APUSH UNIT 6

Electricity

's invention of the incandescent lightbulb in 1879 was one of the most significant technological advancements of the late 19th century. The invention made it possible for people to light their homes and workplaces with electric light, greatly improving the efficiency and convenience of lighting. Edison's initial system was based on low-voltage direct current, which could be transmitted only about 2 miles. However, George Westinghouse, demonstrated the advantages of high-voltage alternating current for transmission over great distances. In 1886, he formed the Westinghouse Electric Company with the inventor Nikola Tesla. They developed an alternating current motor that could convert electricity into mechanical power. This allowed factories to be located further away from water or coal, greatly increasing the flexibility and efficiency of industry. The incandescent lightbulb, the development of the alternating current transmission system, and the alternating current motor all greatly improved the efficiency and accessibility of electricity. This had a profound impact on society, transforming the way people lived and worked, and greatly contributing to the growth of the economy. The innovations of Edison, Westinghouse and Tesla also led to the formation of General Electric, one of the largest and most influential companies in the world

Gospel of Wealth

, one of the most successful industrialists and philanthropists of the 19th century, was a devout Baptist who believed that his wealth was a blessing from God. He often cited the Bible verse Proverbs 13:22, which states "A good man leaveth an inheritance to his children's children: and the wealth of the sinner is laid up for the just" as evidence that God had given him his riches as a reward for his hard work and good deeds. Rockefeller's religious beliefs played a significant role in his business practices and philanthropy. He believed that his wealth was a responsibility and that he had a moral obligation to use it for the betterment of society. He donated millions of dollars to various charitable causes and organizations, including education, health care, and the arts. He also believed that his business practices should be guided by Christian principles such as honesty, integrity, and fairness. Rockefeller's religious beliefs and philanthropy helped to soften the negative public perception of him and other wealthy industrialists. Many Americans viewed the wealth of the "Robber Barons" as a sign of divine favor and justification of the capitalist system. This perspective helped to legitimize the growing wealth gap in the United States and the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a few individuals and corporations. Andrew Carnegie's article "Wealth" argued that the wealthy had a God-given responsibility to carry out projects of civic philanthropy for the benefit of society, the idea of the Gospel of Wealth. He himself distributed more than $350 million of his fortune to support the building of libraries, universities and various public institutions.

Holding Companies

A company that owns the stock of other companies, giving it control over the operations of those companies. Holding companies can be used for a variety of purposes, including the consolidation of multiple companies within an industry, the management of multiple business operations, and the acquisition of new companies or assets. Examples of holding companies include: The United States Steel Corporation, which was formed by J.P. Morgan through the merger of multiple steel companies. Berkshire Hathaway, which is a holding company controlled by Warren Buffett that owns multiple companies in various industries, including insurance, energy, and retail.

Trusts

A legal entity in which a group of companies or assets are placed under the control of a small group of individuals or a holding company. The purpose of a trust is to reduce competition and increase market control within an industry. Examples of trusts include: The Standard Oil Trust, which was formed by John D. Rockefeller to control the majority of the oil refineries in the United States. The Sugar Trust, which was formed by a group of sugar manufacturers to control the majority of the sugar production in the United States.

The rise of the middle class led to the emergence of a consumer culture, as people started to have more disposable income to spend on goods and services. This new consumer culture was fueled by the growth of department stores, mail-order catalogs, and new forms of advertising, which made it easier for people to purchase new consumer goods.

Additionally, new technologies such as the telephone and electric lighting also contributed to the consumer culture as they made it easier for people to communicate and shop for goods. This period also saw the rise of new forms of entertainment, such as professional sports and vaudeville shows, which further added to the consumer culture. These changes had a significant impact on American society, as people were able to buy new goods and experiences, and enjoy a higher standard of living.

Democrats

After 1877, the Democrats could count on winning every election in the former state of the Confederacy. The solid South was indeed solidly Democrat and would stay that way until the mid-20th Century. In the North, Democratic strength came from big city political machines and immigrant vote. Democrats were often Catholics, Lutherans, and Jews who objected to temperance and prohibition crusades conducted by Protestant.

Restrictions

After the opening of Ellis Island in 1892, the majority of immigrants to the United States came through this port of entry and settled in urban areas to work as unskilled laborers. The urban areas of the Northeastern and Midwestern United States, particularly New York City, Boston, and Chicago, saw a large influx of immigrants during this time. African Americans began to leave the south and migrate to urban areas as well. African Americans also began to leave the South and migrate to urban areas during this period, particularly during the Great Migration. Many Chinese immigrants also came to the United States during the Gilded Age, mostly through San Francisco, and worked in mines and on railroads, particularly in the West. After 1910, Chinese immigrants were required to pass through Angel Island in San Francisco and prove that they fit one of the exceptions to the Chinese Exclusion Act. With the growth of industries such as steel and transportation, cities became centers of commerce and culture. The popularity of entertainment such as vaudeville and the rise of department stores led to cities becoming cultural centers as well. Improved methods of transportation also allowed wealthy and middle-class Americans to live outside the city and come into the city for business or entertainment.

Agriculture in the "New South"

Although slavery has been outlawed, landowners continued to employ African Americans on their plantations through tenant farming and sharecropping. Sharecropping is a type of agricultural system in which the landowners provide resources to farmers in return for a portion of the profits the farmers make from their crops. While this may sound reasonable, many former slaves had no choice but to work as tenants for white landowners. They could not legally own land and had to work for others. Tenant Farming was another similar system. The landowners would rent out pieces of their land to a tenant farmer. They would pay the landowner rent through the crops they harvested that season.

The Social Gospel movement was a religious and social movement that emerged in the late 19th century. It advocated for Christians to actively work to improve the lives of the poor and marginalized in society. The Social Gospel movement emphasized the importance of applying Christian principles to social problems such as poverty, inequality, and injustice.

As a result of the Social Gospel movement, many charitable organizations were established to help the urban poor. These include the Salvation Army and YMCA. These organizations helped to provide services such as housing, education, and job training to those in need. The Social Gospel movement also had a significant impact on the arts and literature of the time. Many artists and authors began to use their platform to call for social reform and to raise awareness about the plight of the poor. They used their work to expose the social and economic injustices of the Gilded Age and to inspire change.

Capitalism

As early as 1776, economist Adam Smith had argued in The Wealth of Nations that business should be regulated, not by government, but by the "invisible hand" of the law of supply and demand. If the government kept its hands off (laissez-faire), so the theory went, businesses would be motivated by their own self-interest to offer improved goods and services at low prices. Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection in biology presented new views of economics for some. Some people argued that Social Darwinism, the belief that Darwin's ideas of natural selection and survival of the fittest, should be applied to the marketplace. They believed that concentrating wealth in the hands of the "fit" benefited everyone.

One Big Reservation Policy

Before the Civil War, the land west of the Mississippi River was considered "Indian Country" by the US government, and access to the area was restricted to white people through the Indian Intercourse Act of 1834. This act prohibited whites from entering the area without a government-issued license. In 1851, the US government adopted a new policy of "concentration" for the native tribes, which involved defining specific boundaries for each tribe's reservation and relocating native peoples to these designated areas. This policy was intended to clear the way for white settlement in the West.

The "Gospel of Wealth" is a term used to describe the belief held by some wealthy individuals during the Gilded Age (1865-1898) that they had a moral obligation to use their wealth for the greater good. This belief was popularized by Andrew Carnegie, a wealthy industrialist and philanthropist, who wrote an influential essay in 1889 called "The Gospel of Wealth." In this essay, Carnegie argued that the rich had a duty to use their wealth to benefit society and help the less fortunate, rather than simply hoarding their wealth.

Carnegie believed that the wealthy had a duty to use their wealth to create a more just and equitable society, and that they should use their wealth to support charitable causes and organizations. He advocated for the establishment of foundations and trusts that would provide long-term funding for charitable causes. The Gospel of Wealth also emphasized on the importance of "scientific charity" which focused on addressing the root causes of poverty, instead of just providing temporary relief. It also advocated for the establishment of charitable trusts that would provide long-term funding for charitable causes and organizations. The Gospel of Wealth had a significant impact on American philanthropy during the Gilded Age and beyond, inspiring many wealthy individuals to use their wealth for the greater good. It also helped to shift the perception of wealthy people from the stereotype of the "robber baron" to that of a responsible, socially-conscious member of society.

Cattle Frontier

Cattle ranching dominated the open range, a vast fenceless area extending from the Texas Panhandle north into Canada. The problem was how to get the beef to eastern markets, and Joseph McCoy was one of the people who helped solve this problem. He conceived the idea of taking the cattle to the railheads in Kansas and built the first stockyards in the region in Abilene, Kansas, to hold cattle destined for Chicago. In 1870, 300,000 head of Texas cattle reached Abilene, followed the next year by 700,000. Cowboys, or cattle herders, pushed steers northward in herds of two to three thousand. While novels and films often portray cowboys as white, at least a quarter of cowboys were black and another quarter were Mexican. The cowboy culture is a diverse culture, and it was not just white men who drove cattle to the railhead. The rise of the railroads in the late 19th century also helped with the transportation of cattle to eastern markets. The railroads made it possible to transport cattle to places like Chicago, where they could be slaughtered and processed. This led to the growth of the meatpacking industry in the Midwest, and Chicago became known as the "hog butcher for the world." The cattle drives were a significant part of the history of the American West and had a significant impact on the economy and society of the region. The open range and the cowboy culture that developed around it are an iconic part of American history.

Chinese Exclusion Act

Chinese immigrants faced significant discrimination, and in 1882, the United States Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act, which suspended immigration of Chinese laborers for ten years. This was the first major act of Congress to restrict immigration on the basis of race and nationality. The act was driven by anti-Chinese sentiment and economic competition, as many Americans saw the Chinese as taking jobs away from native-born workers and driving down wages. The act was also motivated by a belief that the Chinese immigrants were not capable of assimilating into American society. The Chinese Exclusion Act was extended multiple times and was not repealed until 1943. The act had a severe impact on the Chinese-American community, and it created a discriminatory and exclusionary system that denied basic rights to Chinese immigrants and their descendants for over 60 years. It is considered a dark chapter in American history and had a lasting impact on the Chinese-American community.

Edward Bellamy:

Edward Bellamy was an American author and socialist whose book "Looking Backward" was a best-seller in the late 19th century. The book described a utopian society in which the government was responsible for ensuring the well-being of all citizens.

Tariff Issue

During the Civil War, Congress passed protective tariffs to protect the US industry and fund the Union government. These tariffs raised the prices of imported goods, making them less competitive with domestically produced goods. However, after the war, both Southern and Northern Democrats opposed these tariffs, arguing that they raised prices for consumers. In response, other countries also raised their tariffs, which led to a decrease in international sales for American products, particularly crops. This resulted in lower farm profits and a decline in the farming industry. The tariffs also led to economic tension between the different regions of the country, as the North, which had a more industrialized economy, generally supported the tariffs, while the South, which was more agriculturally based, opposed them.

Managerial Positions Held

During the Gilded Age (approximately 1870-1900), managerial positions in industry and business became increasingly important as the economy shifted towards large-scale production and corporate organization. The Gilded Age saw the rise of big business, and with it, the need for managers to oversee the operations of these large corporations. These managers, often referred to as "captains of industry," played a crucial role in the growth and success of the Gilded Age economy. They were responsible for making strategic decisions, managing large teams, and ensuring the efficient and profitable operation of their businesses.

Anti-Union Techniques EXAMPLES

During the Gilded Age (approximately 1870s to 1900), there were several examples of management using these tactics against organized labor in the United States: The 1877 Great Railroad Strike, which began as a strike by railroad workers, was put down by state militias and federal troops, with many strikers being arrested and some killed. The 1894 Pullman Strike, where the Pullman Palace Car Company used a lockout against its workers in an effort to break the strike, which ultimately led to a nationwide railroad strike. The 1892 Homestead Strike, where the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers went on strike against the Carnegie Steel Company, resulting in the company bringing in strikebreakers and calling in the state militia to put down the strike. The 1901 Coal Strike in Pennsylvania, where the United Mine Workers of America went on strike and the state militia was called in to put down the strike. The 1894 Ludlow Massacre, where the National Guard was called in to put down a strike by coal miners, leading to the deaths of more than 20 people, including women and children.

Women's Roles in the Workforce Managerial Positions

During the Gilded Age, opportunities for women in managerial positions were limited. Women were largely excluded from formal education and professional training, and societal norms and discrimination made it difficult for them to enter and advance in male-dominated fields. However, there were some women who managed to succeed in business and industry, often by starting their own companies or by working their way up the ranks in traditionally female-dominated fields such as textiles and retail. managerial positions include: Madam C. J. Walker: She was an African American entrepreneur, philanthropist, and political and social activist. She is recorded as the first female self-made millionaire in America. She created a line of hair care products for African American women and built a national sales network. Lillian Dickson: She was a businesswoman who managed her family's wholesale grocery business, Dickson, Deuel & Co., which was one of the largest wholesale grocery firms in the United States during the Gilded Age. She served as the company's president and treasurer. Carrie Catt: was an American women's suffrage leader who campaigned for the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which gave women the right to vote in 1920. She was the founder of the League of Women Voters and the National Woman's Party, and served as the president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association. Mary Elizabeth Garrett: She was an American philanthropist and women's suffrage supporter, who was a driving force behind the founding of Bryn Mawr College in 1885 and Johns Hopkins Medical School in 1893. These examples were a few of the women who managed to succeed in a time when opportunities for women were limited, and their success laid the foundation for future generations of women in leadership positions

"Easy" money vs "Hard" money

During the late 19th century, there were debates in the United States about the appropriate monetary policy to support economic growth. The advocates of "easy" money, such as farmers and startup businesses, argued that an increase in the money supply would make it easier for them to borrow money at lower interest rates and pay off their loans with inflated money. On the other hand, "hard money" supporters, such as bankers, creditors, investors, and established businesses, believed that a currency backed by gold stored in government banks would hold its value in times of inflation. They also believed that as the population grew, each dollar would gain value. Supporters of hard money were correct as the value of the dollar increased by nearly 300 percent between 1865 and 1895. The panic of 1873 was blamed on the gold standard for restricting the money supply and causing economic depression.

What caused migration from Rural to Urban areas?

Economic factors were a major cause of rural-to-urban migration during the Gilded Age. Many rural residents were farmers who faced economic challenges such as falling crop prices, rising costs of inputs, and limited opportunities for growth and expansion. Urban areas, on the other hand, offered a wider range of economic opportunities, such as factory jobs, retail, and service work. Additionally, many rural residents were attracted to the higher wages and better working conditions that were often found in urban areas. Social factors also played a role in rural-to-urban migration during the Gilded Age. Many rural residents were seeking to escape the isolation and limited social opportunities that were often found in rural areas. Urban areas, on the other hand, offered a wider range of social and cultural activities, as well as a diverse population with which to interact. Technological factors also contributed to rural-to-urban migration during the Gilded Age. Advances in transportation, such as the expansion of the railroads, made it easier and cheaper for people to travel to urban areas. Additionally, advances in communication technology, such as the telegraph and telephone, made it easier for people to stay in touch with friends and family who had already migrated to urban areas. Overall, the combination of economic, social, and technological factors during the Gilded Age made urban areas more attractive and accessible for many rural residents, leading to a significant migration from rural to urban areas.

Rutherford B. Hayes

Hayes' most significant act was to end Reconstruction by withdrawing the last federal troops from the South.

Grover Cleveland

He implemented the new civil service system and vetoed hundreds of private pension bills for those falsely claiming to have served or been injured in the Civil War. He worked long into the night reviewing veterans pensions and civil service appointments. He forced railroad, lumber and cattle companies to surrender millions of acres of fraudulently occupied public land. He signed into the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, the federal government's first effort to regulate business and the Dawes Act, which reformers hoped would benefit American Indians.

James Garfield

Hordes of office seekers wanted government jobs and constantly cornered the president. In July, on his way to vacation in New England, Garfield was shot while walking toward the train by Charles J. Guiteau, a deranged lawyer and disappointed office seeker.

Many people during this period opposed government intervention in the economy and believed that businesses and the economy would recover on their own without government interference.

However, the government did take certain actions to promote economic growth and development, such as granting land to railroad companies, implementing high tariffs, and following hard money guidelines. These actions were seen as a way to support American businesses and promote economic growth, while still adhering to the laissez-faire ideology.

Social Darwinism

Many Americans, particularly those who were wealthy and powerful, subscribed to the idea of Social Darwinism, which held that the wealthy and powerful were naturally superior and deserved their success. This idea was often used to justify the exploitation of immigrants and other marginalized groups. The idea of assimilation was also used to justify the forced acculturation of immigrants and other minority groups, as well as the forced removal and relocation of Native American communities in the West.

Pendleton Civil Service Act

In 1883, Congress passed the Pendleton Act to reform the civil service. It created the bipartisan Civil Service Commission to administer competitive examinations and appoint officeholders on the basis of merit. Initially it affected only 14,000 of the 100,000 government jobs, but it would expand over time.

Panic of 1893

In February of 1893, panic suddenly hit the New Stock Market. In one day, investors dumped on million shares of a leading company (the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad) and it went bankrupt People were frightened and hurriedly sold off their stocks and assets to buy gold. It depleted the gold reserve of the US Treasury. By March, the reserve was near the $100 million mark, which was the amount the government committed at to maintain the gold standard. By April, it fell below $100 million. Quickly many bad things happened: The banks began to cut back on loans. Businesses were unable to get capital and failed at a rate of two dozen a day during the month of May. In August, the worst month, factories and mines across the country shut down. Economics estimated unemployment at 2 million or 15% of the labor force. 15,000 businesses and 600 banks closed in 1893. 1894 was even worse. By the midyear, unemployment was at 3 million. 1 out of 5 workers was unemployed.

Silver

In addition to removing greenbacks, Congress also stopped the coining of silver. The silver discoveries in Nevada revived demands for the use of silver to expand the money supply. A compromise law, the was passed over Hayes's veto. It allowed a limited coinage of $2-4 million in silver each month at the standard silver-to-gold ratio of 16 to 1. Famers, debtors, and western miners were not satisfied and continued to press for the unlimited coinage of silver.

Early Unions

In an effort to protect their rights and improve their working conditions, workers began forming labor unions. The National Labor Union (NLU) was one of the first of these groups, formed in 1866, it sought to improve the rights and working conditions of all workers, regardless of their trade or skill level. They fought for an eight-hour workday, greater equality in the workplace, and the right to organize. However, the economic Panic of 1873 led to decreased membership for the National Labor Union, and it eventually dissolved in 1876. Another early labor union was the Knights of Labor, which formed in 1869. The Knights of Labor was more inclusive than the NLU and accepted all workers regardless of their skill, race, or gender. They also advocated for the eight-hour workday and the right to organize, but in addition, they aimed for the abolishment of child labor and monopolistic trusts. The Knights of Labor was one of the most influential labor unions in the late 19th century, but it was also impacted by the economic downturns and internal conflicts, which led to a decline in membership. These unions were the first steps in the labor movement and set the foundation for future labor unions to advocate for workers' rights and improve their working conditions.

In response to these concerns, reformers pressured Congress to pass the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. The act prohibited any contract, combination, or conspiracy in restraint of trade or commerce among the several states or with foreign nations. The act was intended to break up monopolies and promote competition, but it was not initially enforced effectively.

In the United States v E. C. Knight Co. in 1895, the Supreme Court ruled that the Sherman Antitrust Act could only be applied to commerce and not manufacturing. This ruling severely limited the government's ability to use the act to break up monopolies, and it was not until later court cases, such as Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States (1911) that the government successfully used the Sherman Act to break up trusts.

During the Gilded Age, a significant number of immigrants came to the United States seeking better economic opportunities. However, the rapid influx of immigrants led to growing concerns among some Americans, particularly those who identified as nativists. Nativists were individuals who believed in the superiority of native-born Americans and often spoke out against unregulated immigration.

In response to these concerns, the United States government began to pass legislation to limit immigration. One of the first federal laws to restrict immigration was the Immigration Act of 1882. This law placed a 50-cent tax on each immigrant, and excluded certain groups, such as convicts and those with certain diseases, from entering the country. Another significant piece of legislation was the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. This law effectively halted Chinese immigration to the United States for over 60 years. The act was passed as a reaction to the growing number of Chinese immigrants who had come to the United States to work on the transcontinental railroad and in the mines during the late 19th century. Nativists and labor groups had lobbied for the law, arguing that the Chinese immigrants were taking jobs away from native-born Americans. These laws, along with others that followed, such as the National Origins Act of 1924, significantly limited the number of immigrants who were able to enter the United States during this period. The legislation reflected the growing concern among some Americans about the effects of immigration on the country's economy and society.

The "Crime of 1873" refers to the decision made by Congress to stop coining silver, which was seen by some as a blow to the expansion of the money supply and especially to those who had invested in silver mining. The discovery of new silver mines in Nevada, as well as pressure from farmers, debtors, and miners, led to renewed demands for the unlimited coinage of silver.

In response, Congress passed the Bland-Allison Act of 1878, which allowed for the limited coinage of silver between $2 million and $4 million per month. However, this did not satisfy those who were calling for unlimited coinage and the debate over the use of silver as a monetary standard would continue in the following years.

Steel and Carnegie

In the 1850s, both Henry Bessemer in England and William Kelly in the US discovered that blasting air through molten iron produced high-quality steel (a more durable metal than iron). Andrew Carnegie was the undisputed master of the industry. South of Pittsburgh, he built the J. Edgar Thomson Steel Works, named after the president of the Pennsylvania Railroad, who was his biggest customer. In 1878 he won the steel contract for the Brooklyn Bridge. He also would provide the steel for NYC's elevated railways and skyscrapers and the Washington Monument. In 1901 he sold the company believing that wealth brought social obligations and he wanted to devote his life to philanthropy. JP Morgan bought it as he was Carnegie's chief competition in the Federal Steel company. Carnegie sold it for a half billion dollars. Drawing other companies into the combination in 1901, Morgan announced the creation of the US Steel Corporation.

Rockefeller and the Oil

In the 1850s, petroleum was a bothersome, smelly fluid that occasionally rose to the surface of springs and streams. Some entrepreneurs bottled it in patent medications and others burned it. Soon it was discovered that by drilling, you could reach pockets of it under the earth. John D. Rockefeller imposed order on the industry. Rockefeller absorbed or destroyed competitors in Cleveland and elsewhere. Unlike Carnegie, he was distant. He had deep religious beliefs and taught Bible classes. He demanded efficiency and relentless cost cutting. He counted the stoppers in barrels, shortened barrel hoops to save metal, and reduced the number of drops of solder on kerosene cans from 40 to 39. He realized that even small reductions meant huge savings. By 1879, through his company, Standard Oil, he controlled 90% of the country's entire oil-refining capacity.

Republicans

In the North, Republican politicians kept memories of the Civil War alive during the Gilded Age by figuratively waving the "bloody shirt" in every campaign and reminding the millions of veterans of the Union army that their wounds had been caused by southern Democrats and that Abraham Lincoln had been murdered by a Democrat. They kept the votes of reformers and African Americans. The core of their strength came from men in business and the middle-class, Anglo-Saxon Protestants, many of who supported temperance or prohibition. Democrats

Political Machines, Boss Tweed

In urban areas, poor immigrants often turned to ⚙️ for aid. Since the federal government did fairly little for these groups, many of them came to rely on . often brought modern services to the city, including a crude form of welfare for urban newcomers. They would find jobs and apartments for recently arrived immigrants and show up at a poor family's door with baskets of food during hard times. They ran picnics for slum children on hot summer days and contributed to hospitals, orphanages and dozens of worthy neighborhood causes. Although were pretty corrupt in their dealings (as seen through and his Ring 💰), immigrants often supported them for their ability and willingness to provide direct aid in exchange for votes. The (The house that Tweed built) was his masterpiece. It was in downtown Manhattan and was a three-story structure. It was designed to cost $250,000 but the bills ran higher. Andrew Garvey charged $500,000 for plasterwork and then $1 million to repair the same work. The total bill was $13 million.

Ocala Platform

Many farmers' alliances were politically minded and lobbied state legislatures for regulations on railroad rates. In 1890, several farmers' alliances met in Ocala, FL to discuss a few common political initiatives. There, they established the Ocala Platform, which called for the following: Direct election of US senators Lower tariff rates A gradual income tax (people with higher incomes would pay higher rates of tax) A new banking system regulated by the federal government. It also urged the free coinage of silver ⛓, and increase its use in circulation to create inflation and raise crop prices. Federal storage for farmers crops and federal loans, which would free farmers from dependency on middlemen and creditors. These issues (and the government's failure to address them) eventually led to the foundation of the Populist Party (or the People's Party) in 1892

McGuffey's readers:

McGuffey's readers were a series of widely used textbooks that were used in American schools in the 19th century. They were known for their moral and religious content, and were considered to be an important part of the curriculum during this time period.

For the first two years of Benjamin Harrison's presidency, Republicans controlled the presidency and both houses of Congress. The new Congress was the most active in years, passing the first billion-dollar budget in US history. It enacted the following:

McKinley Tariff Act was passed and raised tariff duties about 4% (higher than ever before) Sherman Antitrust Act was also passed and was the first federal attempt to regulate big business. This was an attempt to deal with the problem of trusts, declaring them illegal. Penalties for violation were stiff, including fines and imprisonment and the dissolution of guilty trusts. Sherman Silver Purchase Act with the discovery of the great bonanza mines in Nevada, American silver production quadrupled between 1870 and 1890, flooding the world market and lowering the price of silver. As a result, many nations demonetized silver in favor for gold, which was a more scarce metal.fdrrewgfer5t

The Hardships of the Farming Frontier

Miners, homesteaders, ranchers, railroad workers, and other migrants all had to contend with the harsh realities of frontier life. Farmers in particular struggled with falling prices for agricultural goods and rising railroad rates, which made it difficult for them to make a living. This led to the formation of Progressive reform movements, such as the Grange Movements and Farmers' Alliances, which aimed to address these economic challenges by advocating for government regulation of certain industries. The formation of monopolistic trusts in the East, such as the Standard Oil Company and the American Sugar Refining Company, led to high prices for manufactured goods. As a result, farmers found it increasingly difficult to make a living, as they were making less money while having to pay fixed or increasing expenses and taxes. Additionally, farmers had to compete with commercialized bonanza farms, which had access to expensive equipment and often received reduced railroad and storage rates. This made it difficult for small farmers to compete and survive in the West. One notable achievement of these movements was the Supreme Court case of Munn v. Illinois, which established that states had the power to regulate commerce within their own borders. The federal government also attempted to address these issues through the passage of the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, which was the first federal law aimed at regulating industry. After the Supreme Court case of Munn v. Illinois established that states had the power to regulate commerce within their own borders, railroad companies got around the ruling by simply hiking up rates for interstate hauls. Similarly, the Interstate Commerce Committee, which was established by the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, had limited success in regulating the railroad industry. Overall, the

Mining Frontier

Mining was a major factor that attracted people to the West during the Gilded Age. The California Gold Rush of 1848 was the first significant mining boom in the West, and it led to a large influx of people to California in search of gold. This was followed by other gold and silver rushes in other western states, such as Colorado and Nevada. Individual prospectors, known as "49ers", flocked to the West in search of wealth and many did strike it rich, but for most, it was a hard and unprofitable endeavor. Eventually, mining became too expensive for the average miner to undertake, as it required deep shafts and costly equipment. Large corporations then moved in to take over the mining operations, which led to the displacement of many small-scale miners. The mining boom led to the creation of many boomtowns, which were towns that sprang up overnight as a result of a rich strike. These towns were often characterized by saloons, dance hall girls, and vigilante justice. However, many of these towns would become ghost towns within a few years after the gold or silver ran out. The mining boom brought wealth to some but also brought hardship to many, and it had a significant impact on the development of the American West during the Gilded Age.

Minor v. Happersett:

Minor v. Happersett was a U.S. Supreme Court case that was decided in 1875. The case dealt with the question of whether or not women had the right to vote under the 14th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. The court ruled that women did not have the right to vote.

Nativism

Nativism was fueled by both economic and cultural forces. Economic factors contributed to nativism as immigrants were perceived as competing for jobs and resources, and were often blamed for reducing wages and driving up the cost of living. Cultural factors contributed to nativism as many native-born Americans feared that the large influx of immigrants would change the cultural fabric of the country and dilute American identity. Additionally, many of the immigrants, particularly those coming from Southern and Eastern Europe, were seen as culturally and ethnically different from the dominant Anglo-Saxon Protestant population, which further fueled nativism.

political machines, which were often found in urban areas during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, have been criticized for a number of immoral practices.

One of the main criticisms of political machines is that they used corrupt and unethical means to maintain power. This often included bribery, vote-buying, and intimidation of voters. Additionally, many political machines had strong ties to criminal organizations and were involved in activities such as gambling, prostitution, and bootlegging. Another criticism of political machines is that they often focused on serving the interests of their leaders and the party, rather than the needs of the community. This often led to neglect of important social issues such as poverty, housing, and education, and instead prioritized political patronage, nepotism and cronyism. Political machines also were often criticized for their lack of representation of minority groups, particularly African Americans and immigrants. They were often controlled by white Anglo-Saxon Protestant men who were not sensitive to the needs of these groups and often used them as a source of votes without providing them with the same services and benefits as the other members of the community.

Many immigrants who settled in cities during the Gilded Age and early 20th century developed ethnic enclaves, which were neighborhoods where people of a particular ethnic or national background lived together. These enclaves helped immigrants maintain a sense of community and culture, as well as provided them with a sense of familiarity and support in their new country.

One of the main reasons why ethnic enclaves developed was that many immigrants were concentrated in inner-city neighborhoods and could not afford housing elsewhere. Landlords in these neighborhoods often divided up housing into small, windowless rooms in order to increase their profits, resulting in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions. The resulting slums and tenement apartments were often overcrowded and squalid, with many families crammed into one small space. In an attempt to correct the unlivable conditions, the city of New York passed a law in 1870 known as the "Tenement House Act" which required each bedroom to have a window, and set standards for ventilation, light and sanitation.

To bring attention to the plight of the poor and the dire living conditions in urban areas, a group of journalists and reformers known as "muckrakers" emerged. These muckrakers wrote articles, books, and took photographs to expose the realities of life in the slums and tenements, and to urge Americans to focus on urban reform.

One of the most prominent muckrakers was Jacob Riis, who wrote "How the Other Half Lives," a photo essay of the poor and tenement conditions. The book was published in 1890 and it was a very powerful and influential publication that used photographs and text to document the living conditions of immigrants and the poor in New York City's tenements. Riis's book was instrumental in bringing attention to the need for urban reform. Another notable muckraker was Lewis Hine, who took photographs of immigrants and working-class people in cities across the United States, with a focus on child labor. He also wrote articles and books to expose the poor working conditions, and the negative impact it had on children. Hine's photographs were an important tool in the fight for social reform and helped to bring about important changes in labor laws.

Many members of the middle class began to focus on giving back to their communities and helping those in need. This was partly due to the increasing wealth and prosperity of the middle class, which led many people to feel a sense of social responsibility and a desire to help others.

One way in which the middle class gave back during this period was through philanthropy, which involved using their wealth to support charitable causes and organizations. Many wealthy individuals and families established foundations and donated money to various causes, such as education, healthcare, and the arts. Another way in which the middle class gave back during this period was through volunteerism. Many middle-class individuals and groups became involved in various volunteer organizations and movements, such as settlement houses, which aimed to improve the lives of the poor and working class. This period also saw the rise of a new form of charity, the "scientific charity", which focused on addressing the root causes of poverty, instead of just providing temporary relief. This new form of charity was based on the principles of efficiency and accountability, and aimed to provide long-term solutions to social problems.

Greenback Party

Paper money not backed by specie (gold or silver) had been issued by the federal government in the 1860s as an emergency measure for financing the Civil War. Northern farmers who received high prices during the war, prospered from the use of greenbacks. On the other hand, creditors and investors attacked the use of unbacked paper money as a violation of natural law. Supporters of paper money formed a new political party, the Greenback party.

Chester A. Arthur

Pendleton Act, reforming the Civil Service was created under him. He also approved the development of a modern American navy and began to question the high protective tariffs

Pragmatism:

Pragmatism is a philosophical movement that emerged in the late 19th century in the United States. It emphasizes the practical application of ideas and the use of experience and observation to determine the truth or usefulness of something. Pragmatists argue that the meaning of an idea or concept is determined by its practical effects, rather than by any inherent truth or logic. It had a great influence on American culture and politics during this period.

Interstate Commerce Act of 1887

Prior to the passage of the Interstate Commerce Act, many states had passed laws to regulate railroad rates, but these laws ran into legal problems. The Supreme Court case of Wabash v Illinois (1886) declared that individual states could not regulate commerce, as it was a power reserved for the federal government. As a result of this decision, the federal government passed the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. The act aimed to address issues of discrimination and unjust rates by railroad companies. It required that railroad rates be "reasonable and just" and established the first federal regulatory agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), to enforce the act and investigate complaints. The ICC was given the power to investigate rates and practices of common carriers and to order changes if they were found to be unjust or unreasonable. The Act helped to prevent discrimination against small shippers and farmers and to ensure that rates were fair. However, the ICC was not very effective as the railroad companies continued to use their influence over the commission. The act was amended several times to strengthen the ICC's power, but it was not until the Hepburn Act of 1906 that the ICC was given the power to set maximum rates.

Settlement Houses

Settlement homes, such as Hull House established by Jane Addams in Chicago, were established in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to help immigrants assimilate into American society. These homes provided a variety of services to immigrants, including English classes, job training, and assistance with finding employment. They also offered educational and cultural programs, as well as a safe and welcoming space for immigrants to come together and support each other. Hull House, which was one of the most famous settlement houses, was established in 1889 by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr. It was located in a predominantly immigrant neighborhood and provided a wide range of services to the community, including a nursery, a gym, a library, and an art studio. It also offered classes in subjects such as English, history, and civics, as well as job training programs.

Key Concepts Similarities and Differences Between Immigration Before and After Civil War

Similarities Similarities between the waves of immigration before and after the Civil War include: Both waves of immigration were primarily driven by economic factors, as immigrants sought better economic opportunities in the United States. Both waves of immigration were characterized by a large number of people coming from European countries, particularly from Ireland and Germany. Differences Before the Civil War, the majority of immigrants were from Northern and Western Europe, while after the war, there was a significant increase in immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe. Before the Civil War, the majority of immigrants were farmers and rural people, while after the war, many were skilled workers and urban people.

Patronage: Stalwarts, Mugwumps, and Halfbreeds

Since neither party had an active legislative agenda, politics in this era was chiefly a game of winning elections, holding office and providing government jobs to the party faithful. In New York, Republican Senator Roscoe Conkling became a powerful leader of his party by dictating who in the Republican ranks would be appointed to lucrative jobs in the New York Customs House. Conkling and his supporters were known as the Stalwarts, while their rivals for patronage were the Halfbreeds, led by James G. Blaine. Republicans who did not play the patronage game were ridiculed as the Mugawumps for sitting on the fence - their "mugs" on one side of the fence and "wumps" on the other.

Coxey's Army

Some of the unemployed wandered across the country in small groups or small armies. "General" Jacob Coxey led an "army" of 3000 people from Ohio to Washington, D.C. He wanted to put the nation's jobless to work building roads. He wanted Congress to pass the Coxey Good Roads Bill, which would authorize the printing of $500 million in paper money to finance road construction Coxley made it to the foot of the Capitol where the police were on him. He and a companion were clubbed and then arrested for trespassing. He was then sentenced to 20 days in jail. The armies melted away but their discontent didn't.

American Federation of Laborers

The American Federation of Labor (AFL), led by Samuel Gompers, was one of the most influential labor unions of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The AFL focused on narrower goals, such as better wages and better working conditions, rather than the more broad and ambitious goals of earlier labor unions like the National Labor Union and the Knights of Labor. The AFL grew to become the largest labor union by 1901, and it had a significant impact on the labor movement during that time period. However, the AFL's initial success was limited, as many workers were still struggling to improve their working conditions and wages. The AFL and other labor unions would sometimes organize their efforts in strikes, but more often than not, the federal government supported big business and in some instances, forcefully ended workers' efforts. During the Gilded Age, the government often sided with business owners, who were seen as the backbone of the American economy, over workers. This led to a number of anti-union laws and court decisions that weakened the power of labor unions. For example, the courts issued injunctions against strikes, which made it illegal for workers to continue their strike action. The government also used force to break up strikes, and many states passed anti-union legislation. Despite the challenges they faced, labor unions continued to advocate for workers' rights and improve their working conditions throughout the 20th century. The AFL played a key role in the labor movement, but it was not the only one, other unions like the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) also had a strong presence.

Ashcan School:

The Ashcan School was a group of American realist artists active in the early 20th century. They focused on depicting the everyday lives of urban Americans, particularly those of the working class and immigrant populations. Their work was characterized by a gritty, realistic style and a focus on social issues.

Little Bighorn

The Battle of Little Bighorn, also known as "Custer's Last Stand," was a battle that took place on June 25, 1876, as part of the northern Sioux Wars. The US Army, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer, was sent to engage a band of Sioux warriors. Custer believed he had a small group of warriors surrounded on the banks of the Little Bighorn River in Montana, but instead he found himself in the middle of a much larger Sioux camp of around 2,500 warriors. Custer and his men were quickly overwhelmed and killed in the battle. The news of Custer's defeat and the deaths of his men caused a public outcry and demands for revenge throughout the US.

The Dawes Act of 1887

The Dawes Act of 1887 (also known as the General Allotment Act) was a federal law that aimed to assimilate Native Americans into white American culture by redistributing native lands and confining them to life on reservations. The act divided tribal lands into individual allotments, which were then distributed to individual Native American households. 47 million acres of land were distributed under the Dawes Act, however another 90 million acres were designated as reservations and sold to white settlers as they were considered more fertile. The implementation of the Dawes Act, along with other policies aimed at assimilating Native Americans and breaking up tribal sovereignty, resulted in the loss of much of their land and a significant decrease in their population. By 1900, there were only 250,000 Native Americans in the country, a drastic decrease from the 600,000 in 1800 and the 5 million in 1492.

Wounded Knee Massacre

The Ghost Dance movement and the belief in its ability to restore Native American lands and bring back the buffalo, led to the intervention of the US Army. They were tasked with stopping the Ghost Dance and the violence that ensued. This ultimately led to the killing of Sitting Bull, a Hunkpapa Lakota Sioux holy man and leader of the Sioux tribes. In December 1890, the army caught up with a group of Sioux who were practicing the Ghost Dance and took them to the army camp at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota. The situation quickly escalated, when an accidental shot was fired, and the army responded by opening fire with their new machine guns. They killed about 200 men, women and children, shredded their teepees and left many of them in the snow. This event became known as the Wounded Knee Massacre, considered as one of the most tragic and notorious incidents in the history of the US treatment of Native Americans.

Grange Movement

The Grange movement, also known as the National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry, was a fraternal organization for farmers that was founded in 1867. The Grange was formed to provide a sense of community among farmers and to organize resistance against the monopolistic practices of railroads, grain elevators, and other large corporations. These groups were typically local cooperatives that encouraged farmers to unite and better their communities. From these movements, the Farmers' Alliance was founded after the Panic of 1873. The Farmers' Alliance was a political organization that grew to be one of the largest farmers' groups ever, with a membership of over one million. The Farmers' Alliance organized cooperatives to buy supplies for less and sell goods collectively. They also provided loans to farmers and asked for government support in stabilizing the agricultural economy. They also advocated for the regulation of railroads, the creation of a graduated income tax, and the establishment of a graduated land tax. The Farmers' Alliance played a major role in the populist movement of the 1890s, which aimed to give more political power to farmers and workers. They eventually merged with the People's Party, also known as the Populist Party, which ran a presidential candidate in 1892. Overall, the Grange movement and the Farmers' Alliance are examples of how farmers and rural communities organized themselves to address the challenges they faced during the Gilded Age, and how they pushed for government policies that would benefit them.

Strikes

The Great Railroad Strike of 1877 was a nationwide strike by railroad workers, who were protesting wage cuts and poor working conditions. The strike quickly spread to other industries and became one of the largest labor strikes in American history. The federal government, however, intervened and sent federal troops to break up the strikes, which led to violent clashes and the deaths of several workers. The strike was ultimately put down, but it marked a turning point in the relationship between labor and the government, with the government taking a more aggressive stance towards labor unions. The Pullman Strike of 1894 was a strike by railroad workers in the Pullman Palace Car Company, which manufactured sleeping cars for trains. The workers, who were protesting wage cuts and poor working conditions, were joined by other railroad workers and the strike quickly spread nationwide. The federal government, under the leadership of President Cleveland, intervened and obtained a court injunction against the strike, which made it illegal for the workers to continue their strike action. Federal troops were also sent to break up the strike, which resulted in several deaths and injuries. In the Homestead Strike of 1892, Henry Clay Frick (manager of Carnegie's Homestead Steel mill) incited resistance by reducing workers' wages. The workers went on strike and Frick responded by locking the workers out of the plant. The workers surrounded it and Frick hired a small private army, the Pinkertons, to drive them off. Workers spotted the Pinkertons and pinned them down with gunfire and forced them to surrender. The Pennsylvania governor ordered the militia to impose peace at Homestead.

Haymarket Riot

The Haymarket Riot of 1886 in Chicago was a significant event in the history of labor unions in the United States. The riot occurred during a labor protest in support of workers striking for an eight-hour workday, and it turned violent when someone threw a bomb at the police, killing eight people. While the identity of the person who threw the bomb is still unknown, it led to a backlash against labor unions and the labor movement as a whole. Many people began to view labor unions as radical and anarchist organizations, which was further fueled by the growing Nativist sentiment of the time (Nativism is the political position of promoting the interests of native inhabitants against those of immigrants). This incident had a major impact on the Knights of Labor, one of the most influential labor unions of the time. The Knights of Labor, which had already been struggling with declining membership and internal conflicts, was further weakened by the negative public perception of labor unions following the Haymarket Riot. The public opinion of the unions was damaged and the organization was unable to recover from the blow. The Haymarket Riot had a significant impact on the labor movement, as it led to increased government repression of labor unions and further weakened the power of organized labor during the Gilded Age.

NAWSA:

The National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was one of the leading organizations in the movement to secure the right to vote for women in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Salvation Army:

The Salvation Army is a Christian charity organization that was established in the late 19th century. It provides services such as housing, education, and job training to those in need.

Sand Creek Massacre

The Sand Creek Massacre, also known as the Chivington Massacre, occurred in 1864, where a group of Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes, led by Chief Black Kettle, had asked for peace and camped on Sand Creek in Colorado. They were attacked early in the morning by a group of Colorado military under the command of Colonel John Chivington. The soldiers were ordered to "Kill and scalp all, big and little. Nits make lice." Chief Black Kettle tried to stop the attack by raising an American flag and a white flag, but the soldiers ignored them and killed and scalped nearly all of the tribe members, including women and children. The Sand Creek Massacre is considered one of the most horrific acts of violence against Native Americans in US history.

New South

The South continued to struggle to find its new place in the country after the Civil War and Reconstruction. The days of the "Old South"-- The Lost Cause, chivalry, slavery as a "positive good", etc (Gone With the Wind, anyone?) were over. Despite some small areas of industrialization and some rallying calls to construct a "New South," the south struggled to rebuild. Some southerners promoted a new vision for a self-sufficient southern economy built on modern capitalist values, industrial growth, and improved transportation. Railroads and the expansion of markets led to increased industrial production and new city development. Henry Grady, the editor of the Atlanta Constitution spread the gospel of the New South with editorials that argued for economic diversity and laissez-faire capitalism. Despite progress, the South remained a largely agricultural section and also the poorest region in the country. The poverty of the majority of southerners was not caused by northern capitalists. Two other factors were chiefly responsible: The South's late start at industrialization A poorly educated workforce.

Supreme Court and Civil Rights

The Supreme Court ⚖️ made a series of decisions that severely limited the nature of the Fourteenth Amendment. In the Civil Rights Cases of 1883, the Court ruled that Congress could not legislate against racial discrimination practices by private citizens, which included railroads, hotels, and other businesses. This meant that anyone but the government could discriminate against African Americans. The most important of these cases was Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). The case stemmed from a challenge to a Louisiana law that required separate railway cars for white and black passengers. Homer Plessy, an African American man, refused to leave a whites-only railway car and was arrested. He argued that the law violated the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution, which guarantee equal protection under the law and prohibit discrimination on the basis of race. The Supreme Court ruled that segregation was constitutional under the doctrine of "separate but equal." This ruling ushered in the Jim Crow Era, and allowed the government institutions to practice segregation.

Assimilation

The US government's treatment of Native Americans during the late 19th and early 20th centuries included a policy of forced assimilation, in which the government sought to assimilate Native Americans into white American culture. This policy was implemented through a variety of means, including the establishment of boarding schools for Native American children, such as the Carlisle Indian School, which aimed to break the connection between the children and their culture and traditions. The government also actively sought to break up tribal sovereignty and violated its own treaties with native tribes. The policy of forced assimilation and the breaking up of tribal sovereignty were aimed at assimilating Native Americans into the dominant American culture, and were often implemented through military force and repression.

WCTU:

The Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was a social reform organization that was founded in the late 19th century. It advocated for the prohibition of alcohol and was also active in other social reform causes such as women's suffrage and education.

Vertical Integration

The control of multiple stages of production and distribution within a single company. This can include control over raw materials, manufacturing, and distribution of a product. Examples of vertical integration include: John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company, which controlled every aspect of the oil production process, from drilling to refining to distribution. Henry Ford's automobile company, which controlled the production of every component used in their cars, including the steel, glass, and rubber.

Technological advances during the period of 1865-1898 played a major role in the development of the United States. Some of the key effects of these advancements include:

The development of new manufacturing processes and machinery led to increased productivity and efficiency, making it possible to produce goods at lower costs, which in turn led to the expansion of industry and the creation of new jobs. Expansion of infrastructure: The use of new technologies such as the Bessemer process for steel production, the internal combustion engine, and the electric elevator made it possible to construct railroads, bridges, and buildings on a scale previously unimaginable. This led to the expansion of infrastructure and the growth of cities. Improved transportation: internal combustion engine, and the electric elevator greatly improved the efficiency and speed of transportation, making it possible to travel greater distances in less time. Increased communication: The invention of the telegraph and the telephone Social changes: growth of the retail industry and the availability of ready-made clothing, which made it possible for people of all socioeconomic backgrounds Development of new industries: The invention of the incandescent lightbulb and the development of the alternating current transmission system led to the creation of the electric power industry. The development of the internal combustion engine led to the creation of the automobile industry. Improved living standards: The development of the telephone and telegraph made it possible for people to communicate with each other quickly and easily, regardless of their location. Impact on foreign policy: The development of the steel and oil industries, for example, led to the United States becoming a major industrial and economic power, which in turn led to an expansion of its political and military influence abroad. Impact on labor: led to the rise of the labor movement and the push for better working conditions and fair wages.

The "dumbbell tenement" was a type of apartment building that was built in response to the Tenement House Act of 1870 in New York City. The design, which was created by architect James Ware, was intended to provide more light and ventilation to the apartments than traditional tenements, but it was also a way for landlords to comply with the law in the most economical way possible.

The dumbbell tenement was characterized by its shape, which resembled a giant dumbbell, with the building narrowed in the middle to create an air shaft between adjoining buildings. The design typically rose over seven stories and packed 30, 4-room apartments into a lot that was only 25 by 100 feet. The layout of the dumbbell tenement was such that between 4 and 16 families lived on a floor, with 2 toilets in the hall on each floor. But this design had a number of problems. The airshaft was not only narrow but also dark and unventilated, the toilet facilities were inadequate and the stairwells were often dark, narrow and poorly ventilated making them a fire trap. Due to the overcrowding and poor living conditions in these tenements, they continue to promote the spread of deadly diseases, such as cholera, typhoid, and tuberculosis. Many of these diseases were spread through contaminated water and poor sanitation, which were major issues in the overcrowded slums and tenements of the time.

Populist Party

The farmers alliance movement provided the foundation of a new policy party - the People's, or Populist, party. Delegates from different states met in Omaha, Nebraska in 1892 to draft a political platform and nominate candidates for president and vice president for the new party. The Omaha Platform (basically the earlier Ocala demands added on to) called for both political and economic reforms. The direct popular election of US senators (instead of being picked by the state legislatures) The use of initiatives and referendums, procedures that allowed citizens to vote directly on proposed law. Unlimited coinage of silver to increase the money supply Graduated income tax (the greater a person's income , the higher the percentage of the tax on his or her income) Public ownership of railroads by the US government Telegraph and telephone systems owned and operated by the government Loans and federal warehouses for farmer to enable them to stabilize prices for their crops 8 hour workday for industrial workers. By 1896, the Populists had considerable political support and chose William Jennings Bryan (made famous for his "Cross of Gold" speech 👑 attacking the gold standard) as a presidential candidate. Unfortunately, the Democrats also chose Bryan and began adopting many key issues of the populist party. With the votes split between these two parties, McKinley (the Republican candidate) won the election and marked the end of the Populist Era.

Federal Land Grants

The federal government provided significant subsidies to railroad companies during the Gilded Age, including granting large amounts of land to build railroads. The government believed that these subsidies would promote economic growth and development, by increasing the value of government land and providing rates for carrying the mail and transporting troops. However, these subsidies had negative consequences as well. The large land grants prompted hasty and poor construction, with many railroads being built without proper planning and engineering. Additionally, the land grants led to significant corruption, as insiders used construction companies to bribe government officials and pocket profits. This led to a significant loss of government revenue and public trust in government. The land grant also led to the displacement of native American tribes and damage to the environment.

Technological Innovation

The growth of industry in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries was driven by several factors, including new technological innovations, greater access to natural resources, and a rapidly growing labor force. The use of steam engines, kerosene, and electricity in manufacturing and production led to increased output power and efficiency. The United States also began tapping into its natural resources, particularly iron, coal, and oil, as a means of more efficient production. This created a boom in manufacturing and had a significant impact on the country's economy and foreign policy. The industrial boom also led to urbanization as people migrated from rural areas to cities in search of work in the factories. This resulted in the growth of cities such as Pittsburgh, Chicago, and New York. The increase in industrial production also led to the development of new transportation methods such as railroads and steamships, which allowed for faster and more efficient movement of goods and people. The rise of industry also had a significant impact on the labor force. The introduction of assembly line production led to an increase in the demand for unskilled labor, which led to the growth of the working class and the rise of organized labor. This, in turn, led to the formation of trade unions and the rise of the labor movement. Additionally, the growth of industry in the United States also led to the development of new business practices, such as vertical integration and the rise of large corporations. These corporations, such as Standard Oil, controlled large portions of the economy and had a significant impact on the country's politics and society.

Industry

The high speed spindle, automatic looms, and electric sewing machines were significant innovations that transformed the clothing industry during the late 19th century. These technological advancements made it possible for manufacturers to produce ready-made clothes for the masses, which greatly increased the efficiency and productivity of the clothing industry. This led to a decrease in the cost of clothing and made it more affordable for people of all socioeconomic backgrounds to purchase. Another major innovation of the time was Andrew Carnegie's use of the Henry Bessemer's process of steel production. This process allowed for steel to be produced more efficiently and at much lower prices than ever before. This was a significant development as steel was used extensively in construction and infrastructure projects such as building railroads in the West and cities in the East. This led to the growth of the national economy and the expansion of the country. The steel industry was a major driving force behind the expansion of infrastructure and the construction of new buildings, while the clothing industry made it possible for people of all socioeconomic backgrounds to purchase affordable clothing. Internal combustion engine, which was used in automobiles and other forms of transportation, greatly improving the efficiency and speed of travel. The invention of the electric elevator also greatly improved the efficiency and speed of transportation within buildings, making it possible to construct taller buildings than ever before. The growth of the retail industry was also a direct result of the technological advancements of the time. The development of the department store and the mail-order catalog made it possible for people to purchase goods from a wide range of products at one location or through mail-order.

Horizontal Integration

The integration of an industry, in which former competitors were brought under a single corporate umbrella. This can include the control of multiple factories or retail outlets within a specific region or industry. Examples of horizontal integration include: Andrew Carnegie's steel company, which controlled multiple steel mills and factories across the United States. Walmart, which controls multiple retail outlets across the United States and around the world.

As people had more disposable income, they were able to afford new forms of entertainment and activities, such as professional sports, vaudeville shows, and amusement parks. Additionally, the rise of new technologies such as the telephone and electric lighting allowed people to spend more time on leisure activities, as they were able to communicate and travel more easily.

The rise of leisure time also led to the development of new forms of leisure activities, such as traveling, reading, and participating in hobbies. This period also saw the rise of new forms of social clubs, such as fraternal organizations, which provided people with opportunities to socialize and engage in leisure activities. This period also saw the rise of a new leisure class, who were able to afford new forms of entertainment and travel, this leisure class had a significant impact on American society as it led to new forms of consumption and ways of life.

Railroads and Cornelius Vanderbilt

The introduction of new technologies such as air brakes, refrigerator cars, dining cars, heated cars, and electric switches transformed the railroad industry, making it safer and more comfortable for passengers and more efficient for shipping goods. The popularity of George Pullman's lavish sleeping cars also contributed to the transformation of the railroad industry, making long-distance travel more comfortable and accessible for people. , also known as "Commodore" Vanderbilt, was a successful businessman who used his fortune from the steamboat industry to merge local railroads into the New York Central Railroad, which ran from New York City to Chicago and operated more than 4,500 miles of track. The federal government also played a role in the expansion of the railroad system by providing subsidies in the form of loans and land grants to railroad companies. This led to the construction of many new railroads, particularly in the western United States, which facilitated the settlement of these regions. However, the rapid expansion of the railroad industry also led to some negative consequences. During speculative bubbles, investors often overbuilt new technologies, leading to overcapacity in the industry. Railroads also suffered from mismanagement and outright fraud, with some speculators entering the industry for quick profits and engaging in practices such as selling off assets and watering stock. To survive, railroads competed by offering rebates and kickbacks to favored shippers while charging exorbitant freight rates to smaller customers such as farmers. This led to a financial panic in 1893, which forced a quarter of all railroads into bankruptcy. J. Pierpont Morgan and other bankers quickly moved in to take control of the bankrupt railroads and consolidate them, leading to the creation of large railroad mono

Communications

The invention of the telegraph and the telephone were two of the most significant technological advancements that transformed communications during the 19th century. Samuel F.B. Morse's invention of a workable telegraph in 1844, and the improvements made by Cyrus Field in 1866 with the transatlantic cable, allowed for faster and more efficient communication over long distances. By the 1870s, telegraph networks were in place on every continent, revolutionizing the way people communicated with one another. Alexander Graham Bell's invention of the telephone in 1876 was another major breakthrough in communications technology. Bell, who was a Scot who settled in Boston in 1871, was interested in the problems of the deaf and experimented with ways to transmit speech electrically. After several years of experimentation, he developed electrified metal disks that converted sound waves into electrical impulses and back again. On March 10, 1876, he transmitted the first sentence over a telephone "Mr. Watson, come here; I want you." This invention greatly improved communication by allowing people to speak to each other directly over long distances, rather than relying on telegrams or letters. Both the telegraph and telephone greatly improved the speed and efficiency of communication, revolutionizing the way people interacted and conducted business. They played an important role in the development of modern society by connecting people and businesses across the globe, and laying the foundation for the development of more advanced communication technologies such as the radio, television, and the internet.

Old vs New Immigrants

The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a shift in the national origins of immigrants to the United States. Prior to the 1890s, the majority of immigrants came from Northern and Western Europe, with large numbers of Irish, German, and British immigrants. However, beginning in the 1890s, there was a significant increase in the number of immigrants coming from Southern and Eastern Europe, particularly from Italy, Greece, and the Russian Empire. These "new" immigrants were often poor and uneducated, and many were members of non-Protestant religions, such as Catholicism and Judaism. They also faced discrimination and prejudice from the earlier waves of immigrants and from native-born Americans, who viewed them as culturally and socially different.

The muckrakers were journalists and writers who exposed the social and economic problems of the Gilded Age. They wrote about issues such as poverty, corruption, and the exploitation of workers, and helped to bring these problems to the public's attention. Their work contributed to a growing call for reform in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The problems of the Gilded Age led to new political debates over issues such as citizenship, economic corruption, and civil rights. Many believed that it was the responsibility of the federal government to step in and regulate these issues. This led to a number of reforms, including the establishment of regulatory agencies, such as the Federal Reserve and the Federal Trade Commission, and the passage of laws such as the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, which aimed to curb the power of monopolies. Many of the debates and reforms that took place during the Gilded Age continue to shape American politics and society today. Many of the issues that were addressed such as poverty, inequality, and corruption remain a concern for many Americans.

Ghost Dances

The rapid settlement of the West greatly upset many Native American tribes, who saw it as a threat to their way of life and an infringement on their land. In response, many tribes engaged in both active and passive resistance. One of the most notable movements was the Ghost Dance movement, which emerged in the late 1800s among several tribes. The Ghost Dance was a religious movement that promised to restore Native American lands and bring back the bison, while causing the white settlers to disappear. The Ghost Dance was based on the belief that through the performance of the Ghost Dance, all Native Americans would unite and a new Earth would come into being. This new Earth would be covered in dust, and the vanished buffalo would return in great herds.

Theodore (Teddy) Roosevelt:

Theodore Roosevelt was the 26th President of the United States, he served from 1901 to 1909. He was a Progressive reformer who championed the rights of the working class, advocated for environmental conservation and broke up big monopolies.

Social Status for Former Slaves

There was little to no social mobility and economic opportunity for many African Africans due to racial segregation. The KKK continued using violence to keep African Americans out of the polls and legislative offices. Lynching was widespread. Literacy tests, grandfather clauses, and poll taxes were also used to restrict voting rights.

The Greenback Party, which emerged in the United States in the late 19th century, opposed the shift from paper money to a specie-based monetary system, as it believed that this would lead to a reacquisition of power by privately owned banks and corporations to define the value of products and labor.

They believed that government control of the monetary system would allow for more currency in circulation, as it had during the Civil War. The party gained 14 seats in Congress and was popular, but the Specie Resumption Act of 1875, passed by Congress, which withdrew all greenbacks from circulation, led to the decline of the party. The economic turmoil of the 1870s also contributed to the decline of the party, by the end of the decade, the Greenback Party died out.

Voter Suppression

Various political and legal devices were invented to prevent blacks from voting. The most common were literacy tests. They were extremely difficult tests meant to stop African Americans from voting. Since many could not obtain formal education, they could not pass the test and vote in elections. Poll taxes and political party primaries for whites only (white primaries) also prevailed. Many southern states adopted grandfather clauses, which allowed a man to vote only if his grandfather had cast ballots in elections before Reconstruction. Still, many brilliant minds (such as Booker T. Washington, W.E.B. DuBois, and Ida B. Wells) continued to debate the nature of racial relations and advocate for civil rights.

W.E.B. DuBois

W.E.B. DuBois was an African American sociologist, historian, and civil rights activist. He was one of the most prominent voices in the early civil rights movement and was the first African American to earn a Ph.D. from Harvard University.

Cardinal James Gibbons:

was a Catholic priest and bishop who was a prominent figure in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He was a leading advocate for the rights of immigrants and the working class and was known for his progressive views on social issues.

Dwight Moody

was a Christian evangelist and publisher who was active in the late 19th century. He was a leading figure in the religious revival known as the "Third Great Awakening" and was known for his powerful preaching and his emphasis on personal salvation.

Anti-Union Techniques

With a surplus of cheap labor, management had the ability to replace striking workers with strikebreakers or scabs, who were unemployed persons desperate for jobs. This made it difficult for strikes to be successful and weakened the power of . In addition to using strikebreakers, management also used a variety of tactics to defeat unions and suppress labor movements. These tactics include: Lockout: closing a factory or workplace to prevent workers from going to work and breaking a before it could get organized. Blacklists: names of pro-union workers circulated among employers, making it difficult for those workers to find employment. Yellow-dog Contracts: workers being told, as a condition for employment, that they must sign an agreement not to join a union. Calling in Private Guards or State Militia to put down strikes. Obtaining Court Injunctions: court orders to stop a strike, making it illegal for workers to continue their strike action. These tactics were commonly used by management during the to suppress labor movements and weaken unions, and were a significant factor in the struggle between management and labor during that time period.

Clerical Jobs

Women who took up clerical jobs during this period were typically single and came from middle-class backgrounds. They were mostly working as stenographers, typists, and bookkeepers. They were often paid less than men for doing the same work and were not considered for promotion as easily. They were also subjected to discrimination and harassment in their workplaces. This period also saw the rise of the "New Woman" movement, which advocated for greater opportunities and rights for women in the workplace and society. This movement helped to challenge traditional gender roles and stereotypes and paved the way for greater equality for women in the workplace.

Historical Significance of Americanization

is the process of acculturation by which immigrants to the United States become Americanized in terms of customs, values, and traditions. Americanization has been an ongoing process throughout US history, and has played a significant role in shaping the cultural and social landscape of the country. Historically, Americanization was seen as a means of assimilating immigrants into American society and promoting national unity. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Americanization programs were implemented by schools, organizations, and government agencies to teach immigrants the English language, American customs, and civic values. These efforts were often viewed as a way to assimilate immigrants and reduce the perceived threat of ethnic and cultural diversity. However, Americanization also had a significant impact on the immigrants themselves, as it often involved a process of cultural loss and identity negotiation. Many immigrants were forced to abandon their own cultural traditions and practices in order to conform to American norms and values.

The Pendleton Act of 1881 was a federal law that established the Civil Service Commission and implemented a system of

merit-based appointments for federal government jobs. It aimed to reduce the widespread practice of political patronage and ensure that government positions were filled based on qualifications and ability, rather than political connections. Initially, the act only applied to a small percentage of federal jobs, but over time it was expanded to cover the majority of positions in the federal government.

The Anti-Saloon League (ASL)

was a powerful political organization in the United States that advocated for the prohibition of alcohol. The organization was founded in 1893 and quickly grew in membership and influence. It became one of the most powerful lobbies in the country and played a major role in the passage of the 18th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which established Prohibition in 1920. The ASL worked to elect politicians who supported prohibition and put pressure on those who did not. It also sought to educate the public about the dangers of alcohol and the benefits of a dry society. The organization was active until the repeal of Prohibition in 1933.

The Homestead Act of 1862

was a significant piece of legislation that encouraged farming on the Great Plains by offering 160 acres of public land free to any family that settled on it for a period of five years. Many people moved west to take advantage of this opportunity, and it contributed to the settlement and development of the American West. The Homestead Act was one of the several government policies that helped spur the growth of agriculture in the West. Innovations such as the McCormick reaper and cotton gin had already led to greater agricultural production, but new innovations like barbed wire and the refrigerated railroad car further boosted the productivity of Western settlers' farms and ranches. These innovations made it possible to fence in and protect large areas of land, and to transport and store perishable goods, which helped to increase the scale of agricultural operations. However, while the innovations and the Homestead Act led to increased productivity in agriculture, it also led to lower prices for farm products, and many farmers began to see large corporations (banks, railroads, etc.) as the enemy. They felt that many government policies were benefiting large corporations at the expense of small farmers. The farmers began to organize and form cooperatives and political groups to push for policies that would benefit small farmers. This was the start of the farmers movement which will grow stronger during the following decades.

Mary Baker Eddy:

was the founder of Christian Science, a religious movement that emphasizes spiritual healing and the power of prayer. She was an influential figure in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and her teachings continue to be followed by many today.

Settlement houses

were community centers established in urban areas to provide services such as education, job training, and medical care to the poor. They were often run by social reformers and were an important part of the progressive movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Social Gospel: The Social Gospel was a religious and social movement that emerged in the late 19th century. It advocated for Christians to actively work to improve the lives of the poor and marginalized in society.

In 1920, the 19th Amendment to the US Constitution was ratified, granting

women the right to vote.

Important Vocabulary

• "Old Immigrants" refers to the immigrants who came to the United States primarily before the 1890s, mostly from Northern and Western Europe. They were largely Protestant, and included many Irish and German immigrants. • "New Immigrants" refers to the immigrants who came to the United States primarily after the 1890s, mostly from Southern and Eastern Europe. They were often poor, uneducated, and members of non-Protestant religions, such as Catholicism and Judaism. An Ethnic Enclave refers to a community of a particular ethnic group that lives together in a specific area, and often maintains distinct cultural practices and traditions. Many immigrants in the Gilded Age formed ethnic enclaves in urban areas, particularly in the Northeastern and Midwestern United States. • The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was a federal law that prohibited the immigration of Chinese laborers to the United States. It was the first law implemented to prevent a specific ethnic group from immigrating to the United States and remained in effect for over 60 years. • The Immigration Restriction League was an organization founded in 1894 with the goal of limiting the number of immigrants coming to the United States, particularly from Southern and Eastern Europe. It advocated for literacy tests and other restrictions on immigration. - Settlement Houses were community centers that provided services such as education and job training to immigrants and working-class families in urban areas. • Ellis Island is an island in New York Harbor that served as the main point of entry for immigrants to the United States from 1892 to 1954.