he published the antislavery newspaper The Liberator and founded the American Anti-Slavery Society.

William Lloyd Garrison

President of the United States, 1897-1901; a reluctant expansionists, he led America during the Spanish-American War; his assassination in 1901 brought "that damn cowboy" Theodore Roosevelt to presidency

William McKinley

Quaker founder of Pennsylvania; he intended it be a Quaker haven, but all religions were tolerated. The colony had very good relations with Native Americans at first.

William Penn

successful Democratic presidential nominee in 1912 and his progressive program that viewed trusts as evil and called for their destruction rather than their regulation; his social and political philosophy drew heavily on the ideas of Louis Brandeis. As president (1913-1921). Wilson led the nation through World War I.

Woodrow Wilson (New Freedom)

diplomatic effort by President John Adams to soothe the French, who were upset over Jay's Treaty and American neutrality in their conflict with Britain; three American delegates to France were told they must offer a bribe before any negotiations could begin. They refused, and the humiliation heightened tensions between two countries and set off war hysteria in the United States.

XYZ Affair

to support; to be in favor of

advocate

independent decision-making within a structure

agency

aggressive; hostile

belligerent

resources used to accumulate wealth or power

capital

to show or illustrate

depict

to speak on behalf of a cause or idea

espouse

Soviet satellite launched in September 1957; the launch set off a panic that the Communists were winning the space race and were superior in math and science education. It gave impetus for the Nation Defense Education Act of 1958 to improve schools.

Sputnik

name given the economic condition throughout most of the 1970s in which prices rose rapidly (inflation) but without economic growth (stagnation). Unemployment rose along with inflation. In large part, these conditions were the economic consequences of rising oil prices.

Stagflation

Republicans in the 1870s who supported Ulysses Grant and Roscoe Conkling; they accepted machine politics and the spoils system and were challenged by other Republicans called Half-Breeds, who supported civil service reform

Stalwarts

a tax on more than fifty items such as pamphlets, newspapers, playing cards, and dice; it set off a strong protest among the colonists, who claimed it was an internal tax designed only to raise revenue and therefore unlawful for Parliament to levy.

Stamp Act (1765)

met in New York City to protest the Stamp act; nine of the thirteen colonies petitioned the king and organized a boycott that eventually helped to force the repeal of the tax. This meeting and action was a major step to colonial unity and resistance of British authority.

Stamp Act Congress (1765)

Leader of American immigration to Texas in 1820s; he negotiated land grants with Mexico and tried to moderate growing Texan rebelliousness in the 1830s. After Texas became an independent nation, he served as its secretary of state.

Stephen Austin

A leading Democratic senator in the 1850s; nicknamed the "Little Giant" for his small size and great political power, he steered the Compromise of 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Act through Congress. Although increasingly alienated from the southern wing of his party, he ran against his political rival Abraham Lincoln for president in 1860 and lost.

Stephen Douglas

Laws in southern states that exempted voters from taking literacy tests or paying poll taxes if their grandfathers had voted as of January 1, 1867; it effectively gave white southerners the vote and disenfranchised African Americans

"Grandfather clause"

nickname given to John Tyler in 1841 by his opponents when he assumed the presidency upon the death of William Henry Harrison; the first vice presidency to succeed to the presidency, his nickname reflected his conflict with the Whig party leaders over re-chartering the National Bank, raising the tariff, and supporting internal improvements at government expense.

"His Accidency"

Wave if immigration from the 1880s until the early twentieth century; millions came from southern/ eastern Europe, who were poor, uneducated, Jewish, and Catholic; settled in large cities and prompted a nativist backlash and, eventually, restrictions on immigration in the 1920s; these immigrants provided the labor force that allowed the rapid growth of American industry in the late 1800s and early 1900s

"New immigration"

The belief that a slave-holding oligarchy existed to maintain slavery in the South and to spread it throughout the US, including the free states; this belief held that a southern cabal championed a closed, aristocratic way of life that attacked northern capitalism and liberty.

"slave power"

British colonies inclusive of Virginia and Maryland. Further south, these colonies were characterized by an economic dependence on cash crops like tobacco.

Chesapeake Colonies

attorney general during the height of the Red Scare (1919-1920) who led raids against suspected radicals; reacting to terrorist bombings, fear of Bolshevism, and his own presidential aspirations, Palmer arrested 6,000 people and deported 500.

A. Mitchell Palmer

Labor and civil rights leader in the 1940s who led the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters; he demanded that FDR create a Fair Employment Practices Commission to investigate job discrimination in war industries. FDR agreed only after Randolph threatened a march on Washington by African Americans.

A. Philip Randolph

President of the United Sates, 1861-1865; he is generally rated among America's greatest presidents for his leadership in restoring the Union. Lincoln was assassinated April 14, 1865, by John Wilkes Booth before he could implement his Reconstruction program.

Abraham Lincoln

also known as the Florida Purchase Treaty and the Transcontinental Treaty; under its terms, the US paid Spain $5 million for Florida, Spain recognized America's claims to the Oregon Country, and the United States surrendered its claim to northern Mexico (Texas).

Adams-Onis Treaty (1819)

New Deal program that paid farmers not to produce crops, it provided farmers with income while reducing crop surpluses and helped stabilize farm production. The Supreme Court declared major parts of this law unconstitutional in 1936, helping lead FDR to his court-packing plan.

Agricultural Adjustment Administration (1933)

Mission and fort that was the site of a siege and battle during the Texas Revolution, which resulted in the massacre of all its defenders; the event helped galvanize the Texas rebels and eventually led to their victory at the Battle of San Jacinto and independence from Mexico.

Alamo

strong nationalist, first secretary of the treasury; he supported a strong central government and was founder of the Federalist Party.

Alexander Hamilton

First Catholic ever nominated for president; he lost in 1928 because of the nation's prosperity, but his religion, urban background, and views on Prohibition (he was a "wet") cost him votes as well.

Alfred (Al) Smith

Naval officer, writer, teacher, and philosopher of the new imperialism of the 1890s; he stressed the need for naval power to drive expansion and established America's place in the world as a great power

Alfred Thayer Mahan

State Department official accused in 1948 of spying for the Soviet Union; Richard Nixon became famous for his pursuit of Hiss, which resulted in a perjury conviction and prison for Hiss. Although long seen as a victim of Nixon's ruthless ambition and the Red Scare, recent scholarship suggests that Hiss was indeed a Soviet agent.

Alger Hiss

series of acts designed to suppress perceived French agents working against American neutrality; the acts gave the president power to deport "dangerous" aliens, lengthen the residency requirement for citizenship, and restrict freedoms of speech and press.

Alien and Sedition Acts

A conservative anti-New Deal organization; members included Alfred Smith, John W. Davis, and the Du Pont family. It criticized the "dictatorial" policies of Roosevelt and what it perceived to be his attacks on the free enterprise system.

American Liberty League

organization of reformers who embraced moral persuasion to end slavery; founded in 1833, it opposed gradual emancipation, rejected compensation to slaveholders, supported many types of reform, and welcomes women as full and active members.

American Anti-Slavery Society

organization founded in 1817 that advocated sending freed slaves to a colony in Africa; it established the colony of Liberia in 1827 and encouraged free Africa Americans to emigrate there as well.

American Colonization Society

Church of England started by King Henry VIII in 1533; the monarch was head of the church, which was strongest in North America in the Southern Colonies. By 1776, it was the second-largest church in America behind the Congregationalists.

Anglican Church

meeting held at Annapolis, Maryland, in 1786 to discuss interstate commerce; only five states sent delegates, but Alexander Hamilton used the forum to issue a call for the states to meet the next spring to revise the Articles of Confederation. The Annapolis Convention was a stepping-stone to creation of the Constitution.

Annapolis Convention

Charismatic colonist in Massachusetts Bay who questioned whether one could achieve salvation solely by good works; she led the Antinomian controversy by challenging the clergy and the laws of the colony. She was banished from Massachusetts in 1638 and was killed by Indians in 1643.

Anne Hutchinson

persons who opposed ratification of the US Constitution by the states; in general, they feared the concentration of power the Constitution would place in the national government.

Anti-Federalists

Political opportunist and general who served as president of Mexico eleven different times and commanded the Mexican army during the Texas Revolution in the 1830s and the war with the US in the 1840s.

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

Attacks by frontiersmen led by Nathaniel Bacon against the Native Americans in the Virginia back-country; when the governor opposed Bacon's action, Bacon attacked Jamestown, burned it, and briefly deposed the governor before the rebellion fizzled. This revolt is often viewed as the first strike against insensitive British policy, as a clash between East and West, and as evidence of the dangers of the indenture-servant system.

Bacon's Rebellion

unsuccessful presidential candidate against Lyndon Johnson in 1964; he called for dismantling the New Deal, escalation of the war in Vietnam, and the status quo on civil rights. Many see him as the grandfather of the conservative movement of the 1980s.

Barry Goldwater

Dominican priest who in the early 1500s criticized the cruelty of Spanish policy toward Indians; denounced Spanish actions for their brutality and insensitivity. His criticism helped end the encomienda system.

Bartolomé de las Casas

a major battle of the War of 1812 that actually took place after the war ended; American forces inflicted a massive defeat on the British, protected the city, and propelled Andrew Jackson to national prominence.

Battle of New Orleans

a turning point of the Revolution in October 1777, when an army of 6,000 British soldiers surrendered in New York; the battle resulted from a British attempt to divide the colonies through the Hudson River Valley. The American victory convinced the French to ally with the colonies and assured the ultimate success of independence.

Battle of Saratoga

a siege that ended in October in 1781 when Washington trapped 8,000 British soldiers on a peninsula in Virginia after a British campaign in the southern colonies; this defeat caused the British to cease large-scale fighting in America and to start negotiations, which eventually led to the colonies' independence.

Battle of Yorktown

the leaders who constructed the Treaty of Versailles: Woodrow Wilson, Georges Clemenceau (France), David Lloyd George (Britain), and Vittorio Orlando (Italy).

Big Four

Theodore Roosevelt's method for achieving American goals in the Caribbean; it featured the threat and use of military force to promote America's commercial supremacy, to limit European intervention in the region, and to protect the Panama Canal

Big Stick policy

President of the US, 1993-2001. Member of the Democratic Party whose leadership represented a more centrist approach to government which included policies passed with a Republican-controlled Congress. His major achievements included the North American Free Trade Agreement, welfare reform, and a balanced budget. he became only the 2nd president in American history have been impeached by Congress.

Bill Clinton

An informal network of black officeholders in the federal government; led by Mary McLeod Bethune, William Hastie, and Robert Weaver, they pushed for economic and political opportunities for African Americans in the 1930s and 1940s.

Black Cabinet

Republican campaign tactic that blamed the Democrats for the Civil War; it was successfully used from 1868 to 1876 to keep Democrats out of public office, especially the presidency

Bloody Shirt

Group of jobless WWI veterans who came to Washington to lobby Congress for immediate payment of money promised them in 1945; Hoover opposed payment and when he used the US Army to drive away veterans out of the capital, he was portrayed as cruel and cold-hearted.

Bonus Army (1932)

influential black leader; his "Atlanta Compromise" speech (1895) proposed blacks accept social and political segregation in return for economic opportunities in agriculture and vocation areas. He received money from whites and built Tuskegee Institute into a powerful educational and political machine.

Booker T. Washington

Maryland, Delaware, Kentucky, and Missouri; these slave states stayed in the Union and were crucial to Lincoln's political and military strategy. He feared alienating them with emancipation of slaves and adding them to the Confederate cause.

Border States

confrontation between British soldiers and Boston citizens in March 1770. The troops shot and killed five colonials. American radicals used the event to roil relations between England and the colonies over the next five years.

Boston Massacre

An uprising against foreigners in China that trapped a group of diplomats in Peking (Beijing); their rescue by an international army created fears in the US that China would be partitioned and prompted the Second Open Door Note

Boxer Rebellion

Name applied to college professors from Columbia University such as Rexford Tugwell, Adolf Berle, and Raymond Moley who advised Roosevelt on economic matters early in the New Deal; the Brain Trust took on the role of an "unofficial Cabinet" in the Roosevelt Administration.

Brain Trust

taciturn, pro-business president (1923-1929) who took over after Harding's death, restored honesty to government, and accelerated the tax cutting and antiregulation policies of his predecessor; his laissez-faire policies brought short term prosperity from 1923 to 1929.

Calvin Coolidge

agreement reached between the leaders of Israel and Egypt after protracted negotiations brokered President Carter; Israel surrendered land seized in earlier wars and Egypt recognized Israel as a nation. Despite high hopes, it did not lead to a permanent peace in the region, however.

Camp David Accords (1979)

Northerners who went South to participate in Reconstruction governments; although they possessed a variety of motives, southerners often viewed as opportunistic, poor whites - a carpetbag was cheap luggage - hoping to exploit the South.

Carpetbaggers

president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association; Catt led the organization when it achieved passage of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920 and later organized the League of Women Voters.

Carrie Chapman Catt

a leading evangelist of the Second Great Awakening; he preached that each person had capacity for spiritual rebirth and salvation, and that through individual effort one could be saved. His concept of "utility of benevolence" proposed the reformation of society as well as of individuals.

Charles Finney

mail service pilot who became a celerity when he made the first flight across the Atlantic Ocean in 1927; a symbol of the vanishing individualistic hero of the frontier who was honest, modest, and self-reliant, he later became a leading isolationist.

Charles Lindbergh

Senator from Massachusetts who was attacked on the floor of the Senate (1856) for antislavery speech; he required three years to recover but returned to the Senate to lead the Radical Republicans and to fight for racial equality. Summer authored Civil Rights Act of 1875.

Charles Summer

Characterized by the dehumanizing treatment of people as personal property and commodities to be bought and sold.

Chattel Slavery

incident in 1807 that brought on a war crisis when the British warship Leopard attacked the American warship Chesapeake; the British demanded to board the American ship to search for deserters from the Royal Navy. When the US commander refused, the British attacked, killing or wounding 20 American sailors. Four alleged deserters were then removed from the Chesapeake and impressed. Many angry and humiliated Americans called for war.

Chesapeake-Leopard Affair

Ineffective and corrupt leader of China in 1930s and 1940s; he was a wartime ally of the US, but was unable to stop Communists from seizing power in 1949. Chiang's exile to Taiwan was a major American setback in the early days of the Cold War.

Chiang Kai Shek

Claimed islands in the Caribbean for Spain 1492-1504. He established Spanish empire as he sought a western passage to the Indies. A poor administrator, he died disgraced in 1506.

Christopher Columbus

proposed by John Kennedy and signed by Lyndon Johnson; it desegregated public accommodations, libraries, parks, and amusements and broadened the powers of federal government to protect individual rights and prevent job discrimination.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

British actions to punish Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party; they included closing the port of Boston, revoking Massachusetts's charter, trying all British colonial officials accused of misdeeds outside the colony, and housing British troops in private dwellings. In the colonies, these laws were known as the Intolerable Acts, and they brought on the First Continental Congress in 1774.

Coercive Acts (1774)

transfer, beginning with Columbus's first voyage, of plants, animals, and diseases between the Western Hemisphere and the Eastern Hemisphere. This included squash, potatoes, and corn (maize) from the New World and cattle, horses, and smallpox from Europe.

Columbian Exchange

approach to ending slavery that called for slaveholders to be paid for the loss of their "property" as slaves were freed; such proposals were based on the belief that slaveholders would be less resistant to abolition if the economic blow were softened by compensation. A variety of such programs were proposed, some with the support of government leaders, up to and even during the Civil War. Some compensated emancipation existed on a very small scale, as some anti-slavery organizations purchased slaves and then set them free.

Compensated Emancipation

Proposal by Henry Clay to settle the debate over slavery in territories gained from the Mexican War; it was shepherded through Congress by Stephen Douglas. Its elements included admitting California as a free state, ending the buying and selling of slaves in the District of Columbia (DC), a more stringent Fugitive Law, post-poned decisions about slavery in the New Mexico and Utah Territories, and settlements of the Texas-New Mexico boundary and debt issues.

Compromise of 1850

Agreement that ended the disputed election of 1876 between Rutherford Hayes and Samuel Tilden; under its terms, the South accepted Haye's election. In return, the North agreed to remove the last troops from the South, support southern railroads, and accept a southerner into the Cabinet. The Compromise of 1877 is generally considered to mark the end of Reconstruction.

Compromise of 1877

those being represented

Constituency

Northerners (mostly Democrats) who supported the southern cause; they were strongest in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Former Ohio congressman Clement L. Vallandigham was the most notorious Copperhead. Many of Lincoln's arbitrary arrests were directed against this group.

Copperheads

the belief that as the fairer sex, women occupied a unique and specific social position that they were to provide religious and moral instruction in the home but avoid the rough world of politics and business in the larger sphere of society.

Cult of domesticity

noted orator, constitutional lawyer, senator, secretary of state, and major spokesman for nationalism and the union in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s.

Daniel Webster

case in which the Supreme Court prevented New Hampshire from changing Dartmouth's charter to make it a public institution; the Court held that the contract clause of the Constitution extended to charters and that contracts could not be invalidated by state law. The case was one of a series of Court decisions that limited states' powers and promoted business interests.

Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819)

Abolished communal ownership on Indian reservations; each family head got 160 acres of reservation land; 80 acres for a single person; 40 acres for each dependent child; more than two-thirds of Indians' remaining lands were lost due to this law

Dawes General Allotment (Severalty) Act (1887)

passed as the British Parliament repealed the Stamp Act; a face-saving action, it asserted Parliament's sovereignty over colonial taxation and legislative policies.

Declaratory Act (1766)

a shortage; excess of spending over revenue

Deficit

Eisenhower's metaphor that when one country fell to Communists, its neighbors would then be threatened and collapse one after another like a row of dominoes; this belief became a major rationale for US intervention in Vietnam.

Domino Theory

Chief Justice Roger Taney led a pro-slavery Supreme Court to uphold the extreme southern position on slavery; his ruling held that Scott was not a citizen (nor were any African Americans), that slavery was protected by the Fifth Amendment and could expand into all territories, and that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional.

Dred Scott decision (1857)

prohibited the sale, transportation, and manufacture of alcohol; part of rural America's attempt to blunt the societal influence of the cities, it was called the "Noble Experiment" until it was repealed by the Twenty-first Amendment (1933).

Eighteenth Amendment (1919)

law passed by Congress stopping all US exports until British and French interference with US merchant ships stopped; the policy had little effect except to cause widespread economic hardship in America. It was repealed in 1809.

Embargo Act (1807)

Filipino patriot who led a rebellion against both Spain and the US from 1896 to 1902, seeking independence for the Philippines; his capture in 1901 helped break the resistance to American control of the islands

Emilio Aguinaldo

Early Spanish colonial system where officials provided protection to Indian populations in return for their labor and production; really a form of slavery that lasted until the mid 1500s; stopped because of exploitation and inefficiency.

Encomienda system

established a national banking system for the first time since the 1830s; designed to combat the "money trust", it created 12 regional banks that regulated interest rates, money supply, and provided an elastic credit system throughout the country.

Federal Reserve Act (1913)

eighty-five essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay and published in newspapers to convince New York to ratify the Constitution; taken together, they are seen as a treatise on the foundations of the Constitution.

Federalist Papers

political party led by Alexander Hamilton; it favored a strong central government, commercial interests, Hamilton's financial plan, and close ties to England. Its membership was strongest among the merchant class and property owners.

Federalist Party

persons who favored ratification of the US Constitution by the states; they are not to be confused with the later Federalist Party.

Federalists

Supreme Court case that established the Court's power to invalidate state laws contrary to the Constitution; in this case, the Court prevented George from rescinding a land grant even though it was fraudulently made.

Fletcher v. Peck (1810)

Woodrow Wilson's vision for the world after WWI; it called for free trade, self-determination for all peoples, freedom of the seas, open diplomacy, and a League of Nations. Wilson hoped his Fourteen Points would be the basis for a negotiated settlement to end the war. However, they were not harsh enough on Germany for the other Allies to accept. Only a few of them were incorporated into the treaty.

Fourteen Points (1918)

Granted citizenship to any person born or naturalized in the US; this amendment protects citizens from abuses by state governments, and ensures due process and equal protection of the law. It overrode the Dred Scott decision.

Fourteenth Amendment (1868)

Roosevelt's secretary of labor (1933-1945); the first woman to serve as a federal Cabinet officer, she had a great influence on many New Deal programs, most significantly the Social Security Act.

Frances Perkins

Retired physician who proposed an Old Age Revolving Pension Plan to give every retiree over age 60 $200 per month, provided that the person spend the money each month in order to receive their next payment; the object of Townsend's plan was to help retired workers as well as stimulate spending in order to boost production and end the Depression.

Francis Townsend

President (1933-1945); elected four times, he led the country's recovery from the Depression and to victory in WWII. He died in office, however, just weeks before Germany's surrender. He is generally considered the greatest president since Abraham Lincoln.

Franklin D. Roosevelt

Northern Democratic president with southern principles, 1853-1857, who signed the Kansas-Nebraska Act and sought sectional harmony above all else.

Franklin Pierce

former slave who became an effective abolitionist with an authenticity to his speeches unmatched by other antislavery voices; initially a follower of William Lloyd Garrison, he broke away and started his own abolitionist newspaper, The North Star. From the 1840s to his death in 1895, he was the leading black spokesman in America.

Frederick Douglass

Formed from the remnants of the Liberty Party in 1848; adopting a slogan of "free soil" free speech, free labor, and free men," it opposed the spread of slavery into territories and supported home-steads, cheap postage, and internal improvements. It ran Martin Van Buren (1848) and John Hale (1852) for president and was absorbed into the Republican Party by 1856.

Free Soil Party

President of the United States (2001-2009). Member of the Republican Party who espoused a more "compassionate conservatism" whose policies included tax cuts and education reforms. His presidency was large defined by a "War on Terror" following the September 11 terrorist attacks, which included the Patriot Act, the creation of the Department of Homeland Security, War in Afghanistan, and the controversial War in Iraq.

George W. Bush

Alabama governor and third-party candidate for president in 1968 and 1972; he ran on a segregation and law-and-order platform. Paralyzed by an attempted assassination in 1972, he never recovered politically.

George Wallace

commander of the colonial army; while not a military genius, his integrity and judgment kept the army together. Ultimately, he was indispensable to the colonial cause.

George Washington

president, 1974-1977, who served without being elected either president or vice president; appointed vice president under the terms of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment when Spiro Agnew resigned, he assumed the presidency when Nixon resigned.

Gerald Ford

House Representative from New York chosen by Democratic presidential nominee and former Vice President Walter Mondale to be his Vice-Presidential running mate in 1984. She became the first woman on a major political party's presidential ticket.

Geraldine Ferraro

Puritan response to the dilemma of what to do with the children born to nonchurch members as fewer and fewer Puritans sought full membership (visible sainthood) in the church; leaders allowed such children to be baptized, but they could not take communion, nor could nonchurch males vote in government/ church affairs.

Halfway Covenant

a set of beliefes

Ideology

Mainstay of the labor needs in many colonies, especially in the Chesapeake regions in the seventeenth century; indentured servants were "rented slaves" who served four to seven years and then were freed to make their way in the world. Most of the servants were from the ranks of the poor, political dissenters, and criminals in England.

Indentured servants

gave the president authority to negotiate treaties with southeastern tribes and to trade their land in the east for territory in the west; it also provided money for land transfer and relocation of the tribes.

Indian Removal Act (1830)

revolutionary industrial union founded 1905 and led by "Big Bill" Haywood that worked to overthrow capitalism; during WWI, the government pressured the group, and by 1919, it was in serious decline.

Industrial Workers of the World (Wobblies)

incident in which Iranian radicals, with government support, seized 52 Americans from the US Embassy and held them for 44 days; ostensibly demanding the return of the disposed Shah to stand trial, the fundamentalist clerics behind the seizure also hoped to punish the US for other perceived past wrongs.

Iran Hostage Crisis (1979-1981)

scandal that erupted after the Reagan administration sold weapons to Iran in hopes of freeing American hostages in Lebanon; money from the arms sales was used to aid the Contras (anti-Communist insurgents) in Nicaragua, even though Congress had prohibited this assistance. Talk of Reagan's impeachment ended when presidential aides took the blame for the illegal activity

Iran-Contra Affair (1986-1987)

Secretary of state in the McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt administrations; he was the author of the Open Door Notes, which attempted to protect American interests in China in the early 20th century by asking European countries to pledge equal trading rights in China and the protection of its territory from foreign annexation

John Hay

Democratic president from 1845 to `849; nicknamed "Young Hickory" because of his close political and personal ties to Andrew Jackson, he pursued an aggressive foreign policy that led to the Mexican War, settlement of the Oregon issue, and the acquisition of the Mexican Cession.

James K. Polk

strong nationalist who organized the Annapolis Convention, authored the Virginia Plan for the Constitution, and drafted the constitutional amendments that became the Bill of Rights; he was also a founding member of the Democratic Republican Party.

James Madison

social worker and leader in the settlement house movement; se founded Hull House in 1889, which helped improve the lives of poor immigrants in Chicago, and in 1931 shared the Nobel Peace Prize.

Jane Addams

agreement that provided England would evacuate a series of forts in US territory along the Great Lakes; in return, the United States agreed to pay pre-Revolutionary War debts owed to Britain. The British also partially opened the West Indies to American shipping. The treaty was barely ratified in the face of strong Republican opposition.

Jay's Treaty (1794)

President of the Confederate States of America; a leading southern politician of the 1850s, he believed slavery essential to the South and held that it should expand into the territories without restriction. He served as US senator from Mississippi (1847-1851, 1857-1861) and secretary of war (1853-1857) before becoming president of the Confederate States of America (1861-1865). After the war, he served two years in prison for his role in the rebellion.

Jefferson Davis

President, 1977-1981; he aimed for a foreign policy "as good and great as the American people". His highlight was the Camp David Accords; his low point, the Iran Hostage Crisis. Defeated for reelection after one term, he became very successful as an ex-president.

Jimmy Carter

Vice president under James Buchanan and Democratic presidential nominee in 1860 who supported slavery and states' rights; he split the Democratic vote with Stephen Douglas and lost the election to Lincoln. He served in Confederate army and as secretary of war.

John Breckinridge

Violent abolitionist who murdered slaveholder sin Kansas and Missouri (1856-1858) before his raid at Harpers Ferry (1859), hoping to incite a slave rebellion; he failed and was executed, but his martyrdom by northern abolitionists frightened the South.

John Brown

vice president under both John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson; he wrote Exposition and Protest and led the nullification fight in 1832 and 1833. As senator and vice president, he was the leading voice for southern states' rights from 1828 to 1850.

John C. Calhoun

Founder of Standard Oil Company; at one time his companies controlled 85-90% of refined oil America; Standard Oil became the model for monopolizing an industry and creating a trust

John D. Rockefeller

conservative leader who wrote Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania; he advocated for colonial rights but urged conciliation with England and opposed the Declaration of Independence. Later, he helped write the Articles of Confederation.

John Dickinson

Eisenhower's secretary of state, 1953-1959; moralistic in his belief that Communism was evil and must be confronted with "brinkmanship" (the readiness and willingness to go to war) and "massive retaliation" (the threat of using nuclear weapons).

John Foster Dulles

Chief Justice of the US Supreme Court, 1801-1835; arguably America's most influential Chief Justice, he authored Court decisions that incorporated Hamilton's Federalist ideas into the Constitution. He also established the principle of judicial review, which gave the Court equality with the other branches of government.

John Marshall

American commander in France in WWI; his nickname of "Black Jack" resulted from his command of black troops earlier in his career. Before being dispatched to France, he led an American incursion into Mexico in 1916 in a failed attempt to capture Mexican revolutionary Pancho Villa.

John Pershing

son of President John Adams and secretary of state who helped purchase Florida and formulate the Monroe Doctrine and president who supported an activist government and economic nationalism; after Jackson defeated his bid for a second term in 1828; he continued to serve America as a member of Congress.

John Quincy Adams

Saved Jamestown through firm leadership in 1607 and 1608; he imposed work and order in the settlement and later published several books promoting colonization of North America.

John Smith

Leader of the Puritans who settled in Massachusetts Bay in the 1630s; he called for Puritans to create "a city upon a hill" and guided the colony through many crises, including the banishment of Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson.

John Winthrop

Congregational minister of the 1740s who was a leading voice of the Great Awakening; his (Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God) attacked ideas of easy salvation and reminded the colonists of the absolute sovereignty of God.

Jonathan Edwards

Junior senator from Wisconsin who charged hundreds of Americans with working for or aiding the Soviet Union during the Cold War; he had no evidence but terrorized people from 1950 to 1954, ruining their lives and careers with his reckless charges until Senate censured him in December 1954.

Joseph McCarthy

Ruthless leader of Soviet Nation from 1925 to 1953; he industrialized the nation and led it in WWII and the early stages of the Cold War.

Joseph Stalin

Expansionist who blended racist and religious reasons to justify American expansion in the 1880s and 1890s; he saw the Anglo-Saxon race as trained by God to expand throughout the world and spread Christianity along the way

Josiah Strong

An engineer and his wife who were accused, tried, and executed in the early 1950s for running an espionage ring in New York City that gave atomic secrets to the Soviet Union; long considered unjustly accused victims of the Red Scare, recent evidence suggests that Julius was indeed a Soviet agent.

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg

Stephen Douglas's bill to open western territories, promote a transcontinental railroad, and boost his presidential ambitions; it divided the Nebraska territory into two territories and used popular sovereignty to decide slavery in the region. Among Douglas's goals in making this proposal was to populate Kansas in order to make more attractive a proposed route for a transcontinental railroad that ended in Chicago, in his home state of Illinois.

Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)

Influential third party of the 1840s; it opposed immigrants, especially Catholics, and supported temperance, a waiting period for citizenship, and literacy tests. Officially the American Party, its more commonly used nickname came from its members; secrecy and refusal to tell strangers anything about the group. When questioned, they would only reply, "I Know Nothing.

Know-Nothing Party

Reconstruction-era organization that was revived in 1915 and rose to political power in the mid-1920s when membership reached 4 to 5 million; opposed to blacks, Catholics, Jews, and immigrants, its membership was rural, white, native-born, and Protestant.

Ku Klux Klan

Terrorist organization active throughout the South during Reconstruction and after, dedicated to maintaining white supremacy; through violence and intimidation, it tried to stop freedmen from exercising their rights under the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments.

Ku Klux Klan

leading literary figure of the Harlem Renaissance who wrote verse, essays, and 32 books; he helped define tie black experience in America for over four decades.

Langston Hughes

political party founded in 1840 that supported a program to end the slave trade and slavery in the territories and the District of Columbia; James Birney ran as the party candidate in 1840 and 1844. In 1848, it merged into the Free Soil Party.

Liberty Party

a leading muckraking journalist who exposed political corruption in the cities; best known for IUs "The Shame of Cities" (1904), he was a regular contributor to "McClure's" magazine.

Lincoln Steffens

Quaker activist in both the abolitionist and women's movements; with Elizabeth Cady Stanton, she was a principal organizer of the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848.

Lucretia Mott

British passenger liner sunk by a German submarine in May 1915; among the 1200 deaths were 128 Americans. This was the first major crisis between the US and Germany and a stepping-stone for American involvement in WWI.

Lusitania

President, 1963-1969; his escalation of the Vietnam War cost him political support and destroyed his presidency. He increased the number of US troops in Vietnam from 16, 000 in 1963 to 540, 000 in 1968. After the Tet Offensive, he decided to not seek reelection.

Lyndon Johnson

first statewide attempt to restrict the consumption of alcohol; the law prohibited the manufacture and sale of alcohol except for medical reasons.

Maine Law (1851)

Set of ideas used to justify American expansion in the 1840s, weaving together the rhetoric of economic necessity, racial superiority, and national security, the concept implied an inevitability of US continental expansion.

Manifest Destiny

Communist Chinese leader who won control of China in 1949; a wary ally of the Soviet Union, Mao was an implacable foe of the US until the 1970s.

Mao Zedong

court case that established the principle of judicial review, which allowed the Supreme Court to determine if federal laws were constitutional. In this case, the Court struck down part of the Judiciary Act of 1789, which the justices believed gave the Court power that exceeded the Constitution's intent.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

black leader in early 1920s who appealed to urban blacks with his program of racial self-sufficiency/ separatism, black pride, and pan-Africanism; his Universal Negro Improvement Association ran into financial trouble, however. He was eventually arrested for mail fraud and deported to his native Jamaica in 1927.

Marcus Garvey

Written agreement in 1620 to create a body politic among the male settlers in Plymouth; it was the forerunner to charters and constitutions that were eventually adopted in all the colonies.

Mayflower Compact

Supreme Court case in which the Court established the supremacy of federal law over state law; in this case, the Court set aside a Maryland law that attempted to control the actions of the Baltimore branch of the Second National Bank by taxing it. By preventing Maryland from regulating the Bank, the ruling strengthened federal supremacy, weakened state' rights, and promoted commercial interests.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Economic doctrine that called for the mother country to dominate and regulate its colonies, the system fixed trade patterns, maintained high tariffs, and discouraged manufacturing in the colonies.

Mercantilism

Conflict between New England colonists and Native American groups. The alliance of Native Americans was organized in resistance to restrictive Puritan laws that deprived them of their land ad livelihood.

Metacom's (King Phillip's) War (1675-1676)

Region compromising California and all or parts of the states of the present-day American Southwest that Mexico turned over to the US after the Mexican War.

Mexican Cession

settlement of a dispute over the spread of slavery that was authored by Henry Clay; the agreement had three prats: (1) Missouri became the twelfth slave state; (2) to maintain the balance between free states and slave states in Congress, Maine became the twelfth free state; (3) the Louisiana territory was divided at 36˚ 30', with the northern part closed to slavery and the southern area allowing slavery. This compromise resolved the first real debate over the future of slavery to arise since the Constitution was ratified.

Missouri Compromise (1820)

issued to counter a perceived threat from European powers to the newly-independent nations of Latin America; it proclaimed; (1) no new colonization in the western hemisphere; (2) existing colonies would not be interfered with; and (3) the US would not interfere in European affairs. It became the cornerstone of US Latin American policy for the next century.

Monroe Doctrine (1823)

Agency that created a partnership between business and government to fight the Depression; it allowed major industries to fix prices in return for agreeing fair practice codes, wage and hour standards, and labor's right to organize. Major parts of the law that created the NRA were declared unconstitutional in 1935.

National Recovery Administration (1933)

Series of laws that provided Americans could not ship weapons, loan money, travel on belligerent ships, extend credit, or deliver goods to any belligerent countries; they were high tide of isolationism, and all were repealed between 1939 and 1941.

Neutrality Acts (1935, 1936, 1937)

Roosevelt's program of domestic reform and relief; the three Rs of Relief, Reform, and Recovery did not end the Depression, but they gave hope and security and made government more responsive to the people in bad economic times.

New Deal (1933-1938)

Northernmost British colonies inclusive the Massachusetts Bay Colony, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. The Massachusetts Bay Colony was founded primarily as a refuge for Pilgrims and Puritans seeking religious freedom for themselves.

New England Colonies

offered by William Paterson to counter the Virginia Plan; it favored a one-house of Congress with equal representation for each state. It maintained much of the Articles of Confederation but strengthened the government's power to tax and regulate commerce.

New Jersey Plan

label for the political radicals of the 1960s; influenced by "Old Left" of the 1930s, which had criticized capitalism and supported success of Communism, the New Left supported civil rights and opposed American foreign policy, especially in Vietnam.

New Left

Theodore Roosevelt's progressive platform in the election of 1912; building on IUs presidential "Square Deal", he called for a strong federal government to maintain economic competition and social justice but to accept trusts as an economic fact of life.

New Nationalism

granted women the right to vote; its ratification capped a movement for women's rights that dated to the Seneca Falls Convention of 1848. Although women were voting in state elections in 12 states when the amendment passed, it enabled 8 million women to vote in the presidential election of 1920.

Nineteenth Amendment (1920)

Education reform plan that called for more accountability by states for students' success, mandatory achievement testing, and more school options available for parents.

No Child Left Behind

replaced the embargo policy by allowing American trade with all countries except Britain and France; like the Embargo Act, this attempt to use American trade as an instrument of foreign policy failed. British and French interference with US shipping continued and the Non-Intercourse Act was repealed in 1810.

Non-Intercourse Act (1809)

Legislation championed by President Clinton based on the idea that flourishing trade was essential to U.S. prosperity and world economic and political stability. The treaty was signed by Mexico, the United States, and Canada and was ratified by the U.S. Senate.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

Military alliance of the US, ten western European countries, and Canada; it was considered a deterrent to Soviet aggression in Europe, with an attack on one NATO nation to be considered as an attack on all members.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) (1949)

the major success of Congress under the Articles of Confederation that organized the Northwest Territory for future statehood; the law provided territorial status for a region when its population reached 5,000. At 60,000, the territory could petition for statehood with the same rights as existing states. It set into law the procedure for expanding the nation that eventually led to the admission of many other new states. Also, by outlawing slavery in the Northwest Territory, it represented the first action by the national government against that institution.

Northwest Ordinance (1787)

Mythical water route to Asia. The search for the western path to India and China propelled the encounters and exploration of the Western Hemisphere in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

Northwest Passage

theory that the states created the Constitution as a compact among them and that they were the final judge of constitutionality of federal law; the doctrine held that states could refuse to obey or enforce federal laws with which they disagreed. The theory was first presented in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (1798) and reappeared in Exposition and Protest (1828).

Nullification

A statement by American envoys abroad to pressure Spain into selling Cuba to the US; the declaration suggested that if Spain would not sell Cuba, the US would be justified in seizing it. It was quickly repudiated by the US government but it added to the belief that a "slave power" existed and was active in Washington.

Ostend Manifesto (1854)

a major depression that lasted from 1837 to 1844; crop failures, European financial troubles, and the Specie Circular all contributed to the crash, which helped ruin the presidency of Martin Van Buren.

Panic of 1837

successful military campaign supported by a robust international coalition to liberate Kuwait from Iraqi control. The United States and its allies staged a massive air assault and subsequently launched a successful ground offensive from Saudi Arabia.

Persian Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm)

Period in Soviet-American relations marked by less tension and by personal diplomacy between Khrushchev and Eisenhower; the two leaders recognized that, in a nuclear age, competition between their nations must be peaceful. This thaw in the Cold War was ended by the U-2 spy plane incident over the Soviet Union in 1960.

Peaceful coexistence (1955-1960)

Reform passed by Congress that restricted the spoils system; passed in part of reaction to assassination of President Garfield by a disappointed office seeker in 1881, it establishes the US Civil Service Commission to administer a merit system for hiring government jobs

Pendleton Act (Civil Service Reform Act) (1883)

agreement with Spain that opened the Mississippi River to American navigation and granted Americans the right of deposit in New Orleans; Spain agreed to the treaty because it feared the Jay's Treaty included an Anglo-American alliance.

Pinckney's Treaty (1795)

Popular name for the government American sugar planters in Hawaii set up in 1894 after they, assisted by the US ambassador there and Marines from a US warship offshore, overthrew the Hawaiian monarch; the rebels immediately sought annexation by the US, an action supported by many members of the Congress; President Cleveland opposed it, and the islands remained independent until 1898, when Congress, with President McKinley's approval, made Hawaii a territory of the US

Pineapple Republic

An amendment added to Cuba's constitution by the Cuban government, after pressure form the US; it provided that Cuba would make no treaties that compromised its independence or granted concessions to other countries without US approval; the amendment was abrogated in 1934

Platt Amendment

Supreme Court case about Jim Crow railroad cars in Louisiana; the Court decided by 7 to 1 that legislation could not overcome racial attitudes, and that it was constitutional to have "separate but equal" facilities for blacks and whites

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Political process promoted by Lewis Cass, Stephen Douglas, and other northern Democrats whereby, when a territory organized, its residents would vote to decide the future of slavery there; the idea of empowering voters to decide important questions was not new to the 1840s and 185-s or to the slavery issue, however.

Popular sovereignty

A largely farmers' party aiming to inflate currency and to promote government action against railroads and trusts; it also called for a graduated income tax and immigration restrictions; its platform was never enacted in the 1890s, but it became the basis of some Progressive reforms in the early twentieth century; it is also known as the Peoples Party

Populist Party (1892)

Indian uprising in New Mexico in 1680 against Spain and the Catholic Church. Rebels killed 400 colonists, destroyed mission around Santa Fe; held off the Spanish for 14 years.

Pueblo Revolt

law that regulated the food and patent medicine industries; some business leaders called it socialist meddling by the government.

Pure Food and Drug Act (1906)

Hoover's economic recovery program that provided government loans to businesses, banks, and railroads; it was "pump priming", but it was too little ($300 million) too late to make any real improvement in the economy

Reconstruction Finance Corporation (1932)

progressive governor (1900-1904) and senator (1906-1925); he established the "Wisconsin idea" that reformed the state through direct primaries, tax reform, and anticorruption legislation. La Follette was the Progressive Party's presidential nominee in 1924.

Robert La Follette

Landmark Supreme Court ruling that first-trimester abortions were protected by a woman's right to privacy.

Roe v. Wade (1973)

Puritan who challenged the church to separate itself from the government and to give greater recognition of the rights of Native Americans; he was banished in 1635 and founded Rhode Island. (Critics called it Rogue Island.)

Roger Williams

president, 1981-1989, who led a conservative movement against détente with the Soviet Union and the growth of the federal government; some people credit him with America's victory in the Cold War while others fault his insensitive social agenda and irresponsible fiscal policies.

Ronald Reagan

Addendum to to the Monroe Doctrine issued after the Dominican Republic got into financial trouble with several European nations; the US assumed the right to intervene in Latin American countries to promote "civilized" behavior and protect American interests

Roosevelt Corollary (1903)

Period of hysteria in 1692, when a group of teenage girls accused neighbors of bewitching them; in ten months, nineteen people were executed and hundreds imprisoned. The hysteria subsided when the girls accused the more prominent individuals in the colony, including the governor's wife.

Salem witchhunt

British policy before 1763 of generally leaving the colonies alone to conduct their own internal affairs; the abandonment of this policy after 1763 was a major factor leading to revolution and independence.

Salutary neglect

Policy that British followed from 1607 to 1763, by which they interfered very little with the colonies; through this lack of control, the colonies thrived and prospered. It was an attempt to end this policy that helped create the friction that led to the American Revolution.

Salutary neglect

Leader of the Texas revolutionaries, 1835-1836, first president of the Republic of Texas, and later a US Senator from the state of Texas; he was a close political and personal ally of Andrew Jackson.

Sam Houston

agitator and leader of the Sons of Liberty, who supported independence as soon as the British veered from salutary neglect; he was the primary leader of the Boston Tea Party and later a delegate to the Continental Congress.

Samuel Adams

Labor leader and president of American Federation of Labor, founded in 1886; Gompers believed that craft unionism would gain skilled workers better wages and working conditions; he emphasized support for capitalism and opposition to socialism

Samuel Gompers

Appointed by President Reagan, she became the first woman to serve on the Supreme Court.

Sandra Day O'Connor

Quaker sisters from South Carolina who came north and became active in the abolitionist movement; Angelina married Theodore Weld, a leading abolitionist, and Sarah wrote and lectured on a variety of reforms including women's rights and abolition.

Sarah and Angelina Grimke

White southerners who cooperated and served in Reconstruction governments; generally eligible to vote, they were usually considered traitors to their states.

Scalawags

"Monkey Trial" over John Scope's teachings of evolution in his biology classroom in violation of a Tennessee law; it spitted the Bible, fundamentalism, and William Jennings Bryan against evolution, modernism, and Clarence Darrow. Scopes was convicted, but fundamentalism was damaged and discouraged by the trial.

Scopes Trial (1925)

national bank organized in 1816; closely modeled after the first Bank of the United States, it held federal tax receipts and regulated the amount of money circulating in the economy. The Bank proved to be very unpopular among western land speculators and farmers, especially after the Panic of 1819.

Second Bank of the United States

Proposed Anglo-American invasion of France to relieve the Soviets, who were fighting a Germany invasion of the USSR; originally scheduled for 1942, it was not delivered until D-Day in June 1944. This was a divisive issue in Soviet relations with the US and Britain during the war and after.

Second Front

period of religious revivals between 1790 and 1840 that preached the sinfulness of man yet emphasized salvation through moral action; it sent a message to turn away from sin and provided philosophical underpinnings of the reforms of the 1830s.

Second Great Awakening

Name given to a series of proposals that FDR requested and Congress passed to reinvigorated the New Deal as recovery from the Depression began to lag; they were antibusiness in tone and intent and included the Public Utility Holding Company Act, Social Security Act, National Labor Relations Act, and the Wealth Tax Act.

Second New Deal (1935-1936)

In a coordinated effort by members of the terrorist group al Qaeda, two highjacked commercial jets struck the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, one crashing minutes after the other. About an hour later, a third plane tore into the Pentagon building, the U.S. military headquarters outside Washington. A fourth highjacked plane crashed near Pittsburg, Pennsylvania.

September 11, 2001

an uprising in western Massachusetts between August 1786 and February 1787 that closed the courts and threatened revolution in the state; the central government's inability to suppress the revolt reinforced the belief that the Articles of Confederation needed to be strengthened or abandoned.

Shay's Rebellion

label Nixon gave to middle-class Americans who supported him, obeyed the laws, and wanted "peace with honor" in Vietnam; he contrasted this group with students and civil rights activists who disrupted the country with protests in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Stagflation - name given the economic condition throughout most of.

Silent Majority

The application of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution to the business world; William Graham Summer, a Yale professor, promoted these ideas and lobbied against any government regulation in society; industrialists and social conservatives used these arguments to justify ruthless business tactics and widespread poverty among the working class

Social Darwinism

movement that began in Protestant churches in the late nineteenth century to apply the teachings of the Bible to the problems of the industrial age; led by Washington Gladden and Walter Rauschenbusch, it aroused the interest of many clergymen in securing social justice for the urban poor. The thinking of Jane Addams, Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, and other secular reformers was influenced by the movement as well.

Social Gospel

Required both workers and their employer to contribute to a federally run pension fund for retired workers; it also provided federal disability and unemployment assistance. Although benefits were meager, it was the first significant government program to provide for retired, disabled, or unemployed Americans.

Social Security Act (1935)

Church founded by George Fox which believed in "The Inner Light" - a direct, individualistic experience with God; the church was strongly opposed to the Anglican Church in England and the Congregationalist Church in America. In 1681, William Penn established Pennsylvania as a haven for Quakers persecuted in England and in the colonies.

Society of Friends (Quakers)

street gangs that formed during the Stamp Act crisis to enforce the boycotts and prevent the distribution and sale of the tax stamps; they were the vanguard of the Revolution as they intimidated British officials with violence.

Sons of Liberty

a federal government action to dampen inflation brought on by land speculation following the closure of the Second National Bank; Jackson issued an order requiring payment for public lands only in gold or silver. This action contracted credit, caused overextended banks to fail, and precipitated the panic of 1837.

Specie Circular (1835)

Slave Rebellion in South Carolina in September 1739; twenty to eighty slaves burned seven plantations, killed twenty whites, and tried to escape to Florida. The rebellion was crushed. All the slaves were killed and decapitated, and their heads were put on display as a deterrent to future uprisings.

Stono Rebellion

person who interprets the Constitution very narrowly; a strict constructionist believes that a power not explicitly stated in the Constitution could not be exercised by government. Historically, strict constructionists have hoped to restrict authority of the central government and preserve states' rights.

Strict constructionist

designed to raise revenue by stiffening the Molasses act (1733), establishing new customs regulations, and trying smugglers in British vice-admiralty courts; this was the first attempt to tax the colonies in order to raise revenue rather than regulate trade. It actually lowered the tax on imported sugar in hopes of discouraging smugglers and thereby increasing collection of the tax.

Sugar Act (1764)

Term used to describe the South and Southwest because of their warm climate. This region has experienced a significant population boom since the late 1970s.

Sunbelt

the economic policies of President Ronald Reagan, which were focused on budget cuts and the granting of large tax cuts in order to increase private investment, savings, and jobs and ultimately increase government revenue.

Supply-side economics (Reaganomics)

the amount that remains when use or need is satisfied

Surplus

friend and partner of Elizabeth Cady Stanton in the struggle for women's rights; meeting in 1851, Anthony and Stanton founded the National Women Suffrage Association after the Civil War. The Nineteenth Amendment, which extended the right to vote to women in 192-, is sometimes called the "Anthony" amendment.

Susan B. Anthony

biggest scandal of Harding's administration; Secretary of Interior Albert Fall illegally leased government oil fields in the West to private oil companies; Fall was later convicted of bribery and became the first Cabinet official to serve prison time (1931-1932).

Tea Pot Dome Scandal

Reconstruction plan of Lincoln and Johnson; when 10 percent of the number of voters in 1860 took an oath of allegiance, renounced succession, and approved the Thirteenth Amendment, a southern state could form a government and elect congressional representatives. The plan involved no military occupation and provided no help for freedmen. It was rejected by Radical Republicans in December 1865.

Ten-percent plan

Radical attempts to further diminish Andrew Johnson's authority by providing that the president could not remove any civilian official without Senate approval; Johnson violated the law by removing Edwin Stanton as secretary of war, and the House of Representatives impeached him over his actions.

Tenure of Office Act (1867)

US battleship sent to Havana in early 1898 to protect American interests; it blew up mysteriously in February 1898, killing 266 men; American newspapers blamed the Spanish, helping to cause the war; in 1976, it was discovered that the ship blew up accidentally

The Maine

Government organized and administered by the church; in Massachusetts Bay colony, only church members could vote in town meetings. The government levied taxes on both church members and nonmembers and required attendance for all at religious services.

Theocracy

Assistant secretary of the navy, who headed a volunteer regiment in the Spanish-American War; nicknamed the Rough Riders by the press, the First Volunteer Cavalry consisted of Roosevelt's colorful friends from the West and his Harvard days; after the war; Roosevelt "rode" his Rough Riders to the vice presidency and then the presidency of the US

Theodore Roosevelt

first secretary of state, who led opposition to the Hamilton/ Washington plan to centralize power at the expense of the states; after founding the Democratic Republican Party to oppose these plans, Jefferson was elected vice president in 1796 and president in 1800.

Thomas Jefferson

lead author of the Declaration of Independence; in it, he explained the colonists' philosophy of government and the reasons for independence. He wrote that governments that did not protect unalienable rights should be changed.

Thomas Jefferson

agreement at the Constitutional Convention that broke the impasse over taxation and representation in the House of Representatives; the delegates agreed to count slaves as three-fifths of a person for both. This formula had been used in 1783 to make financial assessments among the states under the Articles.

Three-Fifths Compromise

leading attorney for NAACP in 1940s and 1950s, who headed the team in Brown vs. the Board of Education case; later, Lyndon Johnson appointed him the first black justice on the United States Supreme Court

Thurgood Marshall

levied taxes on imported items such as paper, glass, and tea; these taxes were designed to address colonial resistance to "internal taxation" like the Stamp Act, which had no connection to trade and was intended only to raise revenue. However, the colonists viewed the Townshend Acts as revenue-raising measures and refused to pay these taxes as well.

Townshend Acts (1767)

writers who believed in the search for reality and truth through spiritual intuition; they held that man was capable of discovering truth without reference to established authority. This belief justified reformers; challenges to the conventional thinking of their time.

Transcendentalists

Linked the nation from coast to coast in 1869; the Union Pacific Railroad was built west from Omaha and the Central Pacific started east from Sacramento; the federal government supported construction with over $75 million in land grants, loans, and cash

Transcontinental railroad

agreement that ended the War of 1812 but was silent on the causes of the war; all captured territory was returned and unresolved issues such as ownership of the Great lakes were left to future negotiation.

Treaty of Ghent (1815)

Agreement that ended the Mexican War; under its terms Mexico gave up all claims to Texas north of the Rio Grande and ceded California and the Utah and New Mexico territories to the US. The US paid Mexico fifteen million dollars for the land, but the land cession amounted to nearly half that nation's territory.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)

Ended the Spanish-American War; under its terms, Cuba gained independence from Spain, and the US acquired Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines; the US paid Spain twenty million dollars for the Philippines

Treaty of Paris

ended WWI; it was much harder on Germany than Wilson wanted but not as punitive as France and England desired. It was harsh enough, however, to set stage for Hitler's rise to power in Germany in the 1930s.

Treaty of Versailles (1919)

Hard-fighting Union general whose relentless pursuit of Robert E. Lee finally brought the war to an end in April 1865; elected president in 1868, he presided over two disappointing and corrupt terms and is considered a failure as president.

Ulysses S. Grant

Edmund Randolph's and James Madison's proposal for a new government that would give Congress increased taxing and legislative power; it called for two houses of Congress-an elected lower house and an upper house appointed by the lower house. Because seats in Congress would be apportioned according to the states' populations, this plan was favored by the large states.

Virginia Plan

reaction against the Sedition Act; written by Madison for Virginia and Jefferson for Kentucky, they stated that when the national government exceeded its power under the Constitution, the states had the right to nullify the law. Essentially, the resolutions held that the Constitution was a compact among the states and they were its final arbiter.

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

idea offered by Britain to colonists' demands for representation in Parliament and to establish lawful authority to tax them; the explanation was that Parliament was a collective representation of all Englishmen regardless of where they lived. According to this argument, a group's interest was represented in London by virtue of being English. Colonial leaders rejected this position.

Virtual representation

expanded the federal government's protection of voters and voter registration; it also increased federal authority to investigate voter irregularities and outlawed literacy tests.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

black intellectual who challenged Booker T. Washington's ideas on combating Jim Crow; he called for the black community to demand immediate equality and was a founding member of the National Association for the Advancement of Color People (NAACP).

W.E.B. DuBois

Harsh Congressional Reconstruction bill that provided the president would appoint provisional governments for conquered states until a majority of voters took an oath of loyalty to the Union; it required the abolition of slavery by new state constitutions, the disenfranchisement of Confederate officials, and the repudiation of Confederate debt. Lincoln killed the bill with a pocket veto.

Wade-Davis Bill (1864)

young Congressmen in the 12th Congress from the South and West who demanded war with Britain; led by Henry Clay and John Calhoun, they hoped to annex Canada, defend US maritime rights, and end troubles with Native Americans in the Trans-Appalachian West.

War Hawks

Label for the antiterrorism efforts begun after the September 11 attacks, which included government detention of foreigners suspected of terrorism, the creation of the Department of Homeland Security, increased aviation security, and a military campaign in Afghanistan to break up Al Qaeda.

War on Terror

Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, 1969-1986; although considered more conservative in leadership than Earl Warren, his court upheld school busing, a women's right to an abortion, and ordered Nixon to surrender the Watergate tapes.

Warren Burger

weak but affable president (1921-1923) who allowed his appointees to loot and cheat the government; after his death, political and personal scandals tarnished his presidency. Harding is rated as a failure as president by most historians.

Warren Harding

name applied to a series of events that began when the Nixon White House tried to place illegal phone taps on Democrats in June 1972; the burglars were caught, and rather than accept the legal and political fallout, Nixon and his aides obstructed the investigation, which cost him his office and sent several of his top aides to prison

Watergate scandal

Republican president, 1897-1901, who represented the conservative Eastern establishment; he stood for expansions, high tariffs, and the gold standard; he led the nation during the Spanish-American War (1898) and was assassinated in 1901 by a radical political anarchist

William McKinley

Lincoln's secretary of state and previously his chief rival for the Republican nomination in 1860; however, his comments about the Fugitive Slave Law and "irrepressible conflict" made him too controversial for the nomination. As secretary of state, he worked to buy Alaska from Russia.

William Seward

Secretary of state, 1861-1869; a dedicated expansionist, he purchased Alaska from Russia, acquired Midway Island, and tried to buy Virgin Islands in 1867

William Seward

Measure introduced in Congress in 1846 to prohibit slavery in all territory that might be gained by the Mexican War; southerners blocked its passage in the Senate. Afterward, it became the congressional rallying platform for the antislavery forces in the late 1840s and early 1850s.

Wilmot Proviso

Arguably the finest military figure in American from the War of 1812 to the Civil War; he distinguished himself in the Mexican War, ran unsuccessfully for president (1852), and briefly commanded the Union armies at the beginning of the Civil War.

Winfield Scott

Meeting of Roosevelt, Stalin, and Winston Churchill to discuss postwar plans and Soviet entry into the war against Japan near the end of WWII; disagreements over the future of Poland surfaced. During the Red Scare of the 1950s, some Americans considered the meeting to have been a sellout to the Soviets.

Yalta Conference (February 1945)

Sensational newspaper stories from Joseph Pulitzer's New York World and William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal that stirred Americans against Spanish rule in Cuba; this media coverage proved a force for war in 1898

Yellow Journalism

Military hero of Mexican War and the last Whig elected president (1848); his sudden death in July 1850 allowed supporters of the Compromise of 1850 to get the measures through Congress.

Zachary Taylor

a secret German proposal to Mexico for an alliance against the US; Germany offered to help Mexico get back territories it lost to the US in 1848. Britain alerted the Wilson administration to the plan, and Mexico refused the idea.

Zimmermann Note (1917)

separation of a whole into its component parts

analysis

examining two or more items to establish similarities and differences

comparative