APUSH Unit 7

22 Amendment

- 1951 limited a president to a max of two full terms in office -proposed by Republicans in Congress due to FDR's 4 terms

Carter and Communist China

-1979 US ended its official recognition of Nationalist Chinese gov. of Taiwan and completed the first exchange of ambassadors with the People's Republic of China

Reagan & Lebanon, Israel, and PLO

-1982 Israel with US approval invaded southern Lebanon to stop PLO terrorists from raiding Israel -soon US sent peacekeeping forces into Lebanon to contain the country's bitter civil war -1983 an Arab suicide squad bombed the US embassy in Beirut killing 63 -a couple months later another Arab terrorist drove a bomb-filled truck into US Marines barracks killing 241 -1984 Reagan pulled US forces from Lebanon -Secretary of State Schultz pushed for peaceful settlement of the Palestinian-Israeli conflict by setting up a homeland for PLO in West Bank territories occupied by Israel since 1967 war -under US pressure PLO leader Yasser Arafat agreed in 1988 to recognize Israel's right to exist

Breakup of the Soviet Union

-1990 Soviet Baltic republican of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania declared their independence -after a failed coup against Gorbachev by Communist hard-liners, remaining republics dissolved the USSR in Dec 1991 leaving Gorbachev a leader with no country -Yeltsin, president of the Russian Republic joint with 9 former Soviet republics to form a loss confederation: Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) -Yeltsin disbanded the Communist party in Russia and attempted to est. a democracy and a free-market economy

Spirit of Geneva

-1st thaw of Cold War -at a conference in Geneva in 1955 between Eisenhower and Nikolai Bulganin -US proposed an "open skies" policy over each other's territory (open aerial photography by the opposing nation) in order to eliminate chance of a surprise nuclear attack -Soviets rejected the proposal

The 70s Environmental Movement

-20 mi citizens participated in first Earth Day in 1970 which reflected nations growing concerns for air and water pollution and destruction of natural environment including wildlife -media coverage increased questioning of industries who polluted the environment -massive oil spills such at Exxon Valdez oil tanker in 1989 off Alaska's coast reinforced fears of human error and modern technology -after Three Mile Island incident in Pennsylvania in 1979 and Chernobyl incident in USSR in 1986 people were less inclined to more nuclear power plants near them (NIMBY) *Congress Legislation* -1970 Clean Air Act and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) -1972 Clean Water Act -Endangered Species Act 1973 -1980 Superfund created to clean toxic dumps like Love Canal in Niagara Falls -laws regulated toxic substances, public drinking, waste systems, and protected nature

Aging and Family 2000s

-2000, 35 million were over 65 -fatests growing segment of population was 85+ -as baby-boom generation aged, concern over health care, prescription drugs, senior housing, and Social Security increased -decline of traditional family and growing number of single-parent families was another concern -single mom families went from 5.5 mi in 1970 to 12.8 mi in 2000 -children in single women families (African Americans, whites, and Hispanic households) often grew up in poverty and without adequate support

Berlin Airlift

-48-49 -Berlin was deep inside of Germany, Berlin was divided, like an island inside a Soviet Controlled Zone -1948-Soviet cut off Berlin from the rest of Western Germany by land -Soviets shut off all electric power and 2 million citizens become hostages -Truman dismissed any plans to withdraw from Berlin but he also rejected using force to open up the roads through the Soviet-controlled eastern zone -U.S. organizes a massive airlift with 277,000 flights over Berlin, drop supplies -Truman sent 60 bombers capable of carrying atomic bombs to bases in England -Stalin had two options with shoot planes down or re-open -on May 1949, he opens the blockade -led to the creation of two Germanies: Federal Republic of Germany(West Germany) and German Democratic Republic (East Germany)

Asian Americans Demand for Rights

-Asia Americans were fastest growing ethnic minority by 1980s -largest group were Chinese followed by Filipinos, Japanese, Indians, Koreans, and Vietnamese -strong dedication to education resulted in Asian Americans at the best colleges and universities -however they suffered from discrimination, envy, and Japan-bashing and many less educated earned well below national avg.

Bretton Woods Conference

-Attended by Western Allies 1944 -creates International Monetary Fund - it Will provide loans for countries struggling with economic depression -World Bank(International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) is also created -purpose is to fund rebuilding of a war-torn world and to stabilize currencies and further capitalism -USSR declined to participate as they viewed the bank as an instrument of capitalism

*Korean War* invasion

"The forgotten war" -1950-53 -During WWII Russian troops had occupied Northern Korea, US troops occupied SOuthern -1949 both had set up rival regimes on other side of of the 48th parallel -Secretary of State Agitson claimed that Korea was outside of the US defense perimeter in the Pacific so our defense in Korea was reduced -1950 North Korean army invaded South Korea -Truman applied his containment policy and called for a special session of UN Security Council -due to temperate Soviet boycott from the council the Security Council authorized a UN force to defend South Korea against invades -US troops made up most of the UN forces under MacArthur -Congress supported use of US troops yet failed to declare war (Truman's intervention was seen as "police action"

Domestic Policies under Eisenhower

*Modern Republicanism* -Eisenhower wanted to balance the budget -per-capita disposable income tripled -inflation rate avg. 1.5% and federal budget hardly increased -accepted most of the New Deal programs -Social Security was extended to 10 mi more citizens -minimum wage was raised -additional public housing was built -Eisenhower created Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) under first woman in Rep candidate (Oveta Culp Hobby) -for farmers a soil-bank program was initiated as means of reducing farm production and increasing farm income -Eisenhower opposed federal health care insurance and federal aid to education

Election of 1980

*Republicans* Ronal Reagan, a well known actor who became CA's governor and was the Republican party's leading spokesperson for conservative positions -Regan attacked Democrats for expanding gov and for undermining uS prestige abroad *Democrats* Senator Kennedy's challenge to Carter for Democratic nomination destroyed Carter in the Polls -voters' rejection of Carter's presidency and the conservative mood gave Reagan 51% of pop vote and 91% of electoral vote *sig* -Regan's election took more than 50% of blue-collar vote -defeat of 11 liberal Democratic senators targeted my Moral Majority gave reps control of Senate again (from 1954) -Reps also won a majority in the House -election ended Democratic dominance in Congress

Election of 1996

*Republicans* Senator Dole, majority leader of Senate -campaign proposed 15% tax cut never caught voters' imagination *Democrats* -Clinton -character attacks and massive campaign spending didn't bring people to the polls and 50% of eligible voters voted -Clinton-Gore ticket won with 379 electoral votes & 49.2% of the popular vote -Republicans still controlled both houses of Congress

The election of 1960

*Republicans:* Nixon -stood up to Khrushchev over relative merits of capitalism and communism in the kitchen debate which gave him a reputation as a statesman *Democrats:* Kennedy (JFK) -charismatic & wealthy he defeated LBJ for the nomination *campaign* -TV was most decisive factor in the race -1st time candidates faced off in televised debates -Kennedy on screen was more vigorous and comfortable than Nixon -1st Catholic candidate elected -Americans were fearful of Kennedy being a puppet of the pope *Results* -Kennedy won with little more than 100,000 pop votes

START I & II

*START I* 1991 signed by Bush and Gorbachev which reduced the number of nuclear warheads to under 10,000 for each side *START II* 1992 signed by Bush and Yeltsin which reduced the number of nuclear weapons to 3,000 each -treaty also offered US economic assistance to the trouble Russian economy -instead of celebrating the end of the Cold War, Americans were concerned about outbreak of ciivl wars and violence in the former USSR -in Eastern Europe, Yugoslavia started to disintegrate in 1991 and a civil war broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992 *sig* end of Cold War raised questions about whether US still needed such heavy defense spending and as many US military bases around the world

Warren Court Freedom of Expression and Privacy Cases

*Yates v US* 1957 said that the 1st Amendment protected radical and revolutionary speech, even by Communists, unless it was a "clear and present danger" to the safety of the country *Engel v Vitale* 1962 ruled that state laws requiring prayers and Bible readings in the public schools violated the 1st Amendment's provision for separation of church and state *Griswold v Connecticut* 1965 ruled that, in recognition of a citizen's right to privacy, a state could not prohibit the use of contraceptives by adults -this case provided the foundation for later cases establishing a woman's right to an abortion

Resistance to Brown vs Board decision in the South

-101 members of Congress signed "Southern Manifesto" condemning the Brown -KKK made a comeback and violence against blacks increased -Governor Orval Faubus used state's national guard to prevent Little Rock 9 from attending Little Rock Central High -Images of southern defiance pressured Eisenhower to send federal troops to escort the Little Rock 9 -the President has a constitutional duty to uphold federal authority otherwise the federal gov. would be looked down upon -Eisenhower ordered federal troops to stand guard in Little Rock and protect black students

Taft-Hartley Act

-1947 passed by Republicans -A roll back of several pro union provisions -Anti union and labor 1)outlawed the closed shop (contract requiring workers to join a union before being hired) 2)permitted states to pass "right to work" laws outlawing the union shop (contract requiring workers to join a union after being hired) 3)outlawed secondary boycotts (practice of several unions supporting a striking union by joining a boycott of a company's products) 4)gave the president a power to invoke an 80-day cooling-off period before a strike endangering the national safety could be called -Truman vetoed it yet Congress overrode his veto -act became a major issue diving Reps and Dems in the 1950s

The Fair Deal

-1949 Truman's program that extended the New Deal -urged Congress to enact national health insurance, federal aid to education, housing programs for the poor, expansion of social security, higher minimum wage, civil rights legislation, and a new farm program -Strong focus towards Civil Rights -Most people won't support it as they believe socialist and therefore communist -It was vetoed due to fears of communism and Truman's political conflicts with the republican congress -Only increase in minimum wage and inclusion of more workers under Social Security was passed

The election of 1952

-1952 Eisenhower "Ike" secured the Rep. nomination despite divisions in the Republican party -More conservative members supported Robert Taft who opposed New Deal and was anti communist -Eisenhower was more liberal minded than Taft -Democrats: Stevenson -Eisenhower pledged to end the war in Korea which helped him and his VP Nixon win -Eisenhower when elected tried to balance his parties wishes

Montgomery Bus Boycott

-1955 Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white passenger and was arrested for violating the segregated law -sparked a massive AA protest in the form of a boycott of the city buses -Reverend MLK jr. emerged as a leader of a nonviolent movement to end segregation -protest resulted in the Supreme Court ruling that segregation laws were unconstitutional -boycott also sparked other civil rights protests that reshaped America

The Space Race

-1957 USSR launched first satellites Sputnik I and Sputnik II into orbit around earth -1958 US respond with National Defense and Education Act (NDEA) authorized giving hundreds of millions in federal money to the schools for math, science, and foreign language education -1958 Congress created NASA to direct US efforts to build missiles and explore outer space -launch of Sputnik also intensified the fear of nuclear war as the missiles could deliver thermonuclear warheads anywhere in the world in minutes

Federal Laws under Eisenhower for Civil Rights

-1957 and 1960 laws were the first such laws to be enacted by the US Congress since Reconstruction -provided for a permanent Civil Rights Commission and gave Justice Dept. new powers to protect the voting rights of blacks -southern officials however still used an arsenal of obstructive tactics to discourage AAs from voting

LBJ: Operation Rolling Thunder (the Vietnam War)

-1965 US military and foreign policy advisors recommended expanding operation in Vietnam to save the Saigon (South) gov. -after Vietcong attack on US base at Pleiku 1965 LBJ authorized *Operation Rolling Thunder* -prolonged air attack using B-52 bombers against targets in North V. -April--> LBJ used US combat troops for first time to fight the Vietcong -end 1965 184,000 US troops in Vietnam with most in combat role -hoped to win war of attrition so US general used search-and-destroy tactics -further alienated the peasants -end 1967 485,000 US troops in Vietnam (540,000 by 1969) & 16,000 already dead

Second Kennedy Assassination

-1968 JFK's younger brother Bobby ran for presidential election for Democratic nomination against McCarthy -June 5 won a major victory in CA's primary yet was immediately shot and killed after the speech by a young Arab against his support for Israel

Hillary Clinton

-Bill Clinton assigned his wife to propose a plan for universal health coverage -was opposed by insurance industries, small business organizations, and the Republicans and it failed to pass again

Carter's Human Rights Diplomacy

-Cater appointed Young (African American) to serve as US ambassador to UN -Carter and Young championed cause of human rights around the world -opposed the oppression of the black majority in South Africa and Rhodesia(Zimbabwe) by all-white govs -In Latin America human rights violations by military govs of Argentina and Chile caused Carter to cut off US aid to them

Truman's Loyalty Program

-Counters HUAC with a communist program of his own -Truman gave the FBI approval and resources to go after suspected communists -Will create Loyalty Review Board -Will investigate 3mi federal employees and 3,000 employees will be dismissed -Loyalty oaths were demanded by gov. Employees (esp. Teachers who could influence the spread of communism) -Many people believed their civil liberties were suppressed -Gov. employees were forbidden to criticize the gov and foreign policy -Could not advocate civil rights for women or gay rights -If you were gay you were considered communist -Can't own books on socialism if you were a gov employee and you can't attend foreign Films

NATO

-Created in response to the Berlin Crisis in 1949 -military alliance between Belgium, GB, Denmark, France, Iceland, Luxembourg , Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, US, West Germany, Turkey, Greece, and Canada -broke tradition of avoiding entangling alliances -Collective security organization -Threat to any NATO members will be met by force -USSR responded with the Warsaw Pact

Election of 1956

-Democrats: Stevenson -Reps: Eisenhower suffered a heart attack yet he won by an even greater margin than 1952 -Dems retained control of both houses of Congress however

Election of 1988

-Democrats: regained Senate in 1986 -candidate was Michael Dukakis -Republicans: George H.W.Bush -charged that Democrat Dukakis was soft on crime and weak on national defense -Bush appealed to voters also by promising not to raise taxes "read my lips- no new taxes" -Republicans won decisive victory -Democrats failed to win confidence of most white mid-class voters -yet Dems won majorities to House and Senate

Stalin's Death

-Eisenhower sees Stalin's death in 1953 as an opportunity to ease tensions -Eisenhower called for a slowdown in the arms race and a relaxation of tensions -presented it to UN

Clinton's early accomplishments in his first term

-Family and Medical Leave Act and "motor-voter" law that enabled citizens to register to vote as they received their driver's licenses -Brady Handgun bill mandated a 5 day waiting period for the purchase of handguns -1994 Anti-Crime Bill: provided $30 billion in funding for more police protection and crime-prevention programs -legislation also banned the sale of most assault rifles which angered the gun lobby led by National Rifle Association (NRA) -Congress passed deficit-reduction budget including $255 billion in spending cuts and $241 billion in tax increases; in this budget were the president's request for increased appropriations for education and job training -North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) created a free-trade zone with Canada and Mexico

The "Red Scare" part 2 American Fears

-Fears of communism at home -Fears of spies in the government -Also fearful of communism spreading around the world -Fear of nuclear war -Soviets will create A bomb in 49 Hydrogen bomb in 53 -Sputnik will be launched in 57 Fear of another depression at this time due to recession after the war fear that a depression will trigger communism

House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) -Hiss Case

-Investigate unAmerican activities -Created in 1945 to rule out communism -It was exaggerated however -Liberals were targeted, New Deal members were targeted -investigated gov. officials and looked for Communist influence in organizations as Boy Scouts and Hollywood film industry *Alger Hiss* -was Indicted (charged) -Was a member of the Eastern Est. -Former New Dealer -Current member of the state dept. -Nixon will become famous for going after Hiss with this trial -Hiss was convicted of perjury in 1950 and sent to prison -Nixon will gain national prominence -Because Hiss had spoken with other communist's it shows that there may be people in the state dept. That are communist sympathizers (scared American people about Communist spies)

Carter's Loss of Popularity

-Iranian hostage crisis and worsening economic crisis hurt Carter in opinion polls -1979 Carter in "national malaise" speech blamed the problems of US on a "moral and spiritual crisis of the American people -many Americans blamed president for weak and indecisive leadership

*Clinton's foreign policy* Middle East 1990s

-Iraqi leader Hussein's continued defiance of UN weapon inspectors led to suspension of all inspections in 1998 -Clinton responded with air strikes against Iraq, yet Hussein remained in power -Israel granted home rule to Palestinians in Gaza Strip and parts of West Bank territories and signed a peace treaty with Jordan in 1994 -peace process slowed down after Israeli Prime Minister Rabin was assassinated in 1995 -renewed violence in Israel provoked a new round of anti-American sentiment in Islamic world

Second Berlin Crisis

-Khrushchev in 1958 ordered the West six months to pull its troops out of West Berlin before turning over the city to East Germans -US refused to yield -to defuse crisis Eisenhower invited Khrushchev to visit the US 1959 -at presidential retreat of Camp David in Maryland the two agreed to put off crisis and schedule another conference in Paris 1960

*Korean War* counterattack

-MacArthur reversed the war with an assault at Inchon behind North Korean lines -UN forces destroyed much of the Northern army and advanced northward almost as far as Chinese borers yet MacArthur failed to heed China's warnings about a threat to its security -Nov 1950 Chinese troops invaded North Korea, overwhelmed UN forces in one of the worst US military defeats and drove them out of North Korea

Blacklisting

-Many actors and writers had dabbled with the communists in the 1930s -10 of the movie industry people (Hollywood 10) refused to testify against communism -They would rather go to prison and defend their civil liberties than to testify for HUAC -Industry responded by denying work to 200 people seen with communists -Gov. felt that Hollywood would be the way to propagandize against communism

McCarthyism

-McCarthy was a senator from Wisconsin during the high point and finale of red scare -Feb 1950 he gives a speech in west Virginia saying he has a list of communists (205) that were still working for the State Dept. -accusation was widely publicized in press (although they were unsupported) -events Similar to Hiss's trial -McCarthy becomes one of the most powerful men in America and working class loves hi for his take the gloves off remarks -Few attempted to stop him as people would think they're communists -In early 1954 he launched an investigation into subversive activity in the army -It was portrayed on national TV army representatives being attacked and bullied and are called communists -Americans are mad as they support the troops -Dec 1954 he was punished for his conduct and died 3 years later of alcohol abuse

Betty Friedan

-The Feminine Mystique(1963) gave the women's movement a new direction by encouraging middle-class women to seek fulfillment in professional careers in addition to being a wife, mother, and homemaker -1966 Friedan helped found the National Organization for Women (NOW) which adopted that activist tactics of other civil rights movements to secure equal treatment of women, esp. for job opportunities

*Reagonomics* Budget and Trade Deficits

-mid 1980s Reagan's tax cuts along with increased military spending created federal deficits of $200+ billion a year -national debt tripled from $900 billion to almost $2.7 trillion -tax cuts only increased consumption of foreign made luxury and consumer items instead of stimulated investment -US trade deficit reached $150 billion a year -trade imbalance contributed to an increase in foreign ownership of US real estate and industry -1985 US became a debtor nation

Election of 1994

-midterm election -Republicans gained control of both houses of Congress for the first time since 1954 -"Contract with America" was a short list of policy priorities which helped benefit them -Democratic Congress was also unpopular as it raised taxes and limited gun ownership

Tiananmen Square

China during spring of 1989 prodemocracy students demonstrated for freedom in Beijing's Tiananmen Square -TV cameras from West broadcasted the democracy movement worldwide -under the cover of night, Chinese Communist gov crushed the protest with tanks, killing hundreds and ended the brief flowering of an open political environment in China

Afghanistan

Dec 1979 USSR troops invaded Afghanistan -action ended a decade of improving US-Soviet relations -US feared that the invasion might lead to a Soviet move to control oil rich Persian Gulf -Carter 1) placed an embargo on grain exports and sale of high technology to the USSR 2) boycotted 1980 Olympics in Moscow

Investigating the CIA under Ford

Democratic Congress continued to search for abuses in executive branch under Ford's admin esp. in CIA -this intelligence agency was accused of engineering that assassination of foreign leaders such as Marxist president of Chile Allende -Ford appointed George H. W. Bush to reform the agency

The Election of 1964

Democrats: Johnson Republicans: Senator Goldwater of Arizona advocated ending the welfare state including TVA and Social Security -TV ad portrayed Goldwater as a dangerous extremist who would involve US in a nuclear war -Goldwater campaign did energize young conservatives and introduced new conservative voices (like Reagan) even if he lost -Johnson won, Democrats now controlled both houses of Congress -would allow for economic and social reforms to be easily passed that were advocated by Truman in the 40s

Assassination of Kennedy

Nov 22, 1963 In Dallas, Texas Kennedy was assassinated after 2.5 yrs in office -millions of stunned Americans were fixed to their TVs for days and even witnessed the killing of the assassin (Lee Harvey Oswald) -Warren Commission concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin -the tragedy in Dallas and doubts about the Warren Commissions marked the beg. of a loss of credibility in the gov.

De-regulation of Business

started in 70s -business interests launched a successful campaign to mobilize and influence federal and state govs to curtail regulations, lower taxes, and weaken labor unions -business donors created "think tanks" like American Enterprise Institute Heritage Foundation, and Cato Institute to promoter free-makers ideas, while US Chamber of Commerce lobbied for pro-business legislation

Civil Rights Acts of 1964 & 1965 (under LBJ)

*1964 Civil Rights Act* made segregation illegal in all public facilities including hotels and restaurants and gave the federal gov. additional powers to enforce school desegregation -act also set up Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to end discrimination in employment on the basis of race, religion, sex, or national origin *24th Amendment* 1964 abolished practice of collecting a poll tax (a measure discouraging poor people from voting *Voting Rights Act of 1965* -Johnson persuaded Congress to pass this after the killings in Selma, Alabama which are against voting right marches led by MLK -act ended literacy tests and provided federal registrars in areas where blacks were kept from voting -in Deep South, African Americans could now vote for the first time since the Reconstruction era

China's path to communism

*Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong* -US supported Chiang who was in charge of the Nationalist party and central gov. -In late 49 Mao Zedong's communist forces defeated Chiang's forces and Chiang flees to Taiwan -Mao was supported by the Soviet Union -Loss of China to USSR was a major defeat for containment -Now 25% of the world's pop is communist -Truman is blamed for China's fall and he claims it was not his to lose -US does not recognize the People's Republic China -The little island of Taiwan is actually recognized as China up until Nixon

*Clinton's foreign policy* Europe in 1990s

*EU* _European Union became a unified market of 15 nations -12 adopted a single currency, the euro in 2002 -EU grew to include 27 Europe nations by 2007 including 10 former USSR satellites (Poland, Bulgaria, Romania) *Russia* -under Yeltsin, Russia struggled to reform its economy and fight corruption -2000 Putin took office -US relations were strained by Russia's brutal repression of the civil war in Chechnya, by NATO's admittance in 1999 of Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland, and by Russia's support of Serbia in the Balkan wars of 1990s *Serbia* -Serbian dictator Milosevic carried out armed conflicts to suppress indp. movements in Yugoslavian provinces of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Kosovo -ethnic and religious minorities including Muslims were killed in "ethnic cleansing" -diplomacy, bombing, and troops from NATO countries including US stopped the bloodshed first in Bosnia in 1995 and in Kosovo in 1999

What you need to know about 2000s

*George W Bush(2001-2009)* -Republican Tax Cuts -No Child Left Behind -real estate bubble(2002-2007) & The great recession -9/11 -War in Afghanistan -Homeland Security increases -Iraq War and Operation Iraqi Freedom *Obama(2009-2017)* -reforms to fix the great recession (like FDR and the great depression) -Health Care -Every Student Succeeds Act replaces no Child Left Behind -LGBT rights 2015 (amended 14th amendment ) -Iraq, Afghanistan, Death of bin Laden, Rise of ISIS, Iran, Arab Spring -Trans-Pacific Partnership -Brexit -Cyber attacks (Internet fraud included) *Trump (2017)* -Election of 2016 =trump

Cold War: Latin America Guatemala & Cuba (under Eisenhower)

*Guatemala* (1954): the CIA helps overthrow the democratically elected leftist government that threatened American business interests -Brutal dictator comes to power *Cuba* (1959): Fidel Castro leads a revolution which removes Cuban dictator Batista from power -Castro nationalized American owned businesses and properties -Eisenhower ordered an embargo on Cuba -Cuba moves close to the Soviet Union for support -Castro sets up a Communist totalitarian state -Eisenhower administration initiatives plan to have the CIA train Cuban exiles to retake their island

Criminal Justice Cases in the Warren Court

*Mapp v Ohio* 1961 ruled that illegally seized evidence cannot be used in court against the accused *Gideon v Wainwright* 1963 required that state courts provided counsel (services of an attorney) for indigent (poor) defendants *Escobedo v Illinois* 1964 required the police to inform an arrested person of his or her right to remain silent *Miranda v Arizona* 1966 extended the ruling in Escobedo to include the right to a lawyer being present during questioning by police

Election of 1992

*Republicans*: HW Bush -was out of touch with the public as they were more concerned with their paychecks and not with Bush's foreign policy *Democrats*: Bill Clinton -presented himself as a moderate "New Democrat" who focused on economic issues like jobs, education, and health care -"It's the economy, stupid" *Independent* H. Ross Perot entered as indp party. -appealed to millions with anti-Washington, anti-deficit views *Results* -370 electoral for Clinton (43% of pop. vote) 168 for Bush (37% of pop vote) -Clinton recaptured majority of elderly and blue-collar workers from Reps and did well in the South -Democrats won control of both houses in Congress -Carol Moseley-Braun was the first African American woman elected to Senate

Roots of the Cold War U.S. Point of View

*Yalta Conference* -Stalin pledged to allow democratic elections in eastern europe -Pledge was broken in Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia -Stalin's puppets got elected instead -America sees these Satellite states develop instead -USSR also refuses to release Eastern Germany (Germany was split up into 4 parts after WWII to Britain, France, US, USSR) -Berlin fell within the Soviet Zone -Britain and France gave their shares of Germany to US bc they did not have enough money to maintain them -US wanted to use Germany to spread democracy Iron Curtain Speech -Churchill says Within the spread of communism in Eastern Europe, Churchill Warns Americans of Soviet expansion with this speech , an Iron curtain has spread across Eastern Europe and dividing the two

Postwar(WWII) America Society

*baby boom* -younger marriages and larger families resulted in 50 million babies entering US between 1945-1960 -baby boom focused women's attention on raising children and homemaking yet 1/3 of all married women still worked outside the home *suburban growth* -Levitt in NY created Levittown which consisted of 17,000 mass-produced low-priced family homes with low interest rates that are gov-insured and tax deductible (esp. for soldiers who just came back from the war) -made suburbs more accessible for more families with lower incomes -led to urban cities such as Boston and LA in 1960s to be increasingly poor and racially divided *Sunbelt* -due to war, a warmer climate, lower taxes, and economic opportunities in defense-related industries millions of Americas including GIs and their families moved to the Sunbelt states from Florida to CA

Nonviolent Protests for Civil Rights

-1957 MLK Jr formed Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) which organized ministers and churches in the South to get behind the civil rights struggle -Feb 1960 college students in Greensboro, NC started the sit-in movement after being refused service at a segregated Woolsworth's lunch counter -students would deliberately invite arrest by sitting in restricted areas -Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee(SNCC) was formed a few months later to keep the movement organized -chairman Carmichael repudiated nonviolence and advocated "black power" (esp. economic power) and racial separatism -in 1960s AAs used sit-in tactic to integrate restaurants, hotels, buildings, libraries, pools, and transportation throughout the South -1966 Black Panthers were organized by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale as a revolutionary socialist movement advocating self-rule for American blacks -results of the protests marked a turning point yet progress was slow

Kennedy's Foreign Peace/Progress Policies

-1961 Kennedy set up Peace Corps: organization recruiting young American volunteers to provide technical aid to developing countries -1961 Alliance for Progress promoted land reform and economic development in Latin American -Trade Expansion Act 1962 authorized tariff reductions with the European Economic Community (Common Market) of Western Euro nations

Berlin Wall

-1961 Vienna between Kennedy and Khrushchev Kennedy refused to pull US troops out of Berlin -Aug, the East Germans along with the Soviets built a wall around West Berlin to prevent East Germans from feeling to West Germany -Kennedy called faced off Soviets with tanks yet he made no move to stop the completion of the wall -1963 JFK traveled to West Berlin to assure its residents of continuing US support -Berlin Wall stood until 1989

Students for Democratic Society

-1962 newly formed radical student organization called Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) under the leader Hayden held a meeting in Port Huron, Michigan -the group issued a declaration of purposes known as *Port Huron Statement* -called for university decisions to be made through participatory democracy so that students would have a voice in decisions affecting their lives -activists and intellectuals who supported Hayden's ideas were known as New Left -most radical part of SDS known as the Weathermen embraced violence and vandalism in their attacks on universities -to most Americans, the Weathermen's extremist acts and language discredited the early New Left

Tonkin Gulf Resolution

-1964 LBJ made use of a naval incident in Gulf of Tonkin off Vietnam's coast to secure congress's approval for US forces to go into combat -allegedly North Vietnamese gunboats had fired on US warships in Gulf of Tonkin -Congress voted in approval of Tonkin Gulf Resolution which gave the president a blank check to take "all necessary measures" to protect US interest in Vietnam -until 1968 most Americans supported the Vietnam effort

Opposition to Nixon's Vietnam Policies

-1970 Nixon expanded the war by using US troops to invade Cambodia to destroy Vietnamese Communist bases -nationwide protest on college campuses against this action resulted in the killing of 4 youths by the National Guard troops at Kent State in Ohio and 2 students at Jackson State in Mississippi -US senate voted to repeal Gulf of Tonkin Resolution -1970 American public also reacted with more antiwar sentiment due to a 1968 massacre of women and children by US troops in My Lai (Vietnamese village) -NY times released Pentagon Papers documented the mistakes and deceptions of gov-policy makers in dealing with Vietnam which caused more antiwar sentiment

Nixon's Resignation

-1973 Nixon interfered with Watergate investigation when he fired Cox the prosecutor assigned to the case -HoR began impeachment hearings which caused Nixon to reveal transcripts of some of the Watergate tapes -House Judiciary Committee voted 3 articles of impeachment 1) obstruction of justice 2) abuse of power 3) contempt of Congress -faced with HoR impeachment and a trial in Senate, Nixon chose to resign on Aug 9, 1974 -VP Ford then became president *sig* -outcome of watergate scandal proved to some that the US constitutional system of checks and balances worked -for others the scandal underlined dangerous shift of power to the presidency beginning with FDR and expanded in the Cold War -scandal contributed to a growing loss of faith in federal gov.

Iran & Hostage Crisis

-1979 Islamic fundamentalists led by Ayatollah Khomeini overthrew the shah leading the Iranian gov. -shah had kept the oil flowing for the West during 70s but his westernization alienated a large part of the Iranian pop. -with Ayatollah and fundamentalists in power, Iranian oil production ground to a halt and caused second worldwide shortage of the decade and another round of price increases -Nov 1979 Iranian militants seized US embassy in Teheran and held more than 50 members of the American staff as prisoners and hostages -hostage crisis dragged out through the rest of Carter's presidency -April 1980 Carter approved a rescue mission but the helicopters broke down over the Iranian desert forced US to abort mission *sig* -Carter's unsuccessful attempts to free the hostages became a symbol of a failed presidency -would not be released until the day of Reagan's inauguration

Gorbachev & the USSR

-1985 Gorbachev became new USSR leader -he attempted to change domestic politics with two major reforms 1)*Glasnot* (openness) to end political repression and move toward greater political freedom for Soviet citizens 2)*Perestroika*: restructuring of the Soviet economy by introducing some free-market practices -Gorbachev in order to achieve his reforms wanted to end the costly arms race and deal with a deteriorating economy -1987 Reagan challenged him by standing in front of the Brandenburg gate and Berlin Wall and ending his speech with "Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall" -*INF agreement*Gorbachev and reagan agreed to remove and destroy all intermediate-range missiles -1988 Gorbachev pulled USSR troops out of Afghanistan -cooperated w US by putting diplomatic pressure on Iran and Iraq to end their war

Assessing Reagan's Cold War policy

-Reagan admin agreed that military buildup forced USSR to concede defeat and abandon the Cold War -some say Gorbachev ended the war to reform the Communist economic and political system -others give credit to Kennan's containment policies

Persian Gulf War

-1990 Iraq's dictator Saddam Hussein invaded the weak, oil-rich country Kuwait -move threatened Western oil sources in Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf -HW Bush built a coalition of UN members to pressure Hussein to withdraw from Kuwait -UN embargo against Iraq had little effect -Bush won congressional approval for a military campaign to roll back Iraq's aggression -Jan 1991 in operation known as Desert Storm, 500,000 Americans were joined by military units from 28 nations -they fought 5 weeks of air strikes followed by an invasion led by US General Schwarzkopf -after 100 hours of fighting on the ground Iraq conceded defeat -after the victory Bush had a boost in his approval rate to 90%

Civil Rights In the 40s

-A Philip Randolph convinced FDR to increase black employment -Fair employment practices created is short lived -1946 Truman created as president Committee on Civil Rights -Truman supported civil rights but Congress and the people didn't -The Committee published To Secure These Rights Called for desegregation, anti-lynching laws, and to End poll taxes -Start to see push for civil rights -Jackie Robinson is first black baseball player -Truman in 1948 orders desegregation of armed forces and banned racial discrimination in federal government jobs

Decolonization

-After WWII the collapse of colonial empires lead to both the US and USSR competing for influence in Asia, Latin America, Africa, and the Middle East -Former colonies rejected democracy and were more susceptible to communism -We supported people financially as long as they weren't supporting communism

George Kennan, "Long Telegram"

-Ambassador to Russia -1947 Kennan will send this telegram to DC warning Truman that the USSR wants to expand their empire -Soviets are trying to expand in Germany, Eastern Europe, mIddle East -Kennan believed we need to contain communism and stop the spread of it

Economic boom in 1990s

-American businesses became more proficient in cutting costs which increased profitability and held down the US inflation rate to below 3% a yr -Investors were rewarded with record gains of more than 22% in the stock market -number of homes wit $1mi or more quadrupled to more than 8 million homes -unemployment rate fell from 7.5% in 1992 to 3.9% in 2000 -unemployment rate of African Americans and Hispanics was lowest on record -1997-1999 avg. and lower-income Americans experienced the first gains in real income since 1973 -economic boom ended by 2001

Paperbacks and Records in the 50s

-Americans read more than ever -paperback books were invented and a million were sold a day -pop music was revolutionized by mass marketing of inexpensive, long-playing record albums -Rock n roll is louder, more upbeat against old classical music (its a blend of AA rhythm and blues) -Elvis popularized more hip music -Elvis's hips are more exposed (sexualized) -Camera refused to show his hip movement as it was too sexual and controversial

United Nations

-At the Yalta COnference the Big 3 called for a conference to make a world organization to meet in April 1945 in US -From this charter we will get the United Nations -The United Nations is a better version of league of nations -the general assembly was created to provide representation to all member nations -Security Council: 15 nations are a part of it with the primary responsibility within the UN for maintaining international security and authorizing peacekeeping missions -the five major allies of wartime (US, GB, France, China, USSR) were granted permanent seats and veto power in Security Council -any single vote would overrule anything so the US and USSR would always veto each other -USSR and US proposed an Atomic Energy Commission in UN however the USSR rejected a plan proposed by Baruch for regulating nuclear energy and eliminating atomic weapons (seen by some Americans that Moscow did not have peaceful intentions)

Cultural Tensions in the 1950s

-Betty Friedan writes "The Feminine Mystique" which questioned the status of women in society -Wrote that women are living in a comfortable concentration camp at home -Marilyn Monroe, Playboy magazine challenge sexual norms -Women gain more freedom and expression of their bodies such as nudity -baby boom and running a home in the suburbs reaffirmed the traditional view of women as homemakers -Baby and Child Care by Dr. Spock (1946) -yet at the same time more married women entered the workforce -The Lonely Crowd (1958) Riesman criticized the replacement of inner-directed indv. in society with other-directed conformists -in The Affluent Society (1958) economist Galbriath wrote about failure of wealthy Americans to address the need for increased social spending for the common good -Mills portrayed dehumanizing corporate worlds in White Collar (1951) and threats to freedom in The Power Elite (1956) -The Catcher in the Rye (1951) by Salinger commented on phoniness -Catch-22 by Heller satirized the stupidity of military and war (1961) *"Beatniks"* such as Jack Kerouac ("On the Road") and Allen Ginsberg ("Howl') criticized the conformity of the decade -advocated spontaneity, use of drugs, and rebellion against societal standards -On the Road: semi autobiography about Kerouac's life on the road with drugs, alcohol, sex includes a lot of freedom Rejected societal norms

Malcolm X

-Black Muslim leader Elijah Muhammad preached black nationalism, separatism, and self-improvement -movement attracted thousands of followers and Muhammad adopted the name Malcolm X -left prison in 1952 and acquired a reputation as the movement's most controversial voice -Malcolm X criticized King as "an Uncle Tom" (subservient to whites) and advocated self-defense (using black violence to counter white violence) -assassinated by black opponents in 1965 -his radicalism influenced young blacks in organizations such as SNCC and Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)

Reagan and the Supreme Court

-appointed conservative judges to the Court such as Sandra Day O'Connor (first woman) and Antonin Scalia and Anthony Kennedy -new chief justice Rehnquist helped scale back affirmative action in hiring and promotions and limited Roe v Wade by allowing states to impose certain restrictions on abortion(minors had to notify their parents)

HW Bush & Domestic Acts

-Bush began his admin calling for "a kinder, gentler America" and declared himself the "education president" -signed into law Americans With Disabilities Act 1990 which prohibited discrimination against citizens with physical and mental disabilities in hiring, transportation, and public accommodation -president offered little in way of domestic policy besides this -in midst of recession, he emphasized cuts in federal programs

Panama Canal

-Carter admin attempted to correct inequities in the original Panama Canal Treaty of 1903 by negotiating a new treaty -1978 Senate ratified a treaty that would gradually transfer operation and control of Panama Canal from US to the Panamanians (completed by 2000) -opponents would remember Carter's "giveaway" of the canal in 1980 election

Carter's Economic Policy

-Carter tried to check inflation with measures aimed at conserving oil energy and reviving the US coal industry -compromises that came from Congress failed to fix the problem -Inflation slowed eco growth as consumers and business couldn't afford the high interest rates that came with high prices -chairman of Federal Reserve Board (Volcker) tried to break inflation by pushing interest rates even higher (20% in 1980) -rates hurt auto and building industries which laid of tens of thousands of workers -Inflation pushed middle-class taxpayers into higher tax brackets which led to "taxpayers' revolt" -gov social programs pushed federal deficit to $60 bi in 1980

Clinton's Investigations and Impeachment

-Clinton, his wife, and cabinet members were under investigation by Congress and congressionally appointed indp. prosecutors -some Dems viewed investigations ad "right-wing conspiracy" to overturn elections of 92 and 96 -Clintons weren't charged with any illegalities in Whitewater real estate deal, firings of White House staff("Travelgate") or political use of FBI files ("Filegate") -indp. prosecutor Starr charged that Clinton lied about his relations with a young White House intern in his a civil suit about his alleged sexual harassment *Impeachment* -Dec 1998 House voted to impeach president on two counts: perjury and obstruction of justice -members of both parties and public condemned Clinton's reckless personal behavior; but popular opinion didn't support the republican impeachment of Clinton for lying about his personal life -in fall elections Democrats gained House seats and Gingrich resigned as speaker -Feb 1999 after formal trial in Senate, neither impeachment charge was upheld even by a Senate majority(Senate acquits him) *sig* -Reps damaged Clinton's reputation by making him the first president to be impeached since 1868

Immigration Issues in the Postwar Years

-Congress dropped bans on Chinese and other Asian immigrants and eliminated "race" as a barrier to naturalization -quota system remained in place until 1965 -Mexicans faced a choice of working in braceros programs, entering as a regulated legal immigrant, or coming across illegally -US in 1950s launched Operation Wetback which forced 3.8 mi people return to Mexico

Invasion of Panama 1989

-Dec 1989 US troops were ordered by Bush to invade Panama to remove the autocratic General Noriega -alleged purpose of invasion was to stop Noriega from using his country as a drug pipeline to the US -US troops remained until elections est. a more credible gov.

Reconstruction of Japan

-Despite Soviet protests the US implemented democracy in Japan -We occupy Japan for 7 years after the war - US under MacArthur Introduced a constitution in 1947 that denounces militarize and est. democracy -renounced war as an instrument of national policy and provided for only limited military capability making Japan dependent on US protection -Within a few decades this will make US an economic powerhouse -1951 Japan surrender claims to Korea and islands in Pacific and US ended formal occupation of Japan

Ford's pardoning of Nixon

-Ford in office granted Nixon a full and unconditional pardon for any crime he committed -Ford was accused of making a corrupt bargain with Nixon but he explained the pardon was to end national nightmare

Republicans in Congress under Clinton's First term

-Gingrich led Republicans in an attack on federal programs and spending outlined in "Contract with America" -Clinton proposed a "leaner, not meaner budget" agreed upon by moderates - confrontation between moderates/President and radical Reps resulted in 2 shutdowns of the federal gov in 1995 -many blamed shutdowns on overzealous Reps in Congress -1995 bombing of a federal building in OK City by militia-movement extremists took 169 lives -election yr of 1996 Congress and president compromised on a budget that left Medicare and Social Security benefits intact, limited welfare benefits to 5 years under Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act, set some curbs on immigrants, increased minimum wage, and balanced budget -spending cuts and tax increases made during Clinton's first term and a record growth in the economy and eliminated the deficit in federal spending in 1998 -1996 economy produced more than 10 million new jobs which also helped Clinton's popularity

Gorbachev and Eastern Europe

-Gorbachev declared he would no longer support various Communist govs of Eastern Europe with USSR armed forces -Poland in 1989 with election of Walesa (leader of Solidarity movement) the Communist party fell from power one country after another -- Hungary, Czech, Bulgaria, Romania -Communsits in East Germany were forced out of power after protesters tore down Berlin Wall (the hated symbol of cold war) -1990 the two Germanys finally reunited with the blessing of NATO and USSR

Nomination of Clarence Thomas

-HW Bush nominated Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court to replace the retiring Thurgood Marshall -controversial as Thomas's conservative views on judicial issues and charges of sexual harassment against him angered African Americans and woman -Senate however confirmed him as a judge

Smith Act

-It is now illegal to advocate or teach the overthrow the gov by force or to belong to a organization of an overthrow after the war -Immigrants that belong to such organizations could be deported -Truman admin uses this law to jail leaders of the American communist party -11 communists are brought to trial in 1949 *Dennis et al v US * -1951 Supreme Court upheld Smit Act

Origins of Civil Rights Movement

-Jackie Robinson 1947 is first AA on a major league team -Truman integrated armed forces and introduced civil rights legislation 1948 -1950s AAs in South still had De Jure segregation from white schools and public facilities *Changing demographics* millions of AAs migrated from rural South to urban centers if the South and North -in North AAs had a growing influence in party politics in 1950s *Changing Attitudes in Cold War* US reputation for freedom and democracy was competing against Communist ideology for the hearts of minds of peoples of Africa and Asia -racial segregation and discrimination stood out as glaring wrongs against the global background

Great Society Reforms (LBJ) --acts passed

-Johnson's list of legislative achievements from 1963-1966 would have lasting effects on US society *Food Stamp Act* 1964 expanded the federal program to help poor people buy food *National Foundation on the Arts and Humanities* 1965 provided federal funding for the arts and for creative and scholarly projects *Medicare* 1965 provided health insurance for all people 65+ *Medicaid* 1965 provided funds to states to pay for medical care for the poor and disabled *Elementary and Secondary Education Act* 1965 provided federal funds to poor school districts; funds for special ed programs; and funds to expand Head Start, an early childhood education program *Higher Education Act* 1965 provided federal scholarships for post-secondary education *Immigration Act & Nationality Act* 1965 Abolished discriminatory quotas based on national origins *Child Nutrition Act* 1966 Added breakfasts to the school lunch programs

LBJ & De-Escalating the Vietnam war

-Joint Chiefs of Staff responded to Tet by requesting 200,000 more troops to win war -yet LBJ's Cold War diplomats advised him not to escalate the war -March 31, 1968 LBJ televised his speech to the American people that he would limit the bombing of North V and negotiate peace -May 1968 peace talks between North and South V and US started in Paris but were quickly deadlocked over minor issues -war continued and thousands more died -but escalation of war in Vietnam stopped

Kennedy & Civil Rights

-Kennedy did not press the issue of civil rights to avoid alienating white voters -1962 James Meredith (air force veteran) attempted to enroll in Uni of Mississippi and a federal court guaranteed his right to attend -supporting Meredith and the court order, Kennedy sent 400 federal marshals and 3,00 troops to control mob violence and protect Meredith's right to attend -in Alabama in 1963 Governor Wallace tried to stop an African American from entering Uni of Alabama -Kennedy sent troops to the sense again and the student was admitted

New Frontier Programs

-Kennedy spoke of "the torch being passed to a new generation" & promised to lead the nation into a New Frontier -Continuation of the Fair & New Deal programs -Kennedy called for aid to education, federal support of health care, urban renewal, and civil rights -Most of his domestic agenda will be blocked by Congress and overshadowed by concerns over foreign affairs -Kennedy did face down big steel executives over a price increase he claimed was inflationary and achieved a price rollback -economy was also stimulated by increased spending for defense and space exploration -Kennedy wanted to land a man on the moon by the end of the decade

Buildup in Vietnam under Kennedy

-Kennedy was afraid of the domino effect so he continued US military aid to South Vietnam and increased the num of military advisers who trained the South army and guarded weapons and facilities -1963 --> 16,000 US troops in South Vietnam -South Vietnam's ruler Ngo Dinh Diem and the gov. lost support for peasants in the countryside -Buddhist monks set themselves on fire to protest Diem's policies -2 weeks before Kennedy's assassination, his admin acknowledged the plan for South Vietnamese generals to overthrow and kill Diem

*Korean War* Truman vs MacArthur

-MacArthur stabilized fighting near 38th parallel -called for expanding war including bombing and invading China -Truman told MacArthur to not criticize official US policy yet MacArthur spoke out anyway -Truman in 1951 recalled MacArthur for insubordination -MacArthur however returns home as a war hero and Truman is criticized and attacked for not trying to destroy communism in Asia

Hispanic Americans Demand for Rights

-Mexican workers suffered deportation during the Great Depression yet returned to US in 50s and 60s to take low-paying agricultural jobs -after WWII they spread from southwestern states to East and MidWest due to more immigration -they were widely exploited before Cesar Chavez and the United Farm Workers Organization boycotted -they gained collective bargaining rights for farm workers in 1975 -Mexican American activists also won federal mandate for bilingual education requiring schools to teach Hispanic children in English and Spanish -1980s Hispanic Americans were elected to public office including mayor -Census Bureau report in 2000 confirmed that Hispanics were the country's largest minority group

LBJ's War on Poverty

-Michael Harrington's book on poverty (The Other America 1962) helped to focus national attention on the 40mi Americans in poverty -Johnson responded in 1964 by declaring an "unconditional war on poverty" -Democratic Congress created Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) with a billion-dollar budget -OEO sponsored self-help programs for the poor such as Head Start for preschoolers, the Job Corps for vocational education, literacy programs, and legal series -Community Action Program allowed the poor to run antipoverty programs in their own neighborhoods -literacy and legal problems -War on Poverty did significantly reduce the num of American families living in poverty

Conservative Religious Revival

-Moral decay was a theme of religious leaders on TV (televangelists) such as Pat Roberson and Jim Baker who had 60-100 million viewers -religion became an instrument of electoral politics when evangelist Falwell founded Moral Majority which financed campaigns to unseat liberal members of Congress -religious fundamentalists attacked "secular humanism" as a godless creed taking over public education and campaigned for the return of prayer and teaching the Bible's version of creation in public schools -legalization of abortion in Roe v Wade (1973) sparked right-to-life movement which united Catholics and fundamentalist Protestants

Vietnamization

-Nixon announced that he would gradually withdraw the half a million US troops from Vietnam and give South Vietnamese the money, weapons, and training that they needed to take over the full conduct of the war -US troops went from 540,000 in 1969 to under 30,000 in 1972

White Houses Abuses leading up to Watergate Scandal under Nixon

-Nixon earlier had ordered wiretaps on gov. employees and reporters to stop news leaks such as the exposure of Cambodia's secret bombing -president's aides created a group known as "plumbers" to stop leaks and discredit opponents -plumbers had burglarized the office of Ellsberg the man who leaked the Pentagon Papers in order to discredit him -White House also created "enemies list" of prominent Americans opposing Nixon and Vietnam War -people on list were investigated by agencies like the IRS

Nixon's Peace Movement with Vietnam

-Nixon had Kissinger conduct secret meeting with North V's foreign minister Le Due Tho -Kissinger announced in 1972 "peace is at hand" -yet when the two sides couldn't reach a deal Nixon ordered a massive bombing of North V to force settlement -after weeks of B-52 bomber attack, North V agreed to an armistice in which the US would withdraw its troops and get back 500 POWs -Paris Accords of Jan 1973 promised a cease-fire and free elections -armistice did not end the war however between North and South V and left thousands of enemy troops in South V -armistice allowed US to extract itself from Vietnam War -$118 billion spent on the war caused an inflationary cycle raking the US economy

Family Assistance Plan

-Nixon tried t slow down the growth of Johnson's Great Society programs with his Family Assistance Plan -woud have replaced welfare by providing a guaranteed annual income for working Americans -Democratic majority in Congress easily defeated this initiative

Election of 1972

-Nixon's southern strategy worked and became the majority in every southern state -reelection was assured by his 1)foreign policy successes in China and USSR 2)the removal of Wallace from the race due to an assassin 3)nomination by Democrats was a very liberal, antiwar, antiestablishment candidate Senator McGovern -Democrats still controlled both houses of Congress -Nixon's win showed realignment of Sunbelt and suburban voters who formed a new Republican majority

New Federalism

-Nixon's successful program (a.k.a revenue sharing ) -Congress approved of giving local govs $30 billion in block grants over 5 years to address local needs as they saw fit -republicans hoped revenue sharing would check the growth of the federal gov and return responsibility to the states -Nixon also attempted to bypass Congress by impounding funds for social programs -Democrats protested that such action was an abuse of executive powers and courts agreed with the president's critics 9it was the president's duty to carry out laws of Congress)

*Clinton's foreign policy* Asia 1990s

-North Korea stepped up its nuclear reactor and missile programs and India and Pakistan tested nuclear weapons for first time in 1998 -North Korea agreed to halt development of nuclear weapons after direction negotiations with the Clinton admin, yet secretly restarted the program -1995 US est. diplomatic relations with Vietnam -Clinton admin continued to sign trade agreements with China in his second term -he hoped to improve diplomatic relations and encourage reform within China despite protests from human right activist and labor unions and Chinese threats to the indp. nation Taiwan

Hungarian Revolt

-Oct 1956 uprising in Hungary actually succeeded in overthrowing a gov backed by Moscow -new liberal leaders wanted to pull out of the Warsaw Pact -Khrushchev sends Soviet tanks in to crush the freedom fighters and restore control -US took no action in the crisis -Eisenhower feared that sending troops to aid Hungarians would cause a major Euro war -by allowing Soviet tanks to roll into Hungary the US gave de facto recognition to the Soviet sphere of influence and ended Dulles' talk of liberating the region -Soviet suppression ended the first thaw in the Cold War

Cuban Missile Crisis 1962

-Oct 1962 U-2 spy planes discover the Soviets were installing offensive nuclear weapons in Cuba that could reach the US in minutes -Kennedy orders a naval blockade of Cuba (calls it a quarantine) to pressure the Soviets to remove the missiles -The world was extremely close to a potential nuclear war if Soviets challenged the US naval blockade -Advisors told JFK to attack before missiles become operational -after days of tension Khrushchev agrees to remove the missiles if Kennedy promised not to invade Cuba and would later on remove missiles from Turkey *Impact* -Hotline between DC and Moscow was set up -Opens up communications -Literal phone to contact the other city -made possible for the leaders of the two countries to talk directly during a crisis -1963 USSR and US along with 100 nations signed the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty to end the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere (yet was offset by a new round in the arms race for developing missile and warhead superiority ) -Effort to relax tensions: *detente* Detente is an official policy (thawing of the cold war)

Brown v Board of Education of Topeka

-Plessy v Ferguson est. separate but equal facilities yet -team of NAACP lawyers in early 1950s argued that segregation of black children in the public schools was unconstitutional as it violated the 14th amendment's guarantee of "equal protection of the laws" -1954 the Supreme Court agreed with Marshall and overturned the Plessy case -Chief Justice Warren ruled that separate facilities are inherently unequal and unconstitutional and school segregation should end with all deliberate speed

Reagan's Military Buildup

-Reagam admin spent billions to build new weapons systems such as B-1 bomber and the MX missile and to expand US Navy from 450 to 600 ships -admin increased spending on Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) a plan for building high-tech system of lasers and particle beams to destroy enemy missiles before they could reach US territory -critics called SDI "Star Wars" and argued that the program would only escalate the arms race -defense budget grew from $171 bi in 1981 to $300+ bi in 1985

*Reagonomics* Deregulation

-Reagan followed up on "getting gov off the backs of the people" by reducing federal regulations on business and industry -restrictions were eased on savings and loan institutions, mergers and takeovers by large corporations, and environmental protection -to help struggling American auto industry, regulations on emissions and auto safety were reduced -Secretary of Interior Watt opened federal lands for increased coal and timber production and offshore waters for oil drilling

Reagan & Central America

-Reagan supported right-wing dictators to keep out communism *Nicaragua* 1979 Marxist movement known as Sandinistas overthrew the country's dictator -US provided military aid to the "contras" in their effort to dislodge the Sandinistas -1985 Dems opposed to this aid in Nicaragua passed the Boland Amendment which prohibited further aid *El Salvador* Reagan admin spent $5 billion to support Salvadoran gov against a coalition of leftist guerrillas -Many Americans protested the killing of more than 40,000 civilians including American missionaries by right-wing "death squads" with connections to El Salvador army

*Reagonomics* Labor Union

-Reagan took a tough stand against unions -fired thousands of striking federal air traffic controllers for violating their contract and decertified their union PATCO -many businesses followed tis action by hiring strike replacements in labor conflicts -anti-union policies along with loss of manufacturing jobs hastened the decline of union membership among confirm workers from 30% in 1962 to 12% in late 90s -recession of 1982 and foreign competition had a dampening effect on workers' wages

NSC 68

-Released in 1950 by National Security Council -Issued in response to the communist victory in China -recommended to quadruple US gov defense spending 20% of GNP, form alliances with non-communist countries around the world, convince the American public that a costly arms buildup was imperative for the nation's defense

Hydrogen Bomb

-Sept 49 USSR will explode their first atomic bomb -World now has two atomic powers -1952 we explode the first hydrogen bomb in order to one up USSR -Many believed it was a instrument of genocide -1953 USSR will explode their first hydrogen bomb -Race for nuclear arms continues with 2 super powers For the first time in history mankind has the ability to completely end civilization

Partition of Germany

-Soviets were dominating their Eastern Germany zone after WWII -USSR wanted to take all of German's resources as payback for WWII -USSR did not want to revitalize Germany or their economy -They could be a future threat then -US in Western Germany wanted to revitalize Germany's economy as they believed it was important for all of Europe's economy -1949 Democratic Germany was founded: Federal Republic of Germany -In Eastern Germany they create German Democratic Republic

The Politics of Cold War Liberalism (under Eisenhower)

-Stalin dies in 53 -Khrushchev takes over -Calls for peaceful coexistence with the West -However SOviets repressed the Hungarian uprising which led to more inflexibility with America -Eisenhower continued to produce arms to project America's dominance in this Cold War struggle -By 1958 both the USSR and US had ICBMs -Eisenhower was not experienced in domestic affairs but he was well liked as he was calm and less confrontational than Truman -The Cold War scare calmed down by the 1950s

Roots of the Cold War Soviet Point of View

-Stalin is trying to create spheres of influence (satellite countries) in Eastern Europe -these satellite states are controlled by Communist dictators as the Soviets argued Russia needed a buffer as protection from another Hitler-like invasion from the West -Soviets are upset that the US did not open up a second front in western europe -Millions of Russians died, they are mad about that US also froze Russia out of the making of the atomic bomb -We also terminated our lend-lease deal with Russia but kept it with Britain -Start to see war torn countries being partitioned along ideological lines (Vietnam and Korea are divided into a North for communism and South for capitalism)

Flexible Response Policy

-a diff Cold War challenge was the many "brush fire wars" in Africa and Southeast Asia in which insurgent forces were aided by Soviet arms and training -conflicts in the Congo and in Laos and Vietnam convinced Kennedy to adopt a policy of flexible response -moved away from Dulles' idea of massive retaliation and reliance on nuclear weapons(New Look Policy), -Kennedy and McNamara(Secretary of Defense) increased spending on conventional (nonnuclear) arms and mobile military forces -this policy reduced the risk of using nuclear weapons yet it increased the temptation to send elite special forces (Green Berets) into combat all over the globe

Six-Day War 1967

-Syrians and Egyptians launched a surprise attack on Israel in an attempt to recover lost lands -Nixon ordered US nuclear forces on alert and airlifted $2 bi in ams to Israel to stem their retreat -war ended in favor of Israel - OPEC placed an embargo on oil sold to Israel's supporters -embargo caused worldwide oil shortage including in US -US economy now suffered from runaway inflation, loss of manufacturing jobs, and lower standard of living for blue-collars -consumers switched to Japanese fuel-efficient cars which cost US auto works 225,000 jobs -Congress responded with a 55mph speed limit to save gas and approved construction of oil pipeline in Alaska

Cold War Liberalism

-Took core programs of the New Deal welfare state, developed containment, and fought subversives at home -Organized labor was a key force in cold war liberalism -Union membership increased to million by 1945 There were major strikes in automobile, steel, and coal industries -In 1946 republicans gained control of both houses of congress and worked to undo new deal measures

*Korean War* impact

-Truman's containment policy worked -it stopped Communist aggression without allowed the conflict to develop into world war -Truman admin used Korean conflict as justification for expanding the military, funding a new jet bomber (B-52) and stationing more US troops in overseas bases -Republicans due to stalemate characterized Truman and Democrats as soft on communism and attacked leading Democrats as members of Acheson's(secretary of state) Cowardly College of Communist Containment

Cold War: Middle East -Iran -suez crisis -Eisenhower Doctrine -OPEC

-Under Eisenhower the Cold War expands into the Middle East due to fear of Soviet expansion -Eisenhower uses the CIA to undermine communist governments or to install pro US regimes (Iran/Guatemala) *Iran* -1953 CIA helps overthrow the elected Iranian gov (Operation Ajax) when it attempts to nationalize foreign oil companies -Shah of Iran comes to power - he was a brutal dictator, but there were good oil prices and he was pro US *suez crisis* -Nasser turns to USSR to help build the Aswan Dam -US would not accept this neutrality and sends Dollis to Egypt and draws out all of our financial aid -In retaliation Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal preventing US access and we now do not have access to ¾ of the oil we have -Nasser took the canal away from France/England who controlled it before -England, France, and Israel attack Egypt -Eisenhower is furious that he had been kept in the dark about the attack and sponsors a UN resolution condemning the invasion of Egypt so the invading forces withdraw *Eisenhower doctrine*: 1957 US promises economic and military aid to any country in the Middle East threatened by communism -1958 sends 14,000 marines to Lebanon to prevent a civil war between Christians and Muslims *Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)* -formed in 1960 - was a Cartel between the Arab nations -All of the petroleum countries in the world join and agree on prices to set Reaction against US for US to pay more money

Vietnam in 50s

-Wanted to kick France out after WWII, instead turned to communism without the aid of the U.S. -Eisenhower didn't embrace a united Vietnam -He argued that if France didn't get along with Vietnam the Domino Theory would occur *Domino Theory* -One country falls to communism, all of them in the area will fall -After fifty day siege, the French were defeated by/at dien dien faux -1954-Geneva Accords-splits Vietnam into two (north and south) at the 17th parallel -Geneva Accords called for elections in both north and the south to work together to unite vietnam -US rejects Geneva Accords -With help of CIA America takes power in South Vietnam -In a rigged election in 1955 in Vietnam the President of indp. South Vietnam Ngo Dinh Diem becomes president -He calls off reunification election between North and South because he knew the communists in the North would win and communism would take over all of Vietnam -US will continue to support SOuth with economic aid and military advisors

Warren Court Critics

-Warren's defense of rights of unpopular individuals provoked controversy -critics called for Warren's impeachment -both supporters and critics agreed Warren Court profoundly changed interpretation of constitutional rights

Truman Doctrine

-Will define American foreign policy for the next 20 years -US must support free peoples who are resisting subjugation (communism) -Never refers to communism but its implied -1947 Truman asks Congress for $400mi to support democracy in Turkey and Greece *Turkey and Greece* -Britain and France were supporting them with money but they didn't have any more so US needs to help them now -Economic depression is vulnerable to revolution and communism so we need to put money into capitalism so communism doesn't spread -Democracy spreads to these two countries -Truman in 1948 recognizes Israel -It's a hub of democracy in the Middle East -It will be the foundation of democracy in the Middle East

Reaganomics

-advocated supply-side economic, arguing tax cuts and reduced gov spending would increase investment by the private sector and would lead to increased production, jobs, and prosperity -approach contested with Keynesian economics favored by Dems which relied on gov spending during economic downturns -critics of supply-side compared it to trickle-down economics of 1920s which mainly benefited wealthy Americans

The Burger Court

-after Warren resigned, Nixon appointed Burger of Minnesota who was even more conservative than Warren yet some of his rulings angered conservatives -1971 court ordered busing to achieve racial balance in schools -1972 issued strict guidelines that made carrying out the death penalty more difficult -Roe v Wade(1973) high court struck down many state laws prohibiting abortions as a violation of a women's right to privacy -1974 court also ordered Nixon to turn over his Watergate tapes

Détente with China

-after a series of secret negations with Chinese leaders Nixon astonished the world in Feb 1972 by traveling to Beijing to meet with Mao Zedong -his visit initiated diplomatic exchanges that ultimately led to US recognition of the Communist gov in 1979

Television in the 50s

-became a center of family life in millions of American homes -The rise of television led to questions regarding the nation's morals, politics, etc. -Will start to see in TV shows untraditional ideas such as Interracial friends, divorces -Television glamorized the suburban life, woman homemaker -the Cult of domesticity is celebrated and re-enforced -The gov will push for these types of shows for women to go back in the homes which will up jobs for soldiers coming home -Television becomes a common household item and contributed to homogeneity of American culture -People watched the same shows(Leave it to Beaver, Twilight Zone)

Growth of Immigration in the late 20thc

-before 1960s most immigrants to US had come from Europe and Canada -by 1980s 47% of immigrants came from Latin America, 37% from Asia, and less than 13% from Europe and Canada -shift was caused by arrival of refugees from Cuba and Vietnam due to Communism *Immigration Act of 1965* -ended the ethnic quota acts of 1920s favoring Europeans and opened US worldwide to immigrants -by mid 1970s 12mi foreigners were in US illegally *Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986* -rise of immigrants from Latin America and Asia led to this -penalized employers for hiring immigrants who had entered the country illegally or overstayed their visas -granted amnesty to undocumented immigrants arriving by 1982

Election of 1968

-conservatives: Wallace vs Nixon -liberal: VP Humphrey *Democratic Convention* -at convention it was clear that Humphrey would win nomination * George Wallace* -he ran for president as the self-nominated candidate of the American Independent party -opposed federal desegregation, antiwar protests, and race riots -was first politician of 20th century to marshal the general resentment against the Washington establishment and the two-party system *Return of Nixon* -1968 Nixon announced his candidacy and became a front-runner in Republican nomination -Nixon ws a hawk in Vietnam war and ran on the salons "peace with honor" *Results* -Nixon won by a substantial majority in the electoral vote but by a small margin in the popular vote -elections in 1970s and 1980s would confirm that the tide was turning against New Deal liberalism in favor of conservatism

Credibility Gap in Vietnam War

-created from misinformation from military and civilian leaders along with Johnson's reluctance to speak frankly with the American people -most damaning knowledge gap was that leaders in DC failed to understand both the enemy and nature of the war

Second Red Scare Cultural Impacts

-creators of gritty crime dramas and playwrights such as Arthur Miller (Death of a Salesman 1949) came under attack as anti-American -Rodgers and Hammerstein's musical South Pacific in 1949 was criticized as a communistic assault on racial segregation -loyalty oaths were commonly required of writers and teachers

Great Society Reforms (LBJ) --critics

-critics said the Great Society made unrealistic promises to eliminate poverty, for creating a centralized welfare state, and for being inefficient and very costly -defenders say the programs gave needed assistance to millions of Americans who were forgotten (poor, disabled, elderly)

Republicans in Congress under Clinton's 2nd term

-debate in DC now focused on what to do with federal surplus revenues -1992 Congress and president compromised on legislation that cut taxes on estates and capital gains and gave tax credits for families with children and for higher education expenses -Reps pressed for more tax revenue cuts, such as elimination of estate tax (death tax) and taxes on two-income families (marriage penalty) while the president held out for using projected federal surplus to support Social Security, expand Medicare, and reduce national debt

Reagan's foreign policy outlook

-determined to restore military might and superpower prestige of US and wanted to intensify the Cold War competition -called USSR "evil empire" and "focus of evil in the modern world" -Reagan was prepared to use military force to back up his rhetoric

Counterculture of the 1960s

-expressed by young people in rebellious styles of dress, music, drug use, and communal living -"hippies" and "flower children" of 60s had long hair, beards, beads, and jeans -Joan Baez and Bob Dylan with their folk music gave voice to the younger gen's protests -Beatles' rock music along with Rolling Stones, Jim Morrison, and Janis Joplin gave the beat and lyrics for the counterculture -Woodstock Music Festival in NY in 1969 reflected zenith of the culture -LSD led to drug abuse and young people destroyed their lives *sig* this generation believed greatly in a democratic society -hoped to end unresponsive authority, poverty, racism, and war -behavior with violence and self-destructive behavior discredited their cause

Immigration in 2000s

-fastest growing regions of US were West and South *Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986* -attempted to create a fair entry process for immigrants -failed to stop the problem of illegal entry into US from Mexico -law also criticized for granting amnesty to some undocumented immigrants from Mexico and Americans -2000, fastest growing pop was the Hispanics pop. -Asia Americans also had a fast growing pop. -2000, 10.4% of pop was foreign-born -immigration accounted for 27.8% of the pop. increase in 90s

Equal Rights Amendment

-feminists achieved a major victory in 1972 when Congress passed the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) -it prohibited denying equal rights -NOW and other groups campaigned hard for the ratification, it missed acceptance by the required 38 states -was defeated in part to a growing reaction against feminism by conservatives

*Clinton's foreign policy* Somalia 1990s

-first deaths of US soldiers in humanitarian missions during Clinton admin came in Somalia's civil war 1993 -1994, president sent 20,000 troops into Haiti to restore its elected president Aristide after a military coup and deteriorating economy conditions caused an exodus of Haitians to Florida

Student Protests

-first major protest: 1964 on Berkeley campus -called cause Free Speech Movement, students demanded an end to university restrictions on student politics -by mid 1960s students across country protests university rules such as those against drinking and dorm visits by opposite sex -students demanded greater voice in university's gov. -demonstrations increased with US involvement in Vietnam

Income and Wealth 2000s

-homeownership climbed to 67.4% -per-capita money income in constant dollars rose from $12,275 in 1970 to $22,199 in 2000 -1999 the top fifth of American households received more than half of all income -avg after-tax income for lower 3/5 of households declined between 1977 and 1997 -distribution of income varied widely by race, gender, and education -high school graduates earned only half the income of college graduates -US had largest gap between lowest and highest paid workers and the great concentration of wealth among the top-earning homes compared to all industrialized nations

Eisenhower's farewell address

-in Eisenhower's farewell address he spoke out against the negative impact of the Cold War on US society -warned the nation to guard against acquisition of unwarranted influence by the military-industrial complex -the arms race was taking on a momentum and the US was beginning to turn into a military state

Advertising in 50s

-in all media (TV, radio, newspapers, magazines) ads by name brands promoted common material wants -intro of suburban shopping centers and the plastic credit card in the 50s provided a quick means of satisfying them and allowed for increase in consumerism -proliferation of chains of fast food restaurants on the roadside was one measure of success for the new marketing techniques -nation turned from 'mom and pop' stores to franchise operation

Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Balanced Budget Act

-in an effort to reduce federal deficit -Congress passed this in 1985 which provided for across-the-board spending cuts -court rulings and later congressional changes kept the legislation from achieving its full purpose, but Congress still reduced deficit by $66 billion from 1986 to 1988

Globalization of 1990s

-increases in trade, communications, and movement of capital around the world were key parts of globalization -it promoted the development of global and regional economic organizations -World Trade Organization (WTO) est. 1994 to oversee trade agreements, enforce trade rules, and settle disputes -International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank made loans to and supervised the economic policies of poorer nations with debt troubles -Group of Eight (G-8) world's largest industrial powers (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, UK, and US) which controlled 2/3 of the world's wealth remained the leading economic powers -growing gap between the rich and poor nations of the world caused tensions, esp over the debts poor nations owned to powerful banks and rich nations -workers and unions in richest nations often resented globalization as they lost jobs to cheaper labor markets in developing world

Technology Boom under Clinton

-innovations in personal computers, software, the Internet, cable, and wireless communications fueled increased national productivity and made e-commerce part of American life -Apple, Intel, and Microsoft were joined during the "dot-com" boom by the likes of Amazon, AOL, Yahoo, and Google

Sexual Revolution of the latter 20thc

-late 1940s Kinsey's surveys indicated that premarital sex, marital infidelity, ad homosexuality were more common than thought -antibiotics for STDs and intro of birth control pill in 1960 contributed to changing attitudes about casual sex with numerous partners -sexual themes in ads, magazines, and movies made sex to appear to be another consumer product -premarital sex, marital infidelity, ad homosexuality became practiced more openly -1980s, increase in illegitimate births, rape, sexual abuse, and the spread of AIDS caused many to blame loosened moral codes

Corporate America & the economy

-more American workers for the first time in history held white-collar jobs than blue-collar -large corporations of the era promoted teamwork and conformity including a dress code for male workers(dark business suit, white shirt, tie) -social scientist Whyte documented this loss of individuality in his book The Organization Man (1956) -AFL and CIO labor unions merged in 1955 which made them more power -unions also became for conservative as blue-collars started to receive middle-class incomes -Rise of the American middle class -Economic boom once industries convert back to non-war society -soldiers now need a house and job -Because people saved money during WW2 they could buy houses -Lots of building of "cookie cutter" homes

SALT II

-moved détente ahead with USSR in 1979 with the signing of this treaty -under Carter -provided for limiting the size of each superpower's nuclear delivery system -Senate never ratified the treaty as a result to Cold War tensions over Afghanistan

American Indian Movement

-movement founded in 1968 to achieve self-determination and revival of tribal traditions -50s Eisenhower admin tried and failed to encourage NAs to leave reservations and assimilate in urban society -American Indian Movement(AIM) soon had militant action and took over the abandoned Alcatraz prison in 1969 -AIM members occupied Wounded Knee in South Dakota in 1973 -Congress passed *Self-Determinination Act of 1975* which gave reservations and tribal lands greater control over internal programs, education, and law enforcement -NAs used federal courts to regain property or compensation for treaty violations -Tribally Controlled Community College Assistance Act of 1978 helped attack widespread unemployment and poverty on restorations by improving education -also built industries and gambling casinos to attack unemployment

War Powers Act

-news that Nixon authorized 3500 secret bombing raids in Cambodia(neutral country) further discredited him -Nov 1973 Congress passed this act over Nixon's veto -law required presidents to report to Congress within 48 hrs after taking military action -Congress would have to approve any military action lasting more than 60 days

Watergate Investigation

-no solid proof demonstrated Nixon ordered the illegal activities -after months of investigation it was clear Nixon engaged in an illegal cover-up to avoid scandal -Senate investigating committee brought the abuses to the attention of Americans in TV hearings -Nixon's top aides resigned to protect him and were later indicted -discovery of taping system in Oval Office led to a yr-long struggle between nixon who claimed executive privilege for the tapes and investigators

Vietnam Tet Offensive

-on occasion of Lunar New Year (Tet) in 1968 the Vietcong launched an all-out surprise attack on provincial capitals and American bases in South V -US military counterattacked and inflicted much heavier losses on Vietcong and recovered lost territory -American military proved irrelevant to the way the Tet Offensive was interpreted at home -destruction viewed by millions on TV appeared as a colossal setback for LBJ's policy -Tet for the North V was a huge political victory in demoralizing the American public

Religion post WWII

-organized religions expanded after WWII -see building of thousands of new churches and synagogues -Herberg's book Protestant, Catholic, Jew (1955) commented on new religious tolerance of the time na the lack of interest in doctrine -religious membership became a source fo individual identity and socialization

Nixon's Economic Policies

-recession in 1970 -US economy throughout 70s faced economic slowdown and high inflation (aka stagflation= stagnation + inflation) -to slow inflation Nixon cut federal spending yet it contributed to recession and unemployment -he adopted Keynesian economics and deficit spending to not alienate middle-class and blue-collar -1971 imposed a 90 day wage and price freeze -took dollar off gold standard which devalued it relative to foreign currencies and along with a 10% surtax on imports improved US balance of trade with foreign competitors -by 1972 recession ended

Martin Luther King Jr.

-recognized national as the leader of the civil rights movement MLK remained committed to nonviolent protests against segregation -1963 he and some followers were jailed in Birmingham Alabama for what local authorities considered an illegal march -jailing proved to be a milestone in the moment as most Americans believed MLK was jailed unjustly -MLK's "Letter from Birmingham Jail" influenced Kennedy to support a tougher civil rights bill *assassination* -1968 MLK was shot on a motel balcony in Memphis, Tennessee by a white man -massive riots erupted in 168 cities and killed 46 -violence revealed the anger and frustrations amongst African Americans in both North and South -violence also fed a "white backlash" among white blue-collar voters to the civil rights movement

Impact of Reagonomics

-reduced restrictions on a free-market economy and put more money in the hands of investors and higher income Americans -contained growth of the New Deal-Great Society welfare state -huge federal deficits changed the context of future political debates -with yearly deficits between $200 billion - $300 billion Dems and Reps saw it no longer reasonable to propose new social programs like universal health coverage -Reagonomics changed debate from what new gov programs should be added to what gov programs should be cut and by how much

Iran-Contra Affair

-since 1980 Iran and Iraq had been at war -Reagan aides came up with the secret plan hidden from the public of selling US antitank and anti-aircraft missiles to Iran's gov. for its help in freeing the American hostages help by a radical Arab group -1986 a Reagan staff member used the profits of the arms deal with Iran to fund the contras in Nicaragua -this funding was illegal as it violated the Boland Amendment and congressional budget authority -Reagan denied that he had any knowledge of this plan -Reagan suffered a sharp, but temporary drop in popularity polls

Reagan and Grenada

-small Caribbean island -a coup led to the est. of a pro-Cuban regime -1983 Reagan ordered a small force of marines to invade the island to prevent the est. of s strategic Communist military base in the Americas -invasion quickly re-est. a pro US gov

1990s Anti-Incumbent Mood

-stagnant economy, huge budget deficits, and political deadlock fueled a growing disillusionment with gov -US Term Limits Inc. v Thorton (1995) Supreme Court ruled that the state could not limit the tenure of federal lawmakers without a constitutional amendment -1992 27 Amendment: first proposed by James Madison 1789 it prohibited members of Congress from raising their own salaries

*Korean War* armistice

-stalemate at 38th parallel -peace talks began in 1951 -police action dragged on for 2 years until armistice was signed in 1953 during first year of Eisenhower's presidency -2.5mi died in the conflict including 54,000 Americans

Dulles' Diplomacy

-strategy known as "brinksmanship" -wanted a new strategy as containment wasn't working -his strategy pleased conservatives -believed that if the US pushed Communist powers to the brink of war, they would back down because of American nuclear superiority -advocated greater reliance on nuclear weapons and air power and spending less on conventional forces of the army and navy(would scare and intimidate Soviets) - this would save more money "More bang for the buck" -Threat of massive retaliation kept the 2 superpowers from fighting one another directly (more rhetoric than reality) -some believed massive retaliation looked more like mutual extinction

Hawks vs Doves

-supported of war "hawks" believed that the war was an act of Soviet-backed Communist aggression against South Vietnam which was part of a plan to conquer all of Southeast Asia -opponents of war "doves" viewed conflict as a civil war fought by Vietnamese nationalists and some Communists who wanted to unite their country by overthrowing the corruption Saigon gov. -some Americans oppose war due to costs in lives and money -wanted money to be spent on domestic problems -greatest opposition came from college students who after graduation would be eligible for the draft to Vietnam -Nov 1967 the antiwar movement was given a political leader Senator McCarthy of Minnesota -McCarthy became the first antiwar advocate to challenge LBJ for the 1968 Dem. Presidential nomination

HW Bush, Taxes, and the Economy

-the gov intervention to save weak savings and loan institutions (S&Ls) and pay insured depositors for funds lost in failed S&Ls would cost taxpayers $250+ billion -1990 Bush violated his campaign pledge of "no new taxes" by accepted the Democratic Congress' proposed $133 billion in new taxes -unpopular tax law increased top income tax rate to 31% and raised federal excise taxes on beer, wine, cigarettes, gasoline, luxury cars, and watches -1990 recession started that ended Reagan era of prosperity, increased unemployment, and decreased avg. family income

SEATO

-to prevent South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from falling to communism Dulles created the defense pact SEATO -agreed to defend one another in case of an attack -8 nations signed the pact (US, GB, France, Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Thailand, Pakistan)

U-2 Incident

-two weeks before second meeting est. at Camp David in 1960 the Russians shot down a a US spy plane the U-2 over the USSR -incident exposed a secret US tactic for gaining info - since the USSR refused to the open skies policy at the spirit of Geneva in 1955 the US conducted regular spy flights over Soviet territory -Eisenhower took full responsibility for the flights after the exposure of the U-2 incident -Khrushchev denounced the US and walked out of Paris summit to temp. end Cold War thaw

Employment Act 1946

-under Truman -created Council of Economic Advisers to counsel both the president and Congress on means of promoting national economic welfare

Ford' Economic Policy

-wanted to bring inflation under control -urged voluntary measures on part of business and consumers, including wearing WIN buttons (Whip Inflation Now) -inflation did however continue and the economy sank deeper into recession with unemployment rate reaching 9+% -Ford finally agreed to a Democratic package to stimulate the economy

Lyndon Johnson's(LBJ) first steps as the new president

-was determined to expand social reforms of the New Deal -persuaded Congress to pass an expanded version of Kennedy's civil rights bill and Kennedy's proposal for an income tax cut -sparked an increase in jobs, consumer spending , and a long period of economic expansion in sixties

*Reagonomics* Spending Cuts

-with help of conservative southern democrats, republicans cut $40+ billion from domestic programs such as food stamps, student loans, and mass transportation -these savings were offset by a dramatic increase in military spending -Reagan pushed through no cuts in Medicare or Social Security but he signed into law a bipartisan bill to strengthen Social Security -the law increased individual pay into the system, raised the age at which people could get full benefits to 67, and taxed some benefits paid to upper-income recipients

Women's Movement Achievements in 60s

-women moved into professions previously dominated by men:business, law, medicine, politics *Equal Pay Act 1963 and Civil Rights Act 1964* -measures prohibited discrimination in employment and compensation on the basis of gender -poorly enforced (although step for gender equality) -women still experienced "glass ceiling" in corporate world yet it was becoming less prominent

Nuremberg Trials

1945-46 -Allies will try 22 top Nazis along with Soviets for war crimes and a violation of human rights -12 were hung, 7 were sentenced to long term -In America there were legal critics who believe the trials were judicial lynchings -The defendants were being tried for things that were not clear cut offenses at the beginning of the war

National Security Act and Dept. of Defense

1947 -Creates a centralized Dept. of Defense (replaces War Dept) to coordinate the operations of the army, navy, air force -Will be headed by Secretary of Defense -New location in Virginia (Pentagon) -creates the National Security Council (NSC) which coordinates the making of foreign policy in the Cold War -creates CIA to employ spies to gather info on foreign govs -in 1948 Selective Service System and a peacetime draft was instituted

Marshall Plan

1947 -France Italy and Germany are still suffering from economic chaos after wwII -US felt that communist parties could still control these countries -Marshall (Secretary of State ) invited Europeans to create a joint plan for economic recovery -What gets Congress to approve of the Marshall plan was that Czechoslovakia was falling towards communism so we need to prevent more countries from coup d'etats -$12.5 billion will be given to help redo the European countries -Countries succeeded as it was seen as an economic miracle (the economies were revived) -deepened the rift between Western and Eastern Europe -USSR responded with COMECON (their version of the Marshall Plan implemented in their satellite states)

McCarran Internal Security Bill/Act

1950 -Require any communist organization to register -made it unlawful to advocate or support the est. of a totalitarian gov -restricted employment and travel of those joining Communist front organizations -authorized creation of detention camps for subversives -Truman vetoed it although it gave the president authority to arrest and detain any suspicious person -Truman Felt that it was a step to a police state -Congress overturned it because they wanted the president to have these powers

Rosenbergs

1954 Case -Julius and Ethel R. were convicted and executed for giving atomic bomb secrets to the USSR -they Were affiliated with communists -Later discover that the sister did not give enough secrets to the Russians to create damage

Interstate Highway System

1956 -Largest public works project adopted under Eisenhower Provided for the building of 42,000 miles of interstate highway -Justified as necessary for national defense (in case of attack by Soviets) *Impact* created jobs, growth of suburbs, more homogenous culture (no matter where you go, you can almost get the same food anywhere you travel due to fast food) -emphasis on cars, trucks, and highways hurt the railroads and environment -little attention was paid to public transportation on which the old and poor depended

Bay of Pigs Invasion

1961 -Kennedy approved the CIA scheme under Eisenhower to use Cuban exiles to overthrow Castro's regime in Cuba -1961 the CIA force of Cubans landed at Bay of Pigs in Cuba but failed to set off a general uprising -the force had no choice but to surrender after Kennedy Refuses to send air support -Castro used the failed invasion to get even more aid for USSR and strengthen his power

Baker v Carr

1962 -originally many states included at least one house of its legislature(usually senate) that had districts that strongly favored rural areas to the disadvantage of the cities -in Baker v Carr the Warren Court declared this practice unconstitutional -Court est. principle of "one man, one vote" meaning that election districts would have to be redrawn to provide equal representation for all citizens

March on Washington

1963 King led one of the largest and most successful demonstrations in US -200,000 blacks and whites to ok part in the March on Washington in support of civil rights bill -King gave his "I Have a Dream" speech which appealed for the end of racial prejudice

Race Riots in 60s

1965 -arrest of a young black motorist by white police in the black neighborhood of Watts in LA sparked a six-day race riot killing 34 and destroyed 700+ buildings -race riots continued to erupt each summer in black neighborhoods of major cities through 1968 with more casualties and destruction of property -little evidence supported that the small Black Power movement was responsible for the violence -Kerner Commission in 1968 stated that racism and segregation were responsible for the violence and the US was becoming two societies(black vs white) -by mid 1960s issue of civil rights spread beyond de jure segregation and now included de facto segregation and discrimination caused by racist attitudes in North and West

March to Montgomery

1965 -voting rights march from Selma, Alabama to state capitol Montgomery was met with beatings and tear gas -became known as "Bloody Sunday" -TV photos of the event proved to be a turning point in the moment -national outrage moved Johnson to send federal troops to protect King and other marchers -Voting Rights Act was then passed

Affirmative Action

1965 Johnson committed US gov to policy of affirmative action to ensure underprivileged minorities and women would have equal access to education, jobs, and promotions -many whites blamed their suffering through the years of recession and stagflation on affirmative action considering it "reverse discrimination" -In Regents of University of CA v Bakke (1978) supreme Court ruled that while race could be considered, the school had created racial quotas which were unconstitutional -conservatives used the court order to intensify their campaign to end all preferences based on race and ethnicity

Nixon Doctrine

1969 -extended idea of disengagement to other parts of Asia -doctrine declaring that in the future Asian allies would receive US support without extensive use of US ground forces

Gay Liberation Movement

1969 a police raid on the Stonewall Inn (gay bar in NYC) sparked a riot and the gay rights movement -Gay activists urged homosexuals to openly identify and to work to end discrimination and violent abuse -mid 1970s, homosexuality was no longer classified as a mental illness and federal Civil Service dropped its ban on employment of homosexuals -1993 President Clinton tried to end discrimination against gays and lesbians in the military and settled for "dont ask, dont tell" policy -people wouldn't be asked for the sexual identity but the military could still expel gays

Congress's economic policies under Nixon

1972 Congress approved automatic increases for Social Security benefits based on annual rise in cost of living -measure protected seniors, poor, and sailed from effects of inflation -contributed to budget problems in the future -Congress 1972 passed Title IX: statue to end sex discrimination in schools that receive federal funding -law is best known for requirement that schools provide girls with equal athletic opportunities

Watergate Scandal

1972 a group of men hired by Nixon's reelection committee were caught breaking into the offices of Democratic national headquarters in Watergate complex in DC -break in and attempted bugging were part of illegal actives conducted by Nixon admin and Committee to Re-Elect the President (CREEP) -illegal break-in at Watergate reflected the attitude in Nixon admin that any means could promote national security

Genocide in Cambodia

1975 US supported gov in Cambodia fell to Rouge a radical Communist faction that killed 1mi + of its own people to rid the country of western influence -this and Vietnam wars created 10mi refugees -many fled to US

Taxpayers' Revolt

1978 -CA voters led revolt against increasing taxes by passing Proposition 13 -this measure sharply cut property taxes -conservatives nationally promoted economist Laffer's belief that tax cuts would increase gov. revenues -2 Rep members of Congress (Kemp and Roth) proposed legislation to reduce federal taxes by 30% (became basis for Reagan tax cuts)

Camp David Accords

1978 -peace settlement between Egypt and Israel -1977 Egyptian President Sadat visited Israeli Prime Minister Begin in Jerusalem -Carter followed this by inviting Sadat and Begin to meet at presidential retreat in Camp David, Maryland -with Carter as an intermediary, the leaders negotiated the Camp David Accords (sept 1978) which provided framework for a peace settlement between their countries *sig* -as result of peace treaty 1979 Egypt became first Arab nation to recognize the nation of Israel -Israel withdrew troops from Sinai territory taken from Egypt in 6-Day War -treaty opposed by Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and most of Arab world -first step to negotiation and peace in Middle East

*Reagonomics* Recession & Recovery

1982 nation suffered worst recession since 30s -banks failed and unemployment reached 11% -recession and a fall in oil prices did reduce the double-digit inflation rate of late 70s to less than 4% -with Reaganomic policies, the economy rebounded and in 1983 it entered a long period of recovery -recovery only widened the income gap between rich and poor -while upper income grounds such as well-educated workers and yuppies(young urban professionals) had higher incomes from a deregulated market, the standard of living of middle class remained stagnant or declined

Fall of Saigon

April 1975 US supported gov. in Saigon fell to the enemy and Vietnam became one country under Communist gov. in Hanoi -just before collapse US was able to evacuate 150,000 Vietnamese who supported US and faced persecution -fall of South Vietnam marked a low point of American prestige overseas and confidence at home

Great Society Reforms (LBJ) --Congress reform

Congress increased funding for mass transit, public housing, rent subsidies for low-income people, and crime prevention -Johnson est. Dept. of Transportation (DOT) and Dept of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) -in response to Unsafe at Any Speed (1965) by Nader Congress passed automobile regulations saving hundreds of thousands of lives -in response to Rachel Caron's expose of pesticides in Silent Spring (1962) clean air and war laws were passed -federal parks and wilderness areas were expanded -LBJ's wife Lady Bird Johnson had a Beautify America campaign which resulted in the Highway Beautification Act (removed billboards from federal roads)

*Reagonomics* Federal Tax Reduction

Economic Recovery Act 1981: 25% decrease in personal income taxes over three years -cuts in corporate income tax, capital gains, tax, and gift and inheritance taxes guaranteed that a large share of tax relief went to upper-income taxpayers -top income tax rate was reduced to 28% -small investors were also helped by a provision allowing them to invest $2000 a year in Indv. Retirement Accounts (IRAs) without paying taxes on that money

1948 election

Republicans: Dewey Democrats: Truman (2nd election) Sig: within the democratic party factions will start to form which leads to the final split of Reps vs Dems -Left and right wings will split -Left progressive party: Henry Wallace -Conservative Democrats (south) elected Strom Thurmond and are known as Dixiecrats from Dixie (the south) -Dewey was guaranteed a win because the Democrats were split but Truman won by a large margin

Election of 1976

Republicans: Ford was challenged by Reagan for the Rep nomination -Ford won nomination Dems: Carter had a success running as an outsider against DC Corruption -his victories in open primaries reduced influence of more experienced Democratic politicians -Carter won a close election (287 to Ford's 241) -Carter carried most of South and 97% of African American voters -Democrats also won strong majorities in both houses of Congress esp. due to Watergate

Election of 1984

Republicans: Reagan -campaigned on optimistic "It's Morning Again in America" theme Democrats: Jesse Jackson was the first African American to have a strong run for presidency by seeking support of minorities -Democrats nominated Mondale (Carter's VP) as candidate -Reagan took every state expect Mondale's home state of Minnesota -2/3 of white males voted for Reagan -analysis showed only 2 groups favored Democrats: African Americans and those earning less than $12,500 /year

SALT I

Strategic Arms Limitations Talks 1972 -Nixon used his new relationship with China to put pressure on the Soviets to agree to a treaty limiting antiballistic missiles(ABMs) -after SALT I US diplomats secured Soviet consent to a freeze on the number of ballistic missiles carrying nuclear warheads -this agreement was a signification step toward reducing Cold War tensions and bringing about détente

Nixon's Southern Strategy to form a Republican majority

appealed to millions of voters who had become disaffected by antiwar protests, black militants, school busing to racial balance, and the excesses of youth culture -Nixon referred to these conservatives as the 'silent majority' -many were democrats including southern whites, northern Catholic blue-collars, and recent suburbanites who did not approve of the Democratic liberal drift -Nixon won over the south by asking federal courts to delay integration plans and busing orders -nominated two southern conservatives to Supreme Court -courts rejected his requests and Senate refused to confirm the nominees however, but his strategy won him more southern white voters