APUSH: Unit 3 (Ch. 7-9)
What did Washington do as he prepared to retire?
As Washington prepared to retire, he issued a farewell address to the nation. This address has become one of the most influential documents in American history. In it, Washington warned Americans of the dangers of foreign alliances and argued that America should always act unilaterally in foreign affairs, an idea much maligned in modern international politics. Washington also lamented the existence of faction in the country and argued that political parties tended to distract the people and their leaders away from the true work of the nation. Washington felt that political factions created unproductive arguments and weakened the country through divisive speech. He urged Americans to look beyond their differences and instead focus on what united them.
What flaw occurred in the Election of 1800?
As in the Election of 1796, a flaw in the design of the Electoral College caused a problem in the Election of 1800. Because the Founding Fathers did not envision, or want, political parties, electors at the time did not make separate votes for President and Vice-President. Because of this, both Thomas Jefferson, the Democratic-Republican presidential candidate, and Aaron Burr, the Democratic-Republican vice-presidential candidate, received the same number of electoral votes for President.
What happened as the Napoleonic Wars dragged on in Europe?
As the Napoleonic Wars dragged on in Europe, Napoleon, in an attempt to harm Britain economically, created the Continental System in 1806. The system forbid continental Europe, which was under Napoleon's rule, from trading with Britain. Britain responded to this decree with an economic blockade of continental Europe and American trade became caught in the middle. American vessels that attempted to trade with European nations were seized by the British and those attempting to trade with the British Isles were seized by the French.
What was the Repot on Public Credit?
As the first Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton quickly went to work on organizing the nation's troubled finances. He published two reports, both called Report on Public Credit, which called for the creation of a national bank and for the federal government to assume the debts of the individual states. Realizing that retiring the nation's debt was key to establishing America's credit, the national bank would in essence "sell" the nation's debt to investors through treasury securities which the government would buy back with interest at a future date. The federal government would also "buy up" the debts of the states, assuming responsibility for those debts.
What dilemma did Jefferson have regarding the LA Purchase?
Back in America, however, Jefferson was faced with a serious dilemma. On one hand, the purchase of Louisiana would open up 530 million acres of land to future generations of America and permanently secure America's use of the Mississippi River, all at a cost of less than three cents per acre. It would also guarantee that America could remain an agricultural nation for the foreseeable future, something Jefferson believed was vital to the nation. On the other hand, nowhere in the Constitution does it empower the government to purchase land and Jefferson had always prided himself as a strict constructionist.
What did the Articles purposefully create because it was written during the Revolution?
Because it was written during the Revolution—at a time when most Americans feared a strong, oppressive, monarchial government—the Articles purposefully created a weak confederation of states.
What is Madison known as?
Because the final plan was based largely on Madison's ideas in the Virginia Plan, he is considered by many historians to be the father of the U.S. Constitution.
What happened at Hamilton and Burr's duel?
Because the punishment for dueling in the state of New York was death, the two men instead rowed across the Hudson River to New Jersey. In the duel, Hamilton apparently fired first, into the air, thereby "throwing away his fire," a common practice in which both men would purposely miss their shots and, their courage proved, end the duel with no one dying. After Hamilton fired, however, Burr leveled his pistol at Hamilton and shot him in the lower abdomen. The bullet tore through Hamilton's liver and lodged in his spine. He died the next day.
How was the process of changing to system of the Articles to fix its early structural errors?
Changing the system to fix its early structural errors also proved nearly impossible. Although the Congress could pass new laws, it could only do so with a super-majority of 9 of 13 states, making any progress painfully slow. Amending the Articles themselves was even more difficult, as that required unanimous consent—something virtually impossible to accomplish.
What did Jefferson do in the election of 1800?
Considering the vitriol that existed in American politics in 1800, especially considering the fact that many Democratic-Republicans had been thrown in jail for criticizing the Federalists, it is somewhat surprising that retaliation did not accompany the Democratic-Republicans' rise to power. Thomas Jefferson, now President, could have easily begun enforcing the Sedition Act against the Federalists, his sworn political enemies. However, Jefferson chose the high road.
What were the beliefs of the Democratic-Republicans?
Democratic- Republicans believed in state's rights over federal power and that America's future lie in agriculture—which was seen as the only "virtuous" work by many early republican thinkers. Democratic-Republicans believed that power should lie with the common man and that the elite could not be trusted with too much control. Democratic-Republicans believed in the early republican idea of sacrificing personal desires for the good of the republic and, as they favored agriculture, got most of their support from the South and West.
What did Democratic-Republicans think the the Report on Public Credit?
Democratic-Republicans opposed Hamilton's ideas. First, they believed the creation of a national bank was unconstitutional because nowhere in the enumerated powers of the Constitution does it say Congress has the power to create a bank. But despite Democratic-Republican opposition, the bank was created.
What did Democratic-Republicans think of the Report on Manufacturing?
Democratic-Republicans, once again, opposed the plan. They knew that a tariff on manufactured goods would make those goods more expensive for the farmers they represented. Democratic- Republicans also did not believe that manufacturing should be favored over farming through federal action. However, despite their opposition, the tariffs were passed by Congress.
What was the one achievement of the Articles?
Despite its notable inadequacies, the government under the Articles of Confederation did have one notable achievement, the Northwest Ordinance. The ordinance created a series of laws for organizing and ruling the Old Northwest (the modern Great Lakes region of America) until the territory could be admitted as new states.
How was the division between parties on the Report on Public Credit lessen?
Eventually, a compromise was found when several southern Democratic-Republicans agreed to remove their objection to the federal assumption of state debt in exchange for a promise that the permanent capital of the new nation would be located in the South—which is how Washington D.C. eventually became the capital of the United States.
What were the beliefs of the Federalists?
Federalists came to believe that America's future lie in commerce and manufacturing and that the elite should hold the power in the new government as the common man could not to be trusted. Favoring federal power over state's rights, Federalists also believed that everyone should pursue their own self-interest, and in doing so, would benefit the greater good. Not surprisingly, as they favored commerce and manufacturing, Federalists got most of their support from New England and the Northeast.
What was most important about the Northwest Ordinance?
Finally, and perhaps most importantly, the law provided a process for the territories to enter into statehood. Once a given territory had 60,000 residents, they could form their own state government and enter into the U.S. government on "equal footing."
What happened in late 1814?
Finally, late in 1814, a British invasion of the United States through Lake Champlain, much like the British plan to capture the Hudson River during the American Revolution, failed as the Americans defeated the British at the Battle of Plattsburgh.
What were the three debates that emerged among the states once the decision had been made to create a new government and toss out the Articles?
First, how would the new government balance power between large states, who wanted representation to be based on population, and small states, who wanted each state to have equal power in the new government? Second, how would the new government count slaves for the purposes of taxes and representation? The third question was how to frame the new government to be powerful enough prevent another internal rebellion—like Shays'—without violating the rights of the states, the rights of the individual, or returning the U.S. to monarchy.
What did the Alien and Sedition Acts do?
First, the naturalization requirement for citizenship was increased from 5 to 14 years. This meant that many Irish and French immigrants, who tended to become Democratic-Republicans both because of their hatred of the British and their desire for a small, decentralized federal government, would not be able to vote for a very long period of time after migrating to America. Second, the Alien Act allowed the President to deport any aliens he felt were dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States," or any alien whose home country was at war with America. Finally, the Sedition Act made it illegal to publish any false, scandalous, and malicious. The Sedition Act, in effect, made it illegal for the Democratic-Republicans to say anything negative about the ruling Federalists because it would, in effect, be seen as malicious.
What happened in the election of 1800?
Following several years of contentious policies under President Adams, including the Quasi-War and the Alien and Sedition Acts, Thomas Jefferson, the Democratic-Republican candidate, was successful in winning the election over Adams. The result of this election was significant because it would represent the first transfer of power under the Constitution from one political party to another. Power transfers in Europe at that time (and often around the world even today) tended to be bloody, with the incoming power attacking the outgoing power.
What happened after the War of 1812?
Following the War of 1812, America experienced a period of increased nationalism. Inspired by this affirmation of independence—what some called "a second revolution to prove the first"—fighting off the British for the second time in 30 years, and the Natives in the West defeated, Americans became much more open to the idea of a strong federal government. The Hartford Convention had assured the demise of the Federalist Party, but Americans, no longer fearing tyranny in the same way the Founding Fathers had, set about to use the government to bring about a new set of priorities. The war had shown that America had serious deficiencies in transportation, the military, and industry and these were all addressed in the era to come.
What led to the XYZ affair?
Following the passage of the Jay Treaty, France, upset that America had signed a treaty with Britain, began to seize American ships in the Atlantic. America sought to resolve this dispute diplomatically and sent ambassadors to France in 1798.
What happened after the Constitution was ratified?
Following the ratification of the Constitution in 1788, the new government met for the first time in early 1789. George Washington was unanimously selected as the first President.
What was the Treaty of Ghent?
However, while the Federalists were meeting, two important events occurred. First, the Treaty of Ghent, ending the war, was signed on December 24, 1814. The treaty was rather unusual in that all of the issues that had caused the war ended before the war itself was over. Britain had actually ended impressments and violations of American trade two days before the war was declared, but due to the slow speed of communication, the Americans hadn't known this. The Continental System had also ended, meaning the retaliatory trade policies between Britain and France had ceased violating American trade. By 1814, Tecumseh was dead and the Natives were defeated in the West. With no issues left to resolve, the Treaty of Ghent simply called for a restoration of conquered territory and a return to the antebellum status quo.
Wgat happened with the war in 1812?
In 1813, the tide of the war began to turn as American forces captured Lake Erie, giving them control over most of the Midwest and what is now Ontario. Detroit was recaptured and the Americans once again invaded Canada, this time more successfully. At the Battle of the Thames, in modern-day Ontario, Tecumseh was killed, hastening the collapse of Native unity in the Old Northwest. The Canadian capital of York (what is now Toronto) was also burned in the invasion. No one knows for sure how the fires in York were started, but multiple sources claim the fires were started by American soldiers.
What happened in the Battle of Baltimore?
In Battle of Baltimore that year, the Americans courageously defended Fort McHenry despite a barrage of artillery fire. Inspired while watching the battle, Francis Scott Key wrote a poem about the defense of the fort that was later put to music and became the national anthem. Key could tell the Americans continued to hold the fort during the nighttime attack because he could still see the enormous American flag flying over Fort McHenry as the sky lit up from British shells exploding in and around the fort.
What was the Annapolis Convention?
In September 1786, a convention was held in Annapolis, Maryland to discuss the lack of trade regulation under the Articles of Confederation. Only five states bothered to send representatives, however, demonstrating that revision of the Articles was not an immediate concern for most states. Lacking enough participation to make any substantive reform, they called for another convention to be held in Philadelphia the following May.
What disagreements were there in regards to foreign relations?
In the early fights between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans, the two parties also argued over whom the United States should be allied. Federalists felt that America should ally itself with Great Britain, both because of their common heritage and the fact that Britain was America's largest trading partner. Democratic-Republicans believed that America should continue to ally itself with the French, as it had done in the Revolution under the Franco-American alliance. Democratic-Republicans also favored the French because in France the French Revolution had begun with many of the same republican ideals that Americans held dear.
What problems did America face with Britain in the early years under the Constitution?
In the early fights between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans, the two parties also argued over whom the United States should be allied. Federalists felt that America should ally itself with Great Britain, both because of their common heritage and the fact that Britain was America's largest trading partner. Democratic-Republicans believed that America should continue to ally itself with the French, as it had done in the Revolution under the Franco-American alliance. Democratic-Republicans also favored the French because in France the French Revolution had begun with many of the same republican ideals that Americans held dear.
What was the Great Compromise?
In the end, compromises would be the order of the day. The so-called Great Compromise created a bicameral legislature with representation in the lower house based on each state's population (this became known as the House of Representatives) and the upper house having equal representation with two votes per state (this became known as the Senate). Also included in this compromise was having the lower house directly elected by the people with the upper house being selected by each state's legislature. The state legislatures would also be responsible for choosing electors every four years and, when these electors gathered, the newly-created Electoral College would select the President. The judges in the Great Compromise would be selected by the President and approved by the upper house.
What did Jefferson end up doing in regards to the LA Purchase?
In the end, it was too good of an offer to pass up and Jefferson went against his constitutional beliefs. In pushing for the treaty's ratification in Congress, Jefferson used a loose interpretation, arguing that the treaty helped protect the nation from threats to the frontier and therefore was constitutional. The purchase proved hugely popular among the American people and doubled the size of the country. The territory was later explored by the famous expedition of Lewis and Clark, aided by a Native guide named Sacagawea.
What happened in the months leading up to Shay's Rebellion?
In the months leading up to Shays' involvement, many Massachusetts farmers had begun organizing with other farmers to shut down local courts to prevent judges from seizing the farmers' lands and putting them in debtor's prison. When a group of these farmers was indicted for their actions, Shays joined the fight. Organizing 700 men into a group to march to Springfield, Massachusetts, Shays and his rebels intended on seizing the federal armory there. Joined by other bands of rebellious farmers along the way, Shays descended on Springfield with over 1,000 men.
How was the vote distributed under the Articles?
In the new government's unicameral legislature, each state had one vote. That meant populous states such as New York and Virginia held the same amount of political power as small states like Rhode Island, leading larger states to feel like they were underrepresented in the national legislature.
Who was Daniel Shay?
In the winter of 1786-1787, a group of discontented Massachusetts farmers began a small-scale rebellion. Frustrated at high taxes, rising debt, the prospect of losing their farms, and being forced into debtor's prison, a group of farmers united under Daniel Shays, a Revolutionary War veteran. Having served at the Battle of Lexington, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Battle of Saratoga, Shays resigned from the army after being wounded. He was never paid by the government for his military service and, facing financial ruin, Shays' frustration led him to the forefront of the uprising.
What needed to happen once the Constitution was adopted by the convention?
Once the Constitution was adopted by the convention, it needed to be approved by nine of the 13 states to take effect. The debate was vigorous in many states with two groups forming—the Federalists supporting ratification and the Anti-Federalists opposing ratification. Anti-Federalists feared the new government would become too powerful and take away their rights like Britain had. Many people in this group particularly feared the president's power over the army. To mollify Anti-Federalist complaints, some states tied ratification of the Constitution to a promise that the Constitution would be amended to specifically protect certain rights.
What was Marbury vs. Madison?
One Federalist who was supposed to receive a commission, William Marbury, sued Madison for his appointment. In the ensuing case, Marbury v. Madison, the Supreme Court ruled that the Judiciary Act, passed under Washington's administration, was unconstitutional. In doing so, the Supreme Court created, or at least affirmed, the power of the Court to rule on the constitutionality of acts of Congress. This power, known as judicial review, is widely considered today to be the most important power of the Supreme Court.
What did one faction of officers do in the Newburgh Conspiracy?
One faction of officers wanted to put that plan into action and began planning a coup d'etat—a military takeover of the government. Their plan was to overthrow the Congress and put Washington in charge, making him the King of America. However, the officers also knew that Washington was unlikely to follow such a plan, so they began discussing a plan to make Horatio Gates the new Commander-in-Chief to enact the conspiracy.
What did Jefferson seek to purchase from the French shortly after becoming President?
Shortly after becoming President, in an attempt to protect Western farmers and their ability to trade up and down the Mississippi River, Jefferson sought to purchase the port of New Orleans from the French. While the Pinckney Treaty had already guaranteed Americans the right to use the port, it had been signed with the Spanish who had since sold New Orleans and the Louisiana Territory to the French. Control of New Orleans was vital to Western farmers, who both relied on the Mississippi River system to transport their crops and who also comprised a large part of Jefferson's Democratic-Republican constituency.
What did the Continental Congress do shortly after making the decision to declare independence from Britain?
Shortly after making the decision to declare independence from Britain, the Continental Congress began drafting a new government for the United States. Known as the Articles of Confederation, this document became the basis of American government from 1777-1789.
What was the Convention of 1800?
Shortly before running for re-election in 1800, John Adams sent a contingent of delegates to negotiate an end to hostilities with the French. In the Convention of 1800, the Quasi-War was ended and the Franco-American Alliance of 1778, which had been formed after the Battle of Saratoga, was abrogated.
What did Napoleon do?
The American diplomats had traveled to France with the intention to pay up to $10 million to purchase the city of New Orleans. Napoleon now offered them the entire Louisiana territory for $15 million. Despite going beyond their authorization, the American diplomats realized the potential significance of the deal and agreed.
What did the British begin to do after the creation of the Continental System?
The British, however, had one additional insult to American neutral rights during this trade war. With enlistments of sailors low and the need high, the British began to seize American sailors on captured ships and force them into military service with Britain—a policy known as impressment. This fate befell as many as 9,000 Americans, who were ultimately forced to fight in the British navy, sometimes against their own countrymen.
What happened in 1788 and shortly after?
The Constitution was ratified in 1788 and took effect with the inauguration of a new government and president, George Washington, in early 1789. Although it took two more years, the Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments to the Constitution, were added in 1791 to protect rights most Americans believed were inviolable.
What did the Democratic Republican think of the assumption of state debts?
The Democratic-Republicans also opposed the assumption of state debts. Democratic- Republican leaders Jefferson and Madison were both from Virginia and their home state had already paid off its debt. Having done so, they did not see why Virginians should be forced to assume a portion of the debts of other states.
What were the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions?
The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions argued that because the states had originally approved the Constitution, they had the power to decide the constitutionality of laws passed by Congress. Because the Alien and Sedition Acts violated the constitution, they argued the laws were null and void.
What was the Whiskey Act?
The policy of Hamilton's that caused the strongest opposition, however, was his Whiskey Act. A tax on distilled spirits, the Whiskey Act disproportionately hurt Democratic-Republicans because it primarily affected western farmers, who in many cases distilled their grain into spirits to make it easier to transport for sale over long distances, particularly over the Appalachian Mountains.
What was the main problem that led to the Newburgh Conspiracy?
The problem was that the army, and its officers, had not received the money and pensions Congress had promised them during the war. Congress was seriously short of funds and defeated numerous proposals to pay the army what they were owed.
What happened in the colonies throughout the period of salutary neglect? What became engrained in the American psyche?
Throughout the period of salutary neglect, the American colonies had quickly developed various systems of self-government, starting with the House of Burgesses in 1619. Every early American colony had some form of representative government and, through the years leading up to the American Revolution, the ideas of egalitarianism and republicanism—where the government would be run by elected representatives chosen by the people—became deeply ingrained in the American psyche.
What was the Jay Treaty?
To resolve this issue, George Washington sent John Jay to Britain to negotiate a treaty ending the dispute. In the so-called Jay Treaty, ratified by the Senate in 1796, Britain agreed to remove their troops from the American frontier and America and Britain agreed to arbitration to decide the amount of the debt America owed to Britain—essentially agreeing to the same thing the two nations had already agreed to, but not abided by, in the Treaty of Paris.
How did the first year of the War of 1812 go?
Under such circumstances, it is no wonder the first year of the war went so poorly. Fort Detroit and its force of 2,500 men surrendered to 1,300 British-allied troops with barely a shot being fired. Fort Mackinac was besieged and lost before the American commander of the fort even knew war had been declared. Fort Dearborn (located in what is now Chicago) was surrendered and the inhabitants were all either killed or captured. Finally, an American attempt to invade Canada failed when American forces were shelled by British artillery while attempting to cross the Niagara River.
What did the Articles do in regards to trade?
Under the new government, Congress also did not have the power to regulate interstate trade, so each state was free to pursue its own trade policy, even if it was detrimental to the national economy or the economy of the other states.
What was the XYZ affair?
Upon arriving, three lower-level French diplomats told the American ambassadors that the Americans would have to pay a $250,000 bribe to speak with the French Foreign Minister. The Americans, of course, did not pay the bribe, and when word got back to America, the three French diplomats were labeled X, Y and Z and the incident became known as the XYZ affair. Anger at the French boiled over and the popular slogan of the day became "Millions for defense, but not a cent for tribute."
How did Washington react to the Newburgh Conspiracy?
When Washington learned of the plot, he decided to meet with his officers. In an impassioned speech, Washington spoke about the many sacrifices they had made together to win their dream of independence. Many of Washington's men were moved to tears, feeling guilty for their part in the plot that would have subverted the very ideas for which they had fought. America had narrowly averted becoming a dictatorship, and it had only done so because of Washington's leadership.
How did the people react to the Embargo Act?
While Americans had called for a response to the Chesapeake incident and the continued violations of American trade, this was not what they had expected. Merchants in New England cried foul as commerce drastically decreased. Federalists in the Northeast even began talking of secession and many Americans began to smuggle in violation of the law.
What was the result of Shays' Rebellion?
While it failed, Shays and his men had sparked fear among American leaders that the federal government was far too weak to deal with such incidents. When the Philadelphia Convention was held that spring, 12 of the 13 states sent representatives (Rhode Island was the lone holdout) and they began the process of revamping the framework of the American government.
What groups arose after the ratification of the Constitution?
While the Constitution laid out a framework for the new government, it left many specifics yet to be decided and contained several seemingly contradictory sections. Early on, two camps emerged regarding these contradictions.
What led to the Hartford Convention?
With the ups and downs of the war and U.S. trade dropping 90%, New England and Northeast merchants were enraged. Primarily acting through the Federalist Party, a group of delegates met in Hartford, Connecticut in December 1814 to discuss their opposition to the war. Some of the delegates even went as far as to advocate secession from the Union and even sent a secret mission to Britain to discuss separate peace terms.
What did Washington do after two terms?
After two terms as President, George Washington decided to retire. At the time, there was no law prohibiting a President from serving more than two terms, but Washington felt that two terms was enough for any man to serve in the office.
What did the Articles do in regards to the legal system?
Additionally, the Articles failed to create a national executive, meaning there was no way to enforce federal law, and it failed to create a national judiciary, meaning each state was free to interpret those laws as they saw fit.
What did Burr do after the duel?
After leaving the state to avoid murder charges, Burr eventually moved to the Louisiana Territory where he became involved in a bizarre conspiracy to start a war against the Spanish and carve out part of the American south as a new nation with himself as the leader. One of Burr's fellow conspirators turned him in and he was arrested on treason charges. However, a treason conviction requires two witnesses and there was only one. Burr was found not guilty, moved to Europe for a time, and eventually returned to the United States under an assumed name.
What was the significance of the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions?
Although the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions had little impact at the time, they became the basis for the doctrine of nullification which laid the legal groundwork for states in later years to secede from the Union. Following the logic of nullification, states argued that because they had freely joined the Union when they approved the Constitution, they could freely leave the Union.
How did America enter the War of 1812?
America entered the War of 1812 utterly unprepared as budget cuts under President Jefferson had severely depleted the army and navy. The U.S. Navy at the time consisted of only 17 ships. In addition, many in New England and the Northeast did not support the war and some states even refused to cooperate in enlistment efforts or refused to call up their state militias. America had few trained military officers and the ones they did have were veterans from the Revolution and now in their 60's, or older. Many state militias, who were poorly trained themselves, relied on political officers, who were appointed to lead state militias simply because of their connections with the state's governor.
What did Jefferson do as President?
As President, Jefferson quickly began to implement his version of a small, scaled-back federal government. He cut taxes, reduced spending by cutting funding to the army and navy, and closed several foreign diplomatic missions. He pardoned those convicted under the Alien and Sedition Acts and let the acts themselves expire. Later in his presidency in 1808, Jefferson also pushed for and signed into law an act that banned the further importation of slaves into the United States.
What was the Report on Manufacturing?
Hamilton, like most Federalists, believed that America's future lie in manufacturing. In addition to his efforts to promote the nation's credit, he also came up with a plan to promote industry called the Report on Manufacturing. This report called for a series of protective tariffs to be initiated to shield domestic industry from foreign competition until domestic manufacturing could stand on its own. By artificially increasing the price of foreign goods through tariffs, American manufactures would be cheaper by comparison. Eventually, as American manufacturers caught up in efficiency and quality with European goods, the tariffs would become unnecessary and removed.
How did Jefferson arrive at his inauguration?
Having won the election, Jefferson arrived at his presidential inauguration in March 1801, espousing the look of a virtuous republican—an idea which he and many other Democratic- Republicans had championed for quite some time. Jefferson rode his own horse to the ceremony and arrived by himself with no entourage. He was dressed in plain clothes and, after taking the oath of office, stabled his own horse. Outgoing President John Adams left town early in the day and did not attend the inaugural.
What did Democratic Republicans think of the Jay Treaty?
However, Democratic-Republicans opposed the Jay Treaty, arguing, among other things, that it violated the Franco-American Alliance of 1778. Still, the Jay Treaty was passed. A year later, the Pinckney Treaty, in which the Spanish granted the U.S. the right to use the port of the New Orleans—thereby opening up the Mississippi River Valley to farmers—was passed, helping mollify Democratic-Republican anger.
Was Adams successful in packing the federal court with Federalists?
However, the logistics of appointing such a massive number of judges in such a short time frame proved to be too much to accomplish before Adams term ended. Therefore, some of the appointments, even though they had been issued by the President and approved by the Senate, had not been physically delivered to the judges and were left in Washington for Jefferson's administration to deliver. Jefferson, however, not wanting these Federalist judges to take their positions in the federal court system, ordered his Secretary of State, James Madison, to not deliver the commissions.
What problems did the Articles create?
However, the powers not given to the government under the Articles created a number of problems. The new government could not tax and was instead forced to rely on contributions from the states. These contributions did not create enough revenue to cover the government's expenses which resulted in runaway debt.
What happened when Shays and his men arrived in Springfield?
However, when Shays and his men arrived in Springfield, they were opposed by a private militia which had been financed by several Boston merchants to put down the rebellious activity and, after a small skirmish, the rebellion collapsed.
What was the significant result of Shays' Rebellion?
If not for Shays' Rebellion, the Philadelphia Convention in May 1787 may have been as sparsely attended as the Annapolis Convention. But as it would turn out, subsequent events would set America on a much different path.
What led the Newburgh Conspiracy?
In 1783—two years after the battle of Yorktown—the Continental Army was still encamped and growing increasingly dissatisfied with Congress' leadership. Although two years had passed since the last fight between Britain and the American colonies, the British army was still occupying New York City as treaty negotiations dragged on in Paris. George Washington had brought the Continental Army to Newburgh, north of the city, to keep a watchful eye on the British and make sure they didn't try to resume hostilities while the peace talks were taking place.
What did Burr do in 1804?
In 1804, Burr, having lost Jefferson's trust, was dropped from the Democratic-Republican ticket and instead decided to run for the governorship of New York. He lost, and once blamed Hamilton because of more disparaging remarks he had made about Burr, this time calling him "despicable." Hamilton's criticisms of Burr ended up being published in an Albany newspaper and Burr sought an explanation.
What was the Chesapeake incident?
In 1807, tensions between America and Britain reached a new high. The British stopped an American naval vessel, the Chesapeake, in American territorial waters and demanded to search it. The American captain refused and the British opened fire, killing three Americans and wounding 18. The British then boarded the vessel and seized four Americans, impressing them into the British navy.
How was the Embargo Act revised?
In 1809, realizing the futility of the Embargo Act, it was revised, through the passage of the Non- Intercourse Act—which forbade trade only with Britain and France. This law, however, was practically unenforceable and continued to have negligible effects as both Britain and France continued to violate American trade. Shortly after the Non-Intercourse Act was passed, James Madison, having won the election of 1808, assumed the presidency and throughout his first term the United States would continue to struggle with its relationship with Britain.
What problem occurred on the frontier in 1811?
In 1811, a battle in Indiana occurred at the Tippecanoe River, in which a group of Native tribes opposed to American settlement in the Midwest banded together under the leadership of a Shawnee chief named Tecumseh. In the Battle of Tippecanoe, they attacked a group of American soldiers. In the aftermath of the fighting, it became apparent that Tecumseh and his supporters had British weapons which had been supplied to them through the British in Canada.
In addition to making the young nation solvent, what did the plan behind the report on Public Credit add the bonus of?
In addition to making the young nation solvent, this plan had the added bonus of tying the fate of the wealthy in with the fate of the nation. Since the wealthy would be the ones buying up the debt through these treasury certificates, they would be the ones most heavily invested in the success of the new nation's future. If they ever wanted to see a return on their investment, the new nation would have to succeed.
What were the opinions on counting slaves as human or property?
In an odd twist, Northern states wanted to count slaves as property so that they could be taxed and so Southern states would not receive additional representation in the government by counting them as people. The South wanted to count them as people so they would not be taxed as property, but would increase the representation of the South in the federal government.
What did Jefferson do after his inauguration?
In his inaugural address, Jefferson stated that "We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists" and argued that despite their differences, all Americans, regardless of party, believed in the republic they had established. Jefferson effectively calmed the political turmoil of the time, allowing the Alien and Sedition Acts to expire and set the stage for the peaceful transfer of power from one political party to another for future generations of Americans.
What did Hamilton do in his reply to Burr?
In his reply to Burr, Hamilton did not apologize and instead insulted Burr again by explaining to Burr the many meanings of the word despicable. Burr responded by challenging Hamilton to a duel.
What did Washington establish in putting down the rebellion?
In putting down the rebellion, Washington also firmly established civilian control of the military—a tradition the United States maintains to this day. However, the weaknesses of the government under the Articles remained and more problems were coming.
What did the army do in the Newburgh Conspiracy?
In retaliation, the army threatened to refuse to disband once peace arrived, keeping a standing army in a time of peace—something very rare for that time period. The army also claimed they would not protect the Congress if it were attacked and suggested, in a thinly veiled threat, that the army march to Philadelphia to express their displeasure to Congress in person.
What did the rules of the electoral college at the time do in the Election of 1796?
In the Election of 1796, under the rules of the electoral college at that time, John Adams, a Federalist, received the most votes and therefore became the next President. Thomas Jefferson, a Democratic-Republican, received the second most votes and therefore became the Vice- President. The Founding Fathers, not anticipating or wanting political parties in the new nation, had inadvertently created a system where the President and Vice-President could be arch political enemies.
What problems did the Articles create with Britain?
In the Treaty of Paris, the United States had agreed to repay Britain the money it owed them from before the revolution and the British had promised they would remove their troops from the American frontier. But because America could not, and did not, pay off its debt to Britain, Britain kept troops in the United States—even after the war was over.
What did the XYZ affair do?
Internationally, the XYZ affair set off an undeclared naval war between American and French ships in an event known as the Quasi-War. Domestically, the XYZ affair set the stage for the passage of a series of restrictive laws.
What were the Federalist Papers?
John Jay, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton, all influential Founding Fathers and contributors to the Constitutional Convention, wrote anonymous articles that were published in newspapers throughout the states supporting ratification. These articles later came to be known as the Federalist Papers.
What did Napoleon seek to do?
Napoleon, the leader of France at the time, had bigger issues to deal with. He had a slave revolt occurring in one of his Caribbean colonies, Haiti, that he had been unable to repress and he was in need of cash to fight Britain. He came back to America with a larger proposal, to sell the entirety of the Louisiana Territory to the United States.
What led to the creation of the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions?
Now that it was illegal to criticize the government, Democratic-Republicans were running out of options to oppose Federalist policies. Some began to advocate armed resistance against the government and overthrowing the Federalist administration. Thomas Jefferson, now the Vice- President to a Federalist president, along with James Madison, secretly wrote a series of resolutions challenging the constitutionality of the Alien and Sedition Acts. They wrote them secretly because challenging the Sedition Act could itself be construed as sedition and seen as an illegal act.
What powers were the government given under the Articles
The new government was given limited powers, including the ability to borrow and print money, the power to conduct foreign relations, and the power to mediate disputes between the states.
What did Adams try to do at the end of his presidency?
One of the last acts of outgoing President John Adams, before Jefferson took office, was Adams' attempt to "pack" the federal judiciary with Federalist judges. After the Election of 1800, Adams knew the incoming government would be dominated by Democratic-Republicans. Adams believed that if the federal judiciary was comprised primarily of Federalists, with lifetime appointments, the Federalists could at least keep control of one branch of the government for the foreseeable future. In his last days in office, President Adams appointed 58 Federalist judges to the federal court system.
What was rare about the Northwest Ordinance?
Prior to the law, many eastern states had claims to land in the Northwest Territory given to them under their original colonial charters. The Northwest Ordinance was only possible because those states ceded their previous claims to the land—a rare instance of cooperation under the Confederation government.
What caused the Alien and Sedition Acts?
Resulting from anger at the French following the XYZ affair, Congress passed a set of new laws targeting immigrants and anti-government speech. The Alien Acts had two major provisions.
WHat did the Northwest Ordinance do?
The Northwest Ordinance divided western land into square plots which could then be sold off. The revenue from the sale of the 16 th section of each township was reserved to support public education—the first time the federal government subsidized public education in American history.
What was the significance of the Chesapeake incident?
The attack exposed America's military weakness, and perhaps the folly of Jefferson's attempt to reduce the national debt by cutting the size of the army and navy. Americans demanded revenge, but Jefferson knew that little could be done. The American navy had no chance fighting Britain, the greatest naval power in the world at the time, so Jefferson sought another strategy. In an attempt to punish Britain economically for the continued violations of American trade, Congress passed and Jefferson signed into law the Embargo Act, which forbid U.S. exports to all nations.
What was the debate over slavery solved with?
The debate over slavery was also solved with several compromises. First, for the purposes of taxation and representation, slaves would be counted as 3/5 th 's of a person. Second, the Constitution said that Congress could not ban the importation of slaves for at least 20 years (At the time of the adoption of the Constitution, slavery was seen as a dying institution). Third, a federal fugitive slave law was enacted that required all runaway slaves to be returned to their masters.
How was the debate over the question of how to make the government more powerful without infringing on the rights of the states and individuals solved?
The debate over the question of how to make the government more powerful without infringing on the rights of the states and individuals was solved in several ways. First, Madison's proposal for the Constitution laid out a system of checks and balances where each branch of the government—legislative, executive, and judicial—maintained certain powers over the other branches in a system also known as the separation of powers. Madison believed this system would prevent any one branch of the government from becoming tyrannical—so much so that he later opposed the Bill of Rights, feeling it was unnecessary. The Constitution also provided for certain enumerated powers the government would hold and specifically laid those powers out in the Constitution. Called powers delegated, these described what powers would be held by the new Congress.
What was the New Jersey Plan?
The other major proposal was known as the New Jersey Plan and essentially called for small revisions to the Articles of Confederation. Under this plan, the government would retain its unicameral legislature with each state still receiving one vote. Additionally, the New Jersey Plan would have expanded the Articles of Confederation's power to include the ability to tax and regulate trade.
What was the "living Constitution" model?
The first urged a loose, or broad, interpretation of the Constitution. Under this interpretation, the Congress would essentially be empowered to do whatever it thought was "necessary and proper" to carry out the functions of the federal government, a power given to Congress by Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution. In its most liberal interpretation, this theoretically meant that the Congress is empowered to do anything it deems "necessary" to ensure the general welfare of the people as stated in the Constitution's preamble. Some people also refer to this interpretation as the "living Constitution" model.
What did the government's debt also result in internationally?
The government's debt also resulted in numerous domestic and international crises. At home, the government's financial problems contributed to the Newburgh Conspiracy and Shays' Rebellion (discussed later). Abroad, it resulted in problems with Britain.
What was significant about the Northwest Ordinance?
The law also contained a bill of rights for frontier settlers, a precursor to America's modern Bill of Rights. Each settler was guaranteed freedom of religion, the right to a jury trial, and cruel and unusual punishments were banned. The law also banned slavery in the territories, although this wasn't strictly enforced. The Ordinance pledged "good faith" towards the Natives and said "their land and property shall never be taken from them without their consent," although this did not happen in many cases.
What was the result of the Battle of New Orleans?
The leaderless British were pushed back, suffering 2,000 casualties to Jackson's 71. The lopsided victory had several effects. First, it made Andrew Jackson a national hero and sparked a wave of American patriotism. Second, combined with the Treaty of Ghent ending the war, the Federalists meeting at Hartford discussing opposition to the war and secession from the Union now looked treasonous.
What was the Virginia Plan?
The most influential idea in reforming the government was the Virginia Plan, proposed by James Madison. It called for a bicameral legislature with both houses of representation to be based on population. In this system, the people would elect the lower house which would then pick the upper house. Both houses together would then select the President and federal judges. To firmly establish federal supremacy, Madison's proposal would have given the federal government the power to veto state law.
How did the new government under the Constitution fix the issues over interstate trade?
The new government under the Constitution also fixed the issues over interstate trade wars by giving the federal government the power to regulate trade, helped ease the issue over debt by giving the government the power to tax, and also made passing laws and amending the government's structure easier than it had been under the Articles of Confederation.
Who were the originalists?
The second group urged a narrow, or strict, interpretation of the Constitution, arguing that Congress only had jurisdiction over those specific powers enumerated in Article I, Section 8. This group felt that all other powers fell to the people or to the states, as stated by the 10 th Amendment. This group also believed that the "necessary and proper" clause only gave Congress the power to do what was necessary and proper to carry out the aforementioned enumerated powers specifically delegated to the Congress and not any additional ones intimated by the preamble. People believing this interpretation are also sometimes referred to as originalists.
What was the Battle of New Orleans?
The second important development during the Hartford Convention was the Battle of New Orleans. British and American troops, unaware that a treaty had been signed, fought a bloody clash in the Southeast on January 8, 1815. Andrew Jackson, commanding a group of 4,000 unorganized regulars, militias, slaves—and even some local pirates whom he had forged an alliance with—faced off against a British force of 11,000 troops who had just arrived in America after defeating Napoleon. Jackson, knowing a fair fight would be a disaster, instead forced the British to attack him over open ground while Jackson's troops stood on platforms behind eight- foot tall bales of cotton. Jackson ordered his riflemen to pick off the British officers first, using the hierarchal British military structure against them—a strategy similar to the one used by the Americans during the Revolution. Jackson also lined up his artillery on the other side of the Mississippi River to enfilade the British with fire as they marched across the field of battle.
What is the significance of the Whiskey Rebellion?
The significance of the Whiskey Rebellion, however, was in the federal government's response. In contrast to Shays' Rebellion, in which wealthy individuals were forced to raise a private army in the absence of federal action, the government acted swiftly and decisively this time to put down the Whiskey Rebellion. The government's response clearly showed that violent uprisings would no longer be tolerated by the national government and that under the Constitution, the government had both the power and the will to stop internal rebellions.
What happened in the third year of the War of 1812 (1814)?
The third year of the war, 1814, was a mixed bag for the Americans. In the South, Andrew Jackson, General of the Tennessee militia—with the help of some Cherokee allies—defeated the last band of resisting Natives, the Creeks, in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. However, the British also invaded the East Coast, capturing Washington, D.C. and setting fire to the Capitol and White House. Luckily for the Americans, a hurricane hit the city almost immediately, killing British troops, putting out the fires, and forcing the British to abandon the capital.
What problems occurred in the election of 1800?
The tie meant that the election would be thrown into the House of Representatives, where, ironically, the outgoing House of Representatives—which was dominated by Federalists—would be given the responsibility to choose between Jefferson and Burr. The House deadlocked, with Democratic-Republicans backing Jefferson and many Federalists supporting Burr, simply to spite Jefferson. It took 36 votes before the tie was finally broken and only then because Alexander Hamilton had stepped in and convinced a few Federalists that Burr was "dangerous" and could not be trusted to be the President.
What was significant about the problems on the frontier in 1811?
This attack, combined with the earlier violations of trade, the Chesapeake incident, and the impressments of American seamen led President Madison to ask Congress for a declaration of war in 1812. Aided by a recently elected group of frontier Democratic-Republican Congressmen, dubbed the War Hawks, who wanted war against the Natives and their British allies, Congress declared war on Britain.
How did the Democratic Republicans react to the Alien and Sedition Acts?
This blatant violation of the First Amendment infuriated Democratic-Republicans, 25 of whom were arrested under the Sedition Act. One man was arrested because he said he hoped a cannon ball would get stuck in President Adams' behind, another for saying that Adams' showed a greediness for power, and yet another for saying that President Adams was blind, bald, crippled, and toothless. Another was arrested for calling the President a hypocrite and an oppressor, one for calling a Federalist marshal a "savage," and one for suggesting that President Adams should retire. Matthew Lyon, a Democratic-Republican Congressman, was arrested under the Sedition Act for calling President Adams' administration foolish. Although he was convicted under the Sedition Act, the people in his district blamed the Federalists and Lyon was re-elected to Congress while still in prison.
What did runaway debt create?
This debt, and the government's inability to pay it, also meant that the people had little faith in the Continental currency. That lack of faith resulted in massive inflation and the value of the Continental dollar dropped precipitously.
Who were the Federalists?
Those who favored a loose, or broad, interpretation of the Constitution quickly became known as Federalists and were led by John Adams and Alexander Hamilton. Although George Washington never declared a party preference, he often sided with Hamilton's ideas and has been retroactively classified by most historians as a Federalist.
Who were the Democratic-Republicans?
Those who favored a strict, or narrow, interpretation of the Constitution came to be known as Democratic-Republicans and were led by James Madison and Thomas Jefferson.
What was the result of the Whiskey Act?
Violence broke out in western Pennsylvania with farmers attacking tax collectors and even shooting at federal marshals trying to enforce the law. At one point, 7,000 people marched on Pittsburgh. Washington was forced to raise an army of 13,000 men to march out to the frontier to squash the rebellion.
