APUSH Vocab (All Chapters)

Kaiser Wilhelm II

This was the ruler in Germany during World War I that many Americans saw as the embodiment of arrogant autocracy, an impression strengthened by Germany's ruthless strike at neutral Belgium.

Oak

This was the symbol of Quincy Adams for the independent candidate.

Saint Augustine, Florida (1565)

This was the very first "Old World" settlement in the "New World" by Spain

Jamestown

First permanent English settlement in North America founded by the Virginia Company

Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)

Organization formed from the former republics of the Soviet Union in 1991.

Rock n' Roll

"Crossover" musical style that rose to dominance in the 1950s, merging black rhythm and blues with white bluegrass and country. Featuring a heavy beat and driving rhythm, this music became a defining feature in 1950s youth culture.

Samuel de Champlain

"Father of new France" French explorer in Nova Scotia who established a settlement on the site of modern Quebec (1567-1635)

(Secretary of War) Henry Stimson

"If you are going to try to go to war in a capitalist country, you have to let business make money out of the process, or business won't work." Who said this, reflecting the boom of industry during World War 2?

Franklin Delano Roosevelt

"Let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear itself." Who said this at their inaugural address to calm the nation during the Great Depression?

noche triste (June 30, 1520)

"Sad night", when the Aztecs attacked Hernan Cortes and his forces in the Aztec capital, Tenochitlan. After this however, Cortes would laid seige to the city and capitulated it on August 13, 1521.

Samuel Slater

"The Father of the Factory System," this skilled British mechanic memorized the plans for textile machines and escaped to America, put into operation in 1791 the first efficient American machinery for spinning cotton thread. Upon his arrival in America he was backed by Moses Brown, a Quaker capitalist in Rhode Island, to reconstruct the plans he memorized.

The Battle of Saratoga (October 17, 1777)

"The Turning Point" of the Revolutionary war in the patriots favor. This American victory on October 17, 1777, helped secure French support for the American Revolution.

William T. Johnson

"The barber of Natchez," this freed black owned property and even slaves. He was the master of fifteen slaves and his daily records that in June 1848 he flogged two slaves and a mule.

Walker Tariff (1846)

*This was Polk's treasury's proposal for a lowered tariff bill, lowering the rates from 32% on dutiable goods down to 25%.* With the strong support of southerners, this bill was passed through congress despite the complain of New Englanders and Clayites, who argued that American manufacturing would be ruined. However, this tariff proved to be an excellent revenue producer, largely because it was followed by boom times and heavy imports.

Gettysburg Address (1863)

*Abraham Lincoln's two minute speech at the cemetery of the Gettysburg battlefield which was branded by the London Times as "ludicrous" and by Democratic editors as "dishwatery" and "silly." During this speech, Lincoln framed the war as a means to uphold the values of liberty.* Though it attracted very little attention at the time, the president was speaking for the ages, and later became one of his most famous speeches.

Lecompton Constitution (1857)

*This tricky document devised by proslaveryites stated that the people were not allowed to vote for or against the constitution as a whole, but for a constitution either "with slavery" or "with no slavery."* If the people voted for slavery, however, the owners who already owned slaves in Kansas would be protected. President James Buchanan threw the weight of his administration behind this document, while Senator Stephen A. Douglas was against it and rather for popular sovereignty.

conquistadores

16th century Spaniards who fanned out across the Americas, eventually conquering the Aztec and Incan empires

Radical Whigs

18th century British political commentators who agitated against political corruption and emphasized the threat to liberty posed by arbitrary power

Bank War (1832)

A "war" which erupted as a result of Daniel Webster and Henry Clay presenting Congress with a bill to renew the Bank of the United States' charter. (It was not set to expire until 1836, but Clay pushed for renewal four years early to make it an election issue.) Jackson vetoed the Bank Bill, arguing that the bank favored moneyed interests at the expense of western farmers.

Southern Renaissance

A literary outpouring among mid-20th-century southern writers, begun by William Faulkner and marked by a new critical appreciation of the region's burdens of history, racism, and conservatism.

London Economic Conference (1933)

A 66-nation economic conference organized to organize a coordinated international "attack" on the global depression. The conference mainly sought to stabilize the values of the various nations' currencies and the rates at which they could be exchanged (they hoped to revive world trade). FDR originally agreed to send delegates, but eventually pulled out, wishing to pursue his gold-juggling and other inflationary policies domestically, not wanting to risk domestic recovery for international cooperation. FDR's refusal to cooperate plunged the world deeper into economic crisis and strengthened nationalism in some countries, such as Germany and Italy.

Edward Braddock

A British commander during the French and Indian War. He attempted to capture Fort Duquesne in 1755. He was defeated by the French and the Indians. At this battle, he was mortally wounded.

William Pitt

A British leader from 1757-1758. He was a leader in the London government, and earned himself the name, "Organizer of Victory". He led and won a war against Quebec. Pittsburgh was named after him

Haymarket Square (1886)

A May Day rally that turned violent when someone threw a bomb into the middle of the meeting, killing several dozen people. Eight anarchists were arrested for conspiracy contributing to the disorder, although evidence linking them to the bombing was thin. Four were executed, one committed suicide, and three were pardoned in 1893. This would be a major factor that leads to the downfall of the Knights of Labor as they were associated in the public mind, though mistakenly, with the anarchists.

Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) (1933)

A New Deal program established by the Emergency Congress to raise agricultural prices by paying farmers not to farm. It was based on the assumption that higher prices would increase farmers' purchasing power and thereby help alleviate the Great Depression. The millions of dollars needed for these payments were to be raised by taxing processors of farm products, such as flour millers, who would shift the burden to customers. Unlike other programs, this one actually increased unemployment. It would be killed in 1936 by the Supreme Court, causing rejoice as everyone affected by it was unhappy to some degree.

Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) (1938)

A New Deal-era labor organization that broke away from the AFL in order to organize unskilled industrial workers regardless of their particular economic sector or craft. This organization gave a great boost to labor organizing in the midst of the Great Depression and during WWII. By 1940 the union could claim 4 million members, 200,00 which were black. In 1955, the organization would once more merge with the AFL.

Fundamentalism

A Protestant Christian movement emphasizing the literal truth of the Bible and opposing religious modernism, which sought to reconcile religion and science. It was especially strong in the Baptist Church and the Church of Christ, first organized in 1906. People of this movement believed that the teaching of Darwinian evolution was destroying faith in God and the bible.

Pleggy v. Ferguson (1896)

A Supreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of segregation laws, saying that as long as blacks were provided with "separate but equal" faculties, these laws did not violate the 14 Amendment. This decision provided legal justification for the Jim Crow system until the 1950s.

United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA)

A black nationalist organization founded in 1914 by the Jamaican-born Marcus Garvey in order to promote resettlement of African Americans to their "African homeland" and to stimulate a vigorous separate black economy within the United States. Although Garvey would be convicted for mail fraud, this organization inspired 4 million blacks, which helped the newcomers to northern cities gain self-confidence and self-reliance. Garvey's example would be important to the later founding of the Nation of Islam movement.

The Federalist

A book of the pro-federalist essays designed as propaganda, which became the most penetrating commentary every written on the Constitution. Written primarily by John Jay, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton (Most famous was Madison's)

McCarthyism

A brand of vitriolic, fear-mongering anti-Communism associated with the career of the senator it's named after. In the early 1950s, this senator used his position in Congress to baselessly accuse high-ranking government officials and other Americans of conspiracy with communism. The term named after him refers to the dangerous forces of unfairness and fear wrought by anti-communist paranoia.

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

A brilliant formulation of the extreme states' rights view regarding the Union. These were statements secretly drafted by Jefferson and Madison for the legislatures of Kentucky and Virginia. They were made in hopes that it would crystallize opposition to the Federalist party and unseat it in the upcoming 1800 election.

American Plan

A business-oriented approach to workers relations popular among firms during the red scare in the 1920s to defeat unionization. Managers sought to strengthen their communication with workers and to offer benefits like pensions and insurance. Using the anti-communist feeling of the era, they insisted on an "open shop" in contrast to the "closed shop," which was demanded by labor activists.

Students for a Democratic Society

A campus-based political organization founded in 1961 by Tom Hayden that became an iconic representation of the New Left. Originally geared toward the intellectual promise of "participatory democracy," this organization emerged at the forefront of the civil rights, antipoverty, and antiwar movements during the 1960s.

Nathanael Greene

A colonial general who used the fighting tactic of retreating and getting the English to pursue him for miles, biding his time and waiting for the chance to make a move. He eventually helped clear Georgia and South Carolina of British troops. aka "Fighting Quaker."

Holding Companies

A company that uses interlocking directorates to own part or all of the other companies' stock in order to extend monopoly control. Often, these companies do not produce goods or services of its own but only exists to control other companies. The Clayton Anti-Trust sought to clamp down on these companies when they obstructed competition through interlocking directorates.

Credit Mobilier Scandal (1872)

A construction company was formed by owners of the Union Pacific Railroad for the purpose of receiving government contracts to build the railroad at highly inflated prices--and profits. A scandal erupted when journalists discovered that the Credit Mobilier Company has bribed congressmen and even the Vice President in order to allow the ruse to continue.

"The Lost Generation"

A creative circle of expatriate American artists and writers including Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Gertrude Stein, who found shelter and inspiration in post-World War I Europe.

Harlem Renaissance

A creative outpouring among African-American writers, jazz musicians, and social thinkers, centered around a New York neighborhood in the 1920s, that celebrated black culture and advocated for a "New Negro," which was a full citizen and social equal to whites, within American social, political and intellectual life. Some contributors to this creativity included Langston Hughes and Louis Armstrong.

John C. Fremont

A dashing explorer who just "happened" to be in California with several dozen well-armed men who helped to overthrow Mexican rule in 1846. He collaborated with American naval officers and local Americans to create the California Republic.

Good Neighbor Policy

A departure from the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, this new policy stressed nonintervention in Latin America. It was begun by Herbert Hoover but was associated with FDR. With this, the last of the Marines departed from Haiti in 1934 and with the abolishment of the Platt Amendment of Cuba (although the U.S. retained its naval base at Guantanamo). Washington also released its grip from the Panama Canal. It received an acid test in Mexico when the Mexican government seized Yankee oil properties and the U.S. did not declare war. This strengthened relations between the U.S. and Latin America, the southern countries now seeing the U.S. as peaceful.

"Blue bellies"

A derogatory nickname for Union soldiers occupying the South by Southerners during Reconstruction.

Abu Ghraib Prison

A detention facility near Baghdad, Iraq. Under Saddam Hussein, the prison was the site of infamous torturing and execution of political dissidents. In 2004, during the U.S. occupation of Iraq, the prison became the focal point of a prisoner-abuse and torture scandal after photographers surfaced of American soldiers mistreating, torturing, and degrading Iraqi war prisoners and suspected terrorists. The scandal was one of several dark spots on the public image of the Iraq War and led to increased criticism of Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld.

New England Emigrant Aid Company

A famous antislavery organization in Kansas which sent about two thousand people to prevent slavery being established within the territory - and also to make a profit. Shouting "Ho for Kansas," many of the members carried the deadly new sharp rifles, nicknamed "Beecher's Bibles, After Rev. Henry Ward Beecher (Harriet Beecher Stowe's brother) who helped raise money for their purchase.

Poor Richard's Almanack

A famous publication written by Benjamin Franklin ("The first civilized American") which contained many pithy sayings and emphasized such homespun virtues as thrift, industry, morality, and common sense. "Honest is the best policy" derives from this publication.

McNary-Haugen Bill

A farm-relief bill that was championed from 1924-1928 and aimed to keep the agricultural prices high by authorizing the government to buy up surpluses and sell them abroad, while government losses were to be made up by a special tax on farmers. Congress twice passed the bill, but President Coolidge vetoed it in 1927 and 1928.

Peace Corps (1961)

A federal agency created by President Kennedy to promote voluntary service by Americans (usually teachers, doctors, young people, etc.) in foreign countries. This agency provided labor power to help developing countries improve their infrastructure, health care, educational systems, and other aspects of their societies. The organization represented an effort by postwar liberals to promote American values and influence through productive exchanges across the world.

Homestead Act (1862)

A federal law that gave settlers 160 acres of land for about $30 if they lived on it for five years and improved it by, for instance, building a house on it. The act helped make land accessible to hundreds of thousands of westward-moving settlers, but many people also found disappointment when their land was infertile or they saw speculators grabbing the best land. Free land under this act during the Civil War era was a major magnet for settlers moving westward.

Triangle Shirtwaist Company

A fire at this company demonstrated that laws regulating factories were worthless if not enforced. Locked doors and other violations of the fire code turned this factory into a death trap in which 146 workers were incinerated or leaped to their deaths. After this, the New York legislature passed much stronger laws regulating the hours and conditions of sweatshop toil. Other legislatures followed and eventually workers were provided with insurance.

Big Sister Policy

A foreign policy of Secretary of State James G. Blaine, this aimed at rallying the Latin American nations behind the United States' leadership and opening Latin American markets to Yankee traders. This policy bore fruit when Blaine presided over the First International Conference of the United States in 1889.

Nation-states

A form of political organization in which a group of people who share the same history, traditions, or language live in a particular area under one government

John Jacob Astor

A fur-trader and real estate speculator who left an estate of $30 million on his death in 1848.

Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) (1932)

A government lending agency established under the Hoover administration in order to assist insurance companies, banks, agricultural organizations, railroads, and local governments. It was a precursor to later agencies that grew out of the New Deal and symbolized a recognition by the Republicans that some federal action was required to address the Great Depression. However, this "billion-dollar soup kitchen" would not lend money to individuals. Giant Corporations benefited from this assistance so much, this was also called "the millionaires' dole."

Committee on Public Information (1917)

A government office during WWI known popularly as the Creel Committee for its chairman George Creel, it was dedicated to winning everyday Americans' support for the war effort. It regularly distributed pro-war propaganda and sent out an army of "four-minute men" to rally crows and deliver "patriotic pep." *The main goal of this office was to sell America on the war and sell the world on Wilsonian war aims.*

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) (1933)

A government program created by the Emergency Congress to hire young unemployed men to improve the rural, out-of-doors environment with such work as planting trees, fighting fires, flood control, draining swamps, and most importantly maintaining National Parks. The recruits were required to help their parents by sending home most of their pay. This program proved to be an important foundation for the post-WWII environmental movement.

Operation Wetback

A government program to roundup and deport as many as one million illegal Mexican migrant workers in the United States. The program was promoted in party by the Mexican government and reflected burgeoning concerns about non-European immigration to America.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

A governmental organization signed into law by Richard Nixon in 1970 designed to regulate pollution, emissions, and other factors that negatively influence the natural environment. The creation of this marked a newfound commitment by the federal government to actively combat environmental risks and was a significant triumph for the environmentalist movement.

Stephen Austin

A huge tract of land in Texas was granted to this person, with the understanding that he would bring three hundred American families to Texas.

D-Day (June 6, 1944)

A massive military operation led by American forces and American General Eisenhower in Normandy, France. Here, the Allies achieved mastery of the air over France and were thus able to cripple railroads for German use s well as worsen German fuel shortages by bombing gasoline-producing plants. This pivotal Battle led to the liberation of France (Paris in August 1944) and brought on the final phases of World War II in Europe.

Trust

A mechanism by which one company grants control over its operations, through ownership of its stock, to another company. The Standard Oil Company and John D. Rockefeller become known for this practice in the 1870s as it eliminated its competition by taking control of smaller oil companies. With this practice, the Standard Oil Company soon cornered virtually the entire world petroleum market. This word came to be used to describe any large-scale business combination

William Wilberforce

A member of the British Parliament and an evangelical Christian reformer whose family had been touched by the teaching of George Whitefield.

Oneida Community (1848)

A more radical colony was founded in New York which practiced free love ("complex marriage"), birth control (through "male continence" or coitus reservatus) , and the eugenic selection of parents to produce superior offspring. This curious enterprise flourished for more than thirty years, largely because its artisans made superior steel traps.

American Federation of Labor (1886)

A national organization of trade unions that only included skilled workers that was led by Samuel Gompers, a colorful Jewish cigar maker, for nearly four decades. This organization sought to negotiate with employers for a better king of capitalism that rewarded workers fairly with better wages, hours, and conditions. The membership was almost entirely white and male until the middle of the 1900s. It consisted of self-governing national unions, each of which kept its independence, with this organization unifying overall strategy. No individual laborer could join the central organization. This Union would fail at actually speaking for all workers, as it fell short of being representative of them. It was composed of only skilled craftsmen and was unwilling to help unskilled laborers, like women and blacks. Critics would refer to this union as "the labor trust."

Scalawags

A nickname given to Pro-Union Southerners, often former Unionists and Whigs, who were accused, by Southern Democrats, of plundering the treasuries of the Southern states through their political influence in the radical governments after the Civil War.

George Catlin

A painter and student of Native American life, he was among the first Americans to advocate the preservation of nature as a deliberate national policy. Appalled at Native Americans slaughtering Buffalo in South Dakota in order to trade with the white settlers, he proposed the idea of a national park. Therefore, in 1872, this person made the Yellowstone-the first national park.

Grandfather Clause

A regulation established in many southern states in the 1890s that exempted from voting requirements (such as poll taxes and literacy tests) anyone who could prove their ancestors had been able to vote in 1860. Since slaves could not vote before the Civil War, these clauses guaranteed the right to vote to many whites while denying it to blacks.

Battle of Little Bighorn (1876)

A particularly violent example of the warfare between whites and Native Americans in the late 1800s that was also known as "Custard's Last Stand." In two days, June 25th and 26th, the combined forces of over 2,000 Sioux, Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians defeated and killed more than 250 U.S. soldiers, including Colonel George Custer in present day Montana. The battle came as the U.S. government tried to compel Native Americans to remain on the reservations and Native Americans tried to defend territory from white gold-seekers. This Indian advantage did not last long, as the union of these Indian fighters proved weak and the United States Army soon exacted retribution. This was one of the few Indian triumphs in the plain wars and was partly the ultimate result of the Fetterman massacre.

Reign of Terror (1793)

A period in the French revolution started with the introduction of the guillotine, and the beheading of the French king.

Battle of Midway (June 3-6, 1942)

A pivotal naval battle of WW2 fought near a Pacific island the battle is named for. Japan planned to take over the island so that it could easily launch attacks on Pearl Harbor and force the weakened American Pacific fleet into destructive combat and possibly compel the U.S. to negotiate a cease-fire. The U.S. victory here is known as the "turning point" of WW2, at least in the Pacific, as it halted Japanese forces.

Wendell Philips

A prominent member of the American Anti-Slavery Society, he was a Boston patrician known as "abolition's golden trumpet." He was a man of strict principle and would eat no cane sugar and wear no cotton cloth since they were both produced by slaves.

Whiskey Rebellion (1794)

A protest by poor western farmers in Pennsylvania caused by Hamilton's high excise tax. It was firmly suppressed by Washington's army

Haitian Revolution (Won independence in 1791)

A rebellion by enslaved Africans in Santo Domingo, inspired by the French Revolution, and led by Toussaint L'Ouverture. This led to creation of the first independent black republic in the Americas. It also ended Napoleon's dreams of a vast New World Empire

Regionalism

A recurring artistic movement, that in the context of the late 1800s, aspired to capture the peculiarities, or "local color," of America's various regions in the face of modernization and national standardization. At first glimpse, these writers highlighted the differences among still-distant American locales and indulged in a bit of provincial nostalgia. However, at the same time, their work served to demystify regional differences, especially among national audiences bent on postwar reunification.

Social Gospel

A reform movement led by Protestant ministers who used religious doctrine to demand better housing and living conditions for the urban poor. Popular at the turn of the 20th century, it was closely linked to the settlement house movement. Messengers of this movement promoted a brand of progressivism based on Christian teachings.

Brook Farm (1841)

A result of the Utopian, communal age, this colony in Massachusetts composed of two hundred acres of grudging soil was started with the brotherly and sisterly cooperation of about twenty intellectuals committed to transcendentalism. This society prospered reasonably well for 5 years until it lost, by fire, a large new communal building shortly before its completion. The whole venture in "plain living and high thinking" then collapsed in debt. This "experiment" inspired Nathaniel Hawthorne's' novel The Blithedale Romance (1852)

Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

A sentimental triumph of the 1920s peace movement, this agreement linked 62 nations in the supposed "outlawry of war." It become officially known as the Pact of Paris, but was originally known for the American Secretary of State under Coolidge who would win a Nobel Peace Prize for his role. This pact lacked muscles and teeth, as defensive wars were permitted, making the pact virtually useless in a showdown. It reflected the American sense of false securities in the 1920s.

Wilderness Campaign

A series of brutal clashes between General Grant's and General Lee's armies in Virginia, leading up to Grant's capture of Richmond in 1865. This led to the surrender of Robert E. Lee and the end of the Civil War.

Whitewater

A series of scandals during the Clinton Administration that stemmed from a failed real estate investment from which the Clintons were alleged to have illicitly profited. The accusations prompted the appointment of a special federal prosecutor, though no indictments.

Fordism

A system of assembly-line manufacturing and mass production named after the developer of the Model T car and founder of his large scale Motor Company. This method was so efficient and economical, cars were being sold for $260 - well within the purse of a thrifty worker. Soon, this method would spread outside the U.S., especially in Germany.

Open Door note (1899-1900)

A set of diplomatic letters in which Secretary of State John Hay urged the great powers to respect Chinese rights and free and open competition within their spheres of influence. The notes established a policy which sought to ensure access to the Chinese market for the U.S., despite the fact that it did not have a formal sphere of influence in China. This would lead to the Boxer Rebellion, as the Chinese did not care to be a doormat for the West.

Lochner v. New York (1905)

A setback for labor reformers, this Supreme Court decision invalidated a state law establishing a ten-hour day for bakers. It held that the "right to free contract" was implicit in the due process clause of the 14th amendment.

Beat Generation

A small group of people of mid-20th-century bohemian writers and personalities, including Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, and William S. Burroughs, who bemoaned bourgeois conformity and advocated free-form experimentation in life and literature.

Unitarians

A spinoff of Puritanism inspired by Deism, this faith held that God existed in only one person and not in the orthodox Trinity. Although denying the deity of Jesus, these people stressed the essential goodness of human nature rather than its vileness; they proclaimed their belief in free will and possibility of salvation through good works; they pictured God not as a stern Creator, but a loving father. This belief appealed to many intellectuals, such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, whose rationalism and optimism contrasted sharply with the hellfire doctrines of Calvinism.

Miranda Warning

A statement of an arrested person's constitutional rights, which police officers must read during an arrest. This came out of the Supreme Court's decision Miranda v. Arizona in 1966 that accused people have the right to remain silent, consult an attorney, and enjoy other protections. The Court declared that law enforcement officers must make sure suspects understand their constitutional rights, thus creating a safeguard against forced confessions and self-implication.

Homestead Strike (1892)

A strike at a Carnegie steel plant in Homestead, PA that ended in an armed battle between the strikers, three hundred armed "Pinkerton" detectives hired by Carnegie, and federal troops, which killed ten people and wounded more than sixty. The strike was party of a nationwide wave of labor unrest in the summer of this year that helped the Populists gain some support from industrial workers.

Proposition 13 (1978)

A successful California state ballot initiative that capped the state's real estate tax at 1 percent of assessed value. The proposition radically reduced average property tax levels, decreasing revenue for the state government and signaling the political power of the "tax revolt," increasingly assigned with conservative politics.

Tweed Ring

A symbol of Gilded Age corruption, "Boss" Tweed and his deputies ran the New York City Democratic party in the 1860s and swindled $200 million from the city through bribery, graft, and vote-buying. Boss Tweed was eventually jailed for his crimes and died behind bars.

Scientific Management

A system of industrial management created and promoted in the early 20th century by Frederick W. Taylor, emphasizing stopwatch efficiency to improve factory performance. The system to eliminate waste motion gained immense popularity across the U.S. and Europe.

Australian Ballot

A system that allowed voters privacy in marking their ballot choices. Developed in the country which bears its name in the 1850s, it was introduce to the U.S. during the progressive era to help counteract boss rule.

Patronage

A system, prevalent during the Gilded Age, in which political parties granted jobs and favors to party regulars who delivered votes on election day. These Jeffersonians who watched the Federalist appointees grow old in office and rumored that "Few die, none resign"

Patronage

A system, prevalent during the Gilded Age, in which political parties granted jobs and favors to party regulars who delivered votes on election day. This was both an essential wellspring of support for both parties and a source of conflict within the Republican party.

Tariff (1789)

A tax levied on imports; the first law of this imposed a low tax on about 8 percent of the value of dutiable imports.

Gilded Age

A term given to the period 1865-1896 by Mark Twain, indicated both the fabulous wealth and the widespread corruption of the era.

Fourth-Party System

A term scholars used to describe national politics from 1896-1932, which signaled a break from the previous system in place in 1860. This term is used to describe when Republicans had a tight grip on the White House and issues such as industrial regulation and labor concerns became paramount, replacing older concerns such as civil service reform and monetary policy. This long reign of Republican political dominance was also accompanied by diminishing voter participation and the weakening of party organizations.

Treaty of Kanagawa (March 31, 1844)

A treaty between the Japanese and the United States, it provided for proper treatment of shipwrecked sailors, American coaling rights in Japan, and the establishment of consular relations. With this, the U.S. had cracked Japan's two-century shell of isolation wide-open.

Treaty of Ghent (1814)

A treaty signed on Christmas Eve that ended the War of 1812, basically with an armistice: fighting had ceased and all conquered territory had been restored. No mention was made of the reasons the Americans fought: Orders in Council, impressment, or search and seizures.

Pinckney's Treaty (1795)

A treaty with Spain that granted the Americans virtually everything they demanded: Free navigation of the Mississippi,the right of deposit (warehouse rights) at New Orleans, and the large disputed territory of western Florida. Made in response to Spain's worries of Anglo-American alliance through Jay's Treaty.

Closed Shop

A union-organizing term that refers to the practice of allowing only unionized employees to work for a particular company. The AFL (American Federation of Labor) became known for negotiating these agreements with employers, in which the employer would agree not to hire non-union members. This was a major goal of Samuel Gompers in the AFL.

Freedom Summer

A voter registration drive in Mississippi spearheaded by a coalition of civil rights groups. The campaign drew the activism of thousands of black and white civil rights workers, many of whom were students from the north, and was 'disfigured' by the abduction and ,murder of three such workers at the hands of white racists.

Black Hawk War (1832)

A war started by Sauk and Fox braves from Illinois and Wisconsin, ably led by Black Hawk, resisting eviction under the Indian Removal Act. They were crushed by regular troops, including Lieutenant Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, and by volunteers, including Captain Abraham Lincoln of Illinois.

War of Jenkins's Ear

A war that broke out in 1738 between the British and the Spaniards; it was confined to the Caribbean Sea and to the much-buffeted buffer colony of Georgia.

Cult of Domesticity

A widespread cultural creed that glorified the customary functions of the homemaker. Wives and mothers, from their pedestal, commanded immense moral power, and increasingly made decisions that altered the character of the family itself.

League of Nations

A world organization proposed by Woodrow Wilson and established by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. It worked to facilitate peaceful international cooperation. Despite emotional appeals by Wilson, isolationists' objections to the League created much conflict in the U.S. ratifying the Treaty of Versailles. Wilson would have to partly abandon his Fourteen Points to pursue this.

Panic of 1873

A world-wide depression that began in the United States when one of the nation's largest banks abruptly declared bankruptcy, leading to the collapse of thousands of banks and businesses. The crisis intensified debtors' calls for inflationary measures such as the printing of more paper money and the unlimited coinage of silver. Conflicts over monetary policy greatly influenced politics in the last quarter of the nineteenth century.

Marquis de Lafayette

A young successful French general who helped Washington fight.

Carl Schurz

A zealous German immigrant, he was a relentless fore of slavery and public corruption and contributed richly to the elevation of American political life.

Canadian Shield

A zone under-girded by ancient rock, probably first part of the North American landmass to emerge above sea level

Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (2010)

AKA as "Obamacare," this Act extended health care insurance to some 30 million Americans, marking a major step toward achieving the century-old goal of universal health care coverage for all citizens.

Immigration Act of 1924

AKA the "National Origins Act," this law established quotas for immigration to the United States (and replaced the previous Emergency Quota Act of 1921). Immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe were sharply curtailed, while immigrants from Asia were shut out altogether. Newcomers from Europe were restricted in any given year to a definite quota, which was set at 2 percent of the people of their nationality who had been living in the United States in 1890. This act marked the end of an era-a period of virtually unrestricted immigration had now ended. Less than 10 years after this act, more immigrants left the U.S. than immigrants came into the U.S. - a first for American history.

Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act

AKA the Dodd-Frank Act, after its Democratic Sponsors. In an effort to avoid another financial crisis like the Great Recession, the Act updated many federal regulations affecting the financial and banking systems, and created some new agencies such as the Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection.

Wagner Act (1935)

AKA the National Labor Relations Act, this law protected the right of labor to organize in unions and bargain collectively with employers, and established the National Labor Relations Board to monitor unfair labor practices on the part of employers. Its passage marked the culmination of decades of labor protest. It was considered the Magna Carta of American Labor and proved to be a major milestone for workers. Under the Board, the Committee (Congress) for Industrial Organization would be able to thrive.

American Anti-Slavery Society (1833)

Abolitionist society founded by William Lloyd Garrison which advocated the immediate abolition of slavery.

Impressment

Act of forcibly drafting an individual into military service, employed by the British navy against American seamen in times of war against France, 1793-1815.

Battle of Bunker Hill

Actually mostly fought on Breed's hill. A patriot defeat, but at a heavy cost of Redcoat soldiers (450 lost patriots vs 1000 lost British)

Dominion of New England (1686)

Administrative union created by royal authority, incorporating all of New England, New York and East and West Jersey

Chesapeake Affair (1807)

Affair of American ship fired on by British, nearly leading to war between the two countries.

Responsorial

African practices persisted this style of preaching, in which the congregation frequently punctuated the minister's remarks with assents and amens-and adaption of the give-and-take between caller and dancers in the African ringshot dance.

West African Squadron

After Britain abolished the slave trade in 1807 this group in the Royal Navy seized hundreds of slave ships and freed thousands of grateful captives.

20th Amendment (1933)

After FDR was elected into office and Herbert Hoover's "lame duck period" seemed especially long, this amendment was created, moving the inauguration date of the president from March 4 to January 20th.

Great Rapprochement

After decades of occasionally "twisting the lions tail," American diplomats began to cultivate close relations with Great Britain, in which the British started to "pat the eagle's head" at the end of the 1800s, a relationship that would intensify during World War I. Also called reconciliation, this was when the British wished to cultivate Yankee friendship after the United States started to fend for itself and act on the Monroe Doctrine.

Mining Industry

After gold and silver strikes in Colorado, Nevada and other western territories in the second half of the 1800s, fortune seekers by the thousands rushed to the West to dig (called "fifty-niners" or "Pikes Peakers"). These metals were essential to U.S. industrial growth and were also sold into world markets. After surface metals were removed, people sought ways to extract ore from underground, leading to the development of heaving mining machinery. This, in turn, led to the consolidation of this industry, because early big companies could afford to buy and build the necessary machines. With big business coming into this industry the once-independent gold-washer became just another day worker and were often replaced with professional engineers.

Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890)

After prolonged fighting between people and monopolies, Congress finally passed this act into law which forbade combinations in restraint of trade, without any distinction between "good trusts" and "bad" trusts. Bigness, not badness, was the sin in Congress's eyes. The law proved to be ineffective in its intent, but it was later used to curb labor unions or labor combinations that were deemed to be restraining to trade, as the courts tended to side with companies in legal cases. However, in 1914 the Act would be revised so it could more effectively be used against monopolistic corporations.

War Refugee Board (1942)

After reports of Nazi genocide began to be verified, FDR created this, which saved thousands of Hungarian Jews from deportation to the death camp Auschwitz. However, because it was installed so late into the war, only 150,000 Jews (mostly Germans and Austrians) found refuge in the U.S., while 6 million had been murdered in the Holocaust.

Schenck v. United States (1919)

After some critics claimed that the Espionage and Sedition Acts were breaking the First Amendment, the Supreme Court affirmed their legality in this court case, arguing that freedom of speech could be revoked when such speech posed a "clear and present danger" to the nation.

Neutrality Act of 1939

After the invasion of Poland and start of WWII, this act stipulated that European democracies might buy American munitions, but only if they could pay in cash and transport them in their own ships. The terms were known as "Cash-and-Carry." It represented an effort to avoid war debts and protect American arms-carriers from torpedo attacks, like in WWI. It also authorized FDR to proclaim danger zones into which American merchant ships would be forbidden to enter. *This act not only improved the U.S. moral positions by helping France and Britain, but also its economic position, as the demand for war goods brought a sharp upswing in the economy, solving the decade-long unemployment crisis.*

"Speakeasies"

After the passage of the 18th amendment, these new bars were secretive and provided bootlegged alcohol illegally to buyers. Often this alcohol was too strong and would lead to alcohol poisoning or death.

Sheppard-Towner Maternity Act (1921)

After the passage of the 19th amendment, Congress affirmed its support for women in their traditional role as mothers with this act (appealing to new women voters), which provided federally financed instruction in maternal and infant health care. With this act, the federal government also expanded its responsibility for family welfare.

Quebec Act

Allowed the French residents of Quebec to retain their traditional political and religious institutions, and extended the boundaries of the province southward to the Ohio River.

Half-Way Covenant (1662)

Agreement allowing unconverted offspring of church members to baptize their children, but not "full communion."

Nine-Power Treaty (1922)

Agreement coming out of the Washington "Disarmament" Conference of 1921-1922 that pledged Britain, France, Italy, Japan, the U.S., China, Portugal, Belgium, and the Netherlands to abide by the Open Door policy in China.

Mayflower Compact

Agreement to form a majoritarian government in Plymouth, signed aboard the Mayflower. This pact was a promising and one of the first steps toward self-government.

Three-sister farming

Agricultural system employed by North American Indians; maize, beans, squash

Macon's Bill No. 2

Aimed at resuming peaceful trade with Britain and France, the act stipulated that if either Britain or France repealed its trade restrictions, the US would reinstate the embargo against the non-repealing nation. With this bargaining measure, the Congress dismantled the embargo completely.

Excise Tax (1791)

Alexander Hamilton secured this tax from Congress on a few domestic items, notably Whiskey.

Assumption

Alexander Hamilton's policy of having the federal government pay the financial obligations of the states. Hamilton believed that this would chain the states more tightly to the "federal chariot". Hamilton wanted to take in all the states' debts, totaling about $25 million

Corrupt Bargain

Alleged deal between presidential candidates John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay to throw the election, to be decided by the House of Representatives, in Adams' favor. Though never proven, the accusation became the rallying cry for supporters of Andrew Jackson, who had actually garnered a plurality of the popular vote in 1824

Fugitive Slave Law (1850)

Also called the "Bloodhound Bill" or the "Man-Stealing Law," this law stirred up a storm of opposition in the North. This law stated that all slaves that had escaped to the North must be returned to their masters, but the fleeing slaves could not testify on their own behalf and they were denied a jury trial. These harsh practices, some citizens feared, threatened to create dangerous precedents for white Americans. Under this law, the federal commissioner who handled the case received five dollars if the slave was set free and ten if they were sent back to slavery- an arrangement that resembled a bribe. However, Northerners, in sound conscience, could not return runaway slaves and therefore the South won little to nothing in the Compromise.

Constitutional Union Party

Also called the "Do Nothing" or "Old Gentlemen's" party, this party was a "middle-of-the-road group" wanting neither Douglas nor Breckenridge as president. It mainly consisted of former Whigs and Know-Nothings, this group met in Baltimore and nominated John Bell of Tennessee as their presidential candidate for the election of 1860. They campaigned ringing hand bells for Bells with the slogan: "The Union, the Constitution, and the Enforcement of the Laws."

Federal Securities Act

Also called the "Truth in Securities Act," this was passed by the Hundred Days congress to curb the "money changers" who had had played a part with gullible investors before the Wall Street crash of 1929. The Act required promoters to transmit to investors sworn information regarding the soundness of their stocks and bonds.

Eighteenth Amendment (1919)

Also called the "dry amendment," this amendment outlawed the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages. It ushered in the era known as Prohibition. It would lead to illegal activity regarding alcohol, such as people creating their own or going to a "speakeasy" to get a drink. This amendment was popular in the South and West.

Indian Reorganization Act (1934)

Also known as the "Indian New Deal" this partially reversed the Dawes Severalty Act's individualistic approach and belatedly tried to restore the tribal basis of Indian life.

Mormons

Also known as the Church of Jesus Christ and Latter-Day Saints, this native American product, a new religion, was destined to spread its influence worldwide. It was created by Joseph Smith who reported that he received some golden plates from an angel, and when deciphered, it revealed this new religion. These people voted as a unit and drilled their militia for defense purposes. Polygamy accusations arose as well in this religion.

GI Bill (1944)

Also known as the Servicemen's Readjustment Act, this law helped returning WW2 soldiers reintegrate into civilian life by securing loans to buy homes and farms and set up small businesses and *by making tuition available for them to attend college/job-training programs (some 8 million went to school).* The act also intended to cushion the blow of 15 million returning servicemen on the employment market and to nurture the postwar economy.

Fair Labor Standards Act (1938)

Also known as the Wages and Hours Bill, this was an important New Deal labor legislation that regulated minimum wages ($0.40/hr) and maximum hours (40/week) for workers involved in interstate commerce. The law also outlawed labor by children under 16 (sometimes 18). The exclusion of agriculture, service, and domestic workers meant that many blacks, Mexican Americans, and women--who were concentrated in these sectors--did not benefit from the act's protection.

Black Warrior

An American steamer in which a showdown between Spanish officials in cuba happened in 1854 when the seized this steamer. This showdown eventually led to Ostend Manifesto.

Panic of 1857

Although this panic was not as economically devastating as the panic of 1837, it was probably the worst psychologically. This depression was caused by the inpouring of California gold and therefore inflating the national currency; also the demands of the Crimean War in Russia had overstimulated the growing of grain, while overspeculation in land and railroads also devastated the economy even further. The North was the most affected, while the South rode out the depression due to King Cotton, thus cementing Southerners beliefs that they did not need the North. It raised calls in the North for higher tariffs and for free homesteads on western public lands, rather than the government receiving money for the land.

Containment Doctrine

America's strategy against the USSR based on the ideas of George Kennan. This doctrine declared that the USSR and communism were inherently expansionist and had to be stopped from spreading through both military and political pressure. This guided American foreign policy through most of the Cold War. It would lead to the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan. *It was also called the "get-tough-with-Russia" policy.*

Robert R. Livingston

American minister to Paris who joined James Monroe in making a magnificent real estate deal; Made the $15 million deal for Louisiana with France.

Charles Francis Adams

American minister who gradually perceived to the British that ships like the Alabama were a dangerous precedent that might someday be used against them. He also warned the British that if the Laird rams were released into the war, it would mean war between Britain and the U.S., leading to the Royal Navy purchasing them for later use.

Oliver Hazard Perry

American naval officer who captured a British fleet in a furious engagement on Lake Erie.

Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act (1933)

An act creating the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), which insured individual bank deposits and ended a century-long tradition of unstable banking that had reached a crisis in the Great Depression. This act insured individual deposits up to $5,000 originally, meaning that the bank would protect up to that amount in the state of a crisis.

Espionage Act (1917)

An act prohibiting interference with the draft and other acts of national "disloyalty." Along with the Sedition Act it created a climate that was unfriendly to civil liberties. The act especially target Socialists and members of the Industrial Workers of the World. Eugene V. Debs, socialist and hero of the Pullman strike, was sentenced to ten years.*It reflected fears about Germans and antiwar Americans during WWI.*

Benjamin Franklin

American public official, writer, scientist, and printer. After the success of his Poor Richard's Almanac (1732-1757), he entered politics and played a major part in the American Revolution. He negotiated French support for the colonists, signed the Treaty of Paris (1783), and helped draft the Constitution (1787-1789). His numerous scientific and practical innovations include the lightning rod, bifocal spectacles, and a stove.

American Relief and Recovery Act

Among the earliest initiatives of the Obama Administration to combat the Great Recession. It was based on the economic theories of John Maynard Keynes that called for increased government spending to offset decreased private spending in times of economic downturn. The Act was controversial from the outset, passing with no Republican votes in the House, and only three in the Senate, and helping to foster the "Tea Party" movement to curb government deficits, even while critics on the Left argued that the Act's &787 billion appropriation was not enough to turn the economy around.

The Constitution

An American frigate which had thick sides, heavy firepower and very large crews. On this ship, one sailor out of six was a freed black. Also known as "Old Ironsides"

Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941)

An American naval base in Hawaii where Japanese warplanes destroyed numerous ships and caused 3,000 casualties on this "Black Sunday," which FDR said was to "live in infamy." This attack would lead to the U.S. officially declaring war 4 days later, unanimously in the Senate and one vote short of unaminity in the House.

Teapot Dome Scandal (1921)

An affair of Harding's "Ohio Gang" that involved the illegal lease of priceless naval oil reserves in Wyoming and California. The scandal, which implicated Secretary of Interior Albert Fall, was one of the several that gave Harding's administration a reputation for corruption. It involved the secretary of the navy transferring the oil reserves to the Interior Department, and then the department selling the properties. The acquittal of H. Sinclair and E. Doheny, who were involved in the buying of the oil reserves, undermined faith in the courts.

Rush-Bagot agreement (1817)

An agreement between Britain and the United States that severely limited naval armament on the lakes. This ended the floating arms race between the British and the United States on the Great Lakes.

Sharecropping

An agricultural system that emerged after the Civil War in which black and white farmers rented land and residences from a plantation owner in exchange for giving him a certain "share" of each year's crop. This system was the dominant form of southern agriculture after the Civil War, and landowners manipulated this system to keep tenants in perpetual debt and unable to leave their plantations.

Dawes Plan (1924)

An arrangement negotiated to reschedule German reparation payments. It stabilized the Germany currency, as Germany previously inflated it astronomically to pay off war expenses to the Allies. It also opened the way for further American private loans to Germany. The financial cycle for the U.S. to gain money became more complicated, as U.S. bankers loaned money to Germany, who would pay the Allies, who would then pay the U.S.

Tampico Incident

An arrest of American sailors by the Mexican government that spurred Woodrow Wilson to dispatch the American navy (without Congress' approval) to seize the port of Veracruz and also to attack Mexican president Huerta in April 1914. Although war was avoided, tensions grew between the U.S. and Mexico.

No Child Left Behind Act (2001)

An education bill created and signed by the George W. Bush administration. Designed to increase accountability standards for primary and secondary schools, the law authorized several federal programs to monitor those standards and increase choices for parents in selecting schools for their children. The program was highly controversial, in large party because it linked results on standardized to federal funding for schools and school districts.

Society of Cincinnati

An exclusive hereditary order formed by continental army officials.

Abstract Expressionism

An experimental style of mid 1900s modern at exemplified by Jackson Pollock's spontaneous "action paintings," created by flinging paint on canvases stretched across the studio floor.

Ku Klux Klan

An extremist, paramilitary, right-wing secret society founded in the mid-nineteenth century and revived during the 1920s. It was anti-foreign, anti-black, anti-Jewish, anti-pacifist, anti-communist, anti-internationalist, anti-evolutionist, and anti-bootlegger. It was also pro-"native" American and pro-Protestant. Although these "Knights of the Invisible Empire" originally targeted blacks after the Civil War, the group shifted to resemble the nativist movements of the 1850s and the group was an ultraconservative uprising against the forces of diversity and modernity.

Quarantine Speech (1937)

An important speech delivered by FDR in which he called for "positive endeavors" to shut out land-hungry dictators, presumably through economic embargoes. The speech triggered protest from isolationists, as they feared that moral isolation would lead to retaliation by means of shooting. Startled at the angry response, FDR retreated and sought less direct means to curb the dictators.

Office of Price Administration (OPA) (1941)

An important wartime agency of WW2 that was charged with *regulating the consumer economy through rationing scarce supplies (such as cars, tires, sugar, etc.) and by curbing inflation by setting ceilings on the price of goods.* Rents were controlled as well in parts of the country overwhelmed by war workers. The organization was extended after WW2 ended to continue the fight against inflation, but was abolished in 1947.

Isaac Brock

An inspired British general who had been credited with the victory of the battle of Fort Michilimackinac (Thus gaining control of the upper Great Lakes), along with "General Mud" and "General Confusion"

World Trade Organization (WTO)

An international body to promote and supervise liberal trade among nations. It marked a key world trade policy achievement of the Clinton Administration.

Nullification Crisis (1832)

An occurrence in which "nullies" tried to muster the necessary two-thirds vote for nullification in the South Carolina legislature. This lead to a clash between Nullifers and Unionists in the state election of 1832, with "nullies" wearing palmetto ribbons on their hats to mark their loyalty to the "Palmetto States", and eventually emerged with a two-thirds majority vote. Therefore, the existing tariff became null and void within South Carolina, and the convention threatened to take South Carolina out of the Union if Washington attempted to collect the custom duties by force.

Naturalism

An offshoot of mainstream realism, this late nineteenth-century literary movement purported to apply detached scientific objectivity to the study of human characters shaped by degenerate heredity and extreme or sordid social environments. These authors placed lower-class, marginal characters in extreme environments, including the "urban jungle," where they were subject to cruel operations of brute instinct, degenerate heredity, and pessimistic determinism. Famous authors of this movement were Stephen Crane, Jack London, Frank Norris, and Theodore Dreiser.

Common Law

Anglo-American legal tradition, which made it unnecessary to be specific about every conceivable detail. The Constitution provided a flexible guide of broad rules of procedure, rather than fixed set of detailed laws.

Army of the Potomac

Another common name for the Union army.

Halifax

Another name for Canada.

Peculiar Institution

Another name for slavery

Contras

Anti-Sandinista fighters in the Nicaraguan civil war. These fighters were secretly supplied with American military aid, paid for with money the United States secretly made selling arms to Iran.

Al Qaeda

Arabic for "The Base," an international alliance of anti-Western Islamic fundamentalist terrorist organizations founded in the late 1980s. Founded by veterans of the Afghan struggle against the USSR, the group was headed by Osama Bin Laden and has taken responsibility for numerous terrorist attacks, especially after the late 1990s. The group organized the attacks of 9/11, 2001, in the U.S., from its headquarters in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan. Since the U.S.-led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 and the launch of the "Global War on Terror," the group has been weakened, but still poses significant threats around the world.

International Style

Archetypal, post WW2 modernist architectural style, best known for its "curtain-wall" designs of steel-and-glass corporate high-rises.

English Civil War

Armed conflict between royalists and parliamentarians, resulting in the victory of pro-Parliament forces and the execution of Charles I

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty (1987)

Arms limitation agreement settled by Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev after several attempts. The treaty banned all intermediate-range nuclear missiles from Europe and marked a significant thaw in the Cold War.

Stamp Act Congress

Assembly of delegates from nine colonies who met in New York City to draft a petition for the repeal of the Stamp Act. This congress issued a Declaration of Rights and Grievances affirming that, as Englishman, the colonists could not be taxed by a body that did not represent them and that colonists should be placed into Parliament.

Goliad

Battle in which four hundred surrounded and defeated American volunteers were butchered as "pirates."This furthered delayed the Mexican advanced and galvanized American opposition

The Battle of Cold Harbor (June 3, 1864)

At this battle Grant ordered a frontal assault on this impregnable position. The Union soldiers advanced to almost certain death with papers pinned on their backs bearing their names and addresses, with about 7,000 dead or wounded in just a few minutes. The public regarded General Grant as "Grant the Butcher" and claimed he had gone insane after this battle.

Chancellorsville (May 2-4, 1863)

At this battle in Virginia, where Joseph Hooker was the Union General, Lee daringly divided his numerically inferior force and sent "Stonewall" Jackson to attack the Union flank.The plan worked and this battle was probably Lee's most brilliant victory. *However, Stonewall Jackson died at this battle and Lee claimed "I have lost my right arm."*

Bretton Woods Conference (1944)

At this conference, the Western Allies established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to encourage world trade by regulating currency exchange rates; they founded the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) to promote economic growth in war-ravaged and underdeveloped areas. The purpose was to establish a postwar international economic order to avoid crises like the one that spawned WW2; was before WW2 even ended. *It aimed to promote recovery and enhance FDR's vision of an open world.*

Battle of Corral Sea (May 1942)

At this crucial naval battle bought between Japan and the Allies, an american carrier task force, with Australian support, inflicted heavy losses on the Japanese. For the first time in history, the fighting was all done by carrier-based aircraft, and neither fleet saw or fired directly at the other.

Willaim Howe

Attacked New York with 35,000 men and attacked Philadelphia when he should have been going to help Burgoyne up the Hudson River.

Lend-Lease Bill (1941)

Based on the mottoes, "Send guns, not sons" and "Billions, not Bodies," this law abandoned former pretense of neutrality by allowing Americans to sell unlimited supplies of arms to any nation defending itself against the Axis powers. FDR aimed for this bill to make America an "arsenal for Democracy" and also to keep the war in Europe. Patriotically numbered 1776, the bill was praised as a device for keeping the nation out of World War II--for a while. It was called "An Act Further to Promote the Defense of the United States." This Bill also geared U.S. factories towards all-out war production.

Battle of Long Island

Battle for control of New York. British victory.

Alamo

Battle in San Antonio in which Santa Anna trapped a band of nearly two hundred Texans and wiped them out to a man after a thirteen day siege.

Battle of Thames (1813)

Battle in which General William Henry Harrison defeated a force of British and Indians and killed Tecumseh.

Battle of Tippecanoe (1811)

Battle in which General William Henry Harrison defeated the Indian forces led by Tenskwatawa (The Prophet), brother of the charismatic Shawnee chief Tecumseh.

San Jacinto (April 21, 1836)

Battle in which Sam Houston lured Santa Anna near the site now known as Houston. Houston took advantage of Mexican siesta and the Texans wiped out the pursuing force and captured Santa Anna. This led to Santa Anna agreeing to withdraw Mexican troops and to recognize the Rio Grande as the extreme southwestern boundary of Texas. (Texas won independence)

Marbury v. Madison

Before this court case, controversy clouded the question who had the authority to declare something unconstitutional. The result of this case was "Judicial review"-The idea that the Supreme Court alone had the last word on the question of constitutional.

Tuscarora War

Began with an Indian attack on Newbern, North Carolina

Antinomianism

Belief that the elect need not obey the law of either God or man; most notable espoused in the colonies by Anne Hutchinson

Deism

Believed by many Founding Fathers, such as Jefferson and Franklin, this belief system relied on reason rather than revelation, on science rather than the bible. These people also rejected the concept of original sin and denied Christ's divinity. Yet they believed in a Supreme Being who had created a knowable universe and endowed humans beings with a capacity for moral behavior.

The Feminine Mystique (1963)

Best-selling book by feminist thinker Betty Friedan. This work challenged women to move beyond the drudgery of suburban housewifery and helped launch what would become second-wave feminism.

Shiloh (April 6-7, 1862)

Bloody Civil War battle on the Tennessee-Mississippi border that resulted in the deaths of more than 23,000 soldiers and ended in a marginal Union victory. The impressive Confederate showing here confirmed that there would be no quick end to the war in the West.

Pontiac's Uprising

Bloody campaign waged by Ottawa Chief Pontiac to drive the British out of Ohio Country.

John Hancock

Boston smuggler and prominent leader of the colonial resistance, who served as president of the Second Continental Congress.

Matthew C. Perry

Brother of the hero of the Battle of Lake Erie in 1813, this person prepared diligently for his mission of opening Japan up to the world in the Treaty of Kanagawa.

Louisiana Purchase

Bought under Jefferson and by Robert Livingston in 1803 from France for $15 million dollars, this doubled the area of the United States. Jefferson believed this was unconstitutional

Iroquois Confederacy

Bound together five tribes in the Mohawk Valley of what is now New York State

Nonimportation agreements

Boycotts against British goods adopted in response to the Stamp Act and, later, the Townshend and Intolerable Acts.

Navy

Branch of military service that Jefferson considered least threatening to liberty and most necessary to suppressing the Barbary states.

Muckrakers

Bright young reporters at the turn of the 20th century who won this nickname from Teddy Roosevelt. These reporters boosted the circulations of their magazines by writing exposés of widespread corruption in American society. Their subjects included business manipulation of government, white slavers, child labor, and the illegal deeds of the trusts, and helped spur the passage of reform legislation. These people signified the nature of the progressive reform movement in the 1900s. They did not seek to overthrow capitalism, but to cleanse it. They believed the cure for democracy was more democracy.

Alexander Hamilton

Brilliant administrator and financial wizard whose career was plagued by doubts about his character and belief in popular government. He proposed the Bank of US, and the ideas of assumption and funding at par

King George's War

British colonies' name for War of Jenkins's Ear. France sided with Spain, and New Englanders invaded New France.

Lord Charles Cornwallis

British general in the Revolutionary war, was defeated at Yorktown on October 19, 1781.

King George III

British monarch during the run-up to the American Revolution, he contributed to the imperial crisis with his dogged insistence on asserting Britain's power over her colonial possessions.

King William's War and Queen Anne's War

British names for the earliest contests among the European powers for control of North America

George Grenville

British prime minister who fueled tensions between Britain and her North American colonies through his strict enforcement of navigation laws and his support for the Sugar and Stamp Acts.

The Alabama

British-built and manned Confederate warship that raided Union shipping during the Civil War. One of many built by the British for the Confederacy, despite Union protests. This British ship would capture more than 250 Yankee ships, severely crippling the American merchant marine, and this event led to many Northerners propose that the U.S. invade Canada as an act of revenge.

Anti-Imperialistic League

Brought on by the debate over America annexing the Philippines, this group of people advocated against McKinley's administration's expansionist moves. This group of people included many prominent figures in American history and society, such as the presidents of Stanford and Harvard, Mark Twain, William Jennings Bryan, Andrew Carnegie, and Samuel Gompers. Strongest in the Northwest, this group was the largest lobbying organization on a U.S. foreign-policy issue until the end of the 19th century. Its influence declined after the approval of annexing the Philippines (Treaty of Paris) and after hostilities broke out between Filipino nationalists and American forces.

Bay of Pigs (1961)

CIA plot to overthrow Fidel Castor by training Cuban exiles to invade and supporting them with American air power. The mission failed and became a public relations disaster early in JFK's presidency.

Department of Homeland Security

Cabinet-level agency created in 2003 to unify and coordinate public safety and anti-terrorism operations within the federal government.

Thomas Woodrow Wilson

By 1912, this man was the second Democratic president since 1856. He was actually a minority president with 41% of the popular vote, but actually earned the most (since TR and Taft split the party, however their combined votes were 1.25 million more than this person's). This president was born in VA shortly before the Civil War and was the first man from one of the seceded southern states to reach the White House since Zachary Taylor. He believed in the traditions of Jeffersonian democracy and also believed that the president should exercise their power. He was very righteous; black was black, wrong was wrong, which made it hard for him to compromise.

Cyrus Field

Called "the greatest wire-puller in history", he organized a joint Anglo-American-Canadian venture to stretch a cable under the deep North Atlantic water from Newfoundland to Ireland in 1858. Although the initial cable went dead after three weeks of public rejoicing, a heaver cable laid in 1866 permanently linked the American and European continents,

Predestination

Calvinist doctrine that God has foreordained some people to be saved and some to be damned

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

Cartel comprising Middle Eastern states and Venezuela first organized in 1960. This organization aimed to control access to oil and therefore its price, wresting power from Western oil companies and investors. In the process, it gradually strengthened the hand of non-Western powers on the world stage.

"Five Civilized Tribes"

Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Seminoles. These tribes were ones that "learned the ways of the whites" that is, to assimilate into their towns and cultures.

Bleeding Kansas

Civil war in Kansas over the issue of slavery in the territory, fought intermittently until 1861, when it merged with the wilder national Civil War. Though it spilled blood in Kansas, it also spilled it on the Senate floor in 1856 when Senator Preston Brooks of South Carolina beat Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts with a cane until it broke.

Boston Massacre

Clash between unruly Bostonian protestors and locally stationed British redcoats, who fired on the jeering crowd, killing or wounding eleven citizens.

Manhattan Project (1942)

Code name for the American commission established in 1942 to develop the atomic bomb. The project came about due to Albert Einstein's idea and was originally intended for Germany, but after V-E day had occurred and Japan had not yet surrendered after the Potsdam Conference, atomic bombs were dropped in two cities in Japan to bring the war to an end: Hiroshima on August 6, 1945 and Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. This would end WW2.

Land Grant Colleges

Colleges and Universities which bound themselves to provide certain services, such as military training. Created from allocations of public land through the Morrill Tariff Act of 1862 and the Hatch Act of 1887 (which extended the Morrill Tariff Act, providing federal funds for the establishment of agricultural experiment stations in connection with these colleges). These grants helped fuel the boom in higher education in the late nineteenth century, and many of today's public universities derive from these grants. Examples of these kinds of colleges are the University of California, Ohio State University, and Texas A&M.

Royal Colonies

Colonies where governors were appointed directly by the King. Though often competent administration, the governors frequently ran into trouble with colonial legislatures, which resented the imposition of control from across the Atlantic.

Loyalists

Colonists who stayed loyal to the king of Britain aka Tories

Patriots

Colonists who supported the Revolution aka Whigs

U-boats

Coming from the German for "undersea boat" these were the German submarines that sank many allied ships during World War I, including commercial ships like the Lusitania. These submarine attacks played an important role in drawing the U.S. into The Great War.

9/11 (2001)

Common shorthand for the terrorist attacks that occurred on September 11, 2001, in which nineteen militant Islamist men hijacked and crashed four commercial aircraft. Two planes hit the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in new York City, causing them to collapse. One plane crashed into the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., and the fourth, overtaken by passengers, crashed into a field in Pennsylvania. Nearly 3,000 people were killed in the worst case of domestic terrorism in American history.

Erie Canal

Completed in New York in 1825, this canal linked the Great Lakes with the Hudson River. With this waterway, costs and time of shipping went down ($100 dollars down to $5 dollars per ton of grain and twenty days down to six for shipping.) Along the route, the value of land skyrocketed, and new cities-such as Rochester and Syracuse-blossomed. This trading waterway led to industry in New York to boom. The price of potatoes were cut in half and many dispirited New England farmers now could travel elsewhere for farming or became mill hands, speeding up the industrialization of America.

Force Acts (1870 and 1871)

Congress passed these acts in retaliation to the night-riding criminals and attempted to rid of the KKK. The acts banned clan membership and prohibited the use of intimidation to prevent blacks from voting. Under these acts, Federal troops were able to stamp out much of the "lash law," but by this time the Invisible Empire of the South has already done its work of intimidation.

Tenure of Office Act (1867)

Congress passed this act over Johnson's veto which now required the president secure the consent of the Senate before he could remove his appointees once they had been approved by that body. One purpose of this Act was to freeze into the cabinet Edwin M. Stanton, a holdover from the Lincoln administration. When Johnson still removed Stanton, he was impeached by the house but remained in office when the Senate fell one vote short of removing him.

Olive Branch Petition

Congress professing American loyalty to the crown in July 1775 and begging the king to prevent further hostilities. King George III, refused however, after Bunker Hill.

Army-McCarthy Hearing (1954)

Congressional hearing called by Senator Joseph McCarthy to accuse members of the army of communist ties. In this widely televised spectacle, McCarthy finally went to far for public approval. The hearings exposed the Senator's extremism and led to his eventual disgrace.

Pendleton Act (1883)

Congressional legislation that established the Civil Service Commission, which granted federal government jobs on the basis of examinations instead of political patronage, thus reigning in the spoils system.

Battle of Fallen Timbers

Decisive battle between the Miami confederacy and the U.S. Army; British forces refused to shelter the routed Indians, forcing the latter to attain a peace settlement the US.

Guantanamo Detention Camp

Controversial prison facility constructed after the U.S.-led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001. Located on territory occupied by the U.S. military, but not technically part of the United States, the facility serves as an extra-legal holding area for suspected terrorists.

First Continental Congress

Convention of delegates from 12 of the 13 colonies that convened in Philadelphia to craft a response to the Intolerable Acts.

Fredericksburg (December 13, 1862)

Decisive victory in Virginia for Confederate Robert E. Lee, who successfully repelled a Union attack by General Burnside on his lines. This was called "Burnside's Slaughter Pen" due to ten thousand Northern soldiers being wounded or killed here. Here, southern sharpshooters were behind a literal stonewall at Marye's height and picked off Northern soldiers.

Proclamation of 1763

Decree issued by Parliament in the wake of Pontiac's uprising, prohibiting settlement beyond the Appalachians.

Yamasee Indians

Defeated by the south Carolinans in the war of 1715-1716

Thomas Macdonough

Defeated the British on September 11, 1814 near Plattsburgh when the British tried to invade New York through Lake Champlain

New Lights

Defended the Great Awakening for its role in revitalizing American religion. These were believers in emotive spirituality, a contrast to the Orthodox clergymen of the Great Awakening.

Baby Boom (1946-1964)

Demographic explosion from births to returning soldiers and others who had put off starting families during WW2. This large generation of new Americans forced the expansion of many institutions such as school and universities. It also dictated a lot of industries (when they were babies, a surplus of baby food was made; when they were teenagers lots of records were produced).

Mr. Madison's War

Derisive Federalist name for the War of 1812 that blamed it on the Democratic-Republican president.

"Midnight Judges"

Derogatory Republican term for Federalist judges appointed during the last hours of President Adams's term

"Judas of the West"

Derogatory nickname given to Henry Clay by Andrew Jackson due to Clay supposedly taking bribes by Quincy Adams so Quincy Adams could win the electoral vote.

Fundamental Orders

Drafted by settlers in the Connecticut River Valley, document was the first "modern constitution" establishing a democratically controlled government

Black Power

Doctrine of militancy and separatism that rose in prominence after 1965. These activists rejected MLK's pacifism and desire for integration. Rather they promoted pride in African heritage and an often militant position in defense of their rights.

Benedict Arnold

Doesn't get promoted by GW so he leaves and falls in love with Peggy Shippen (extreme loyalist) and she convinces him to be a traitor.

Calvinism

Dominant theological credo of the New England Puritans based on the teachings of John Calvin

Henry J. Kaiser

Dubbed "Sir Launchalot" during WW2 in his work with the War Production Board and ship construction. One of his ships was fully assembled in 14 days, complete with life jackets and coat hangers.

Supply-Side Economics

Economic theory that underlay Ronald Reagan's tax and spending cuts. Contrary to Keynesianism, this theory declared that government policy should aim to increase the supply of goods and services, rather than the demand for them. It held that lower taxes and decreased regulation would increase productivity by providing increased incentives to work, thus increasing productivity and the tax base.

Woman's Loyal League

During the Civil War, feminists like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony created this group of women for the cause of the emancipation of slaves. This group had gathered nearly 400,000 signatures on petitions asking Congress to pass a constitutional amendment prohibiting slavery. Despite their efforts to end slavery and push for equality, women were still not given franchise even after freedmen were.

Freeport Question

During the Illinois Senator debates, Lincoln proposed this question. Suppose, he queried, the people of a territory should vote slavery down. The Supreme Court in the Dred Scott decision had decreed that they could not. He then asked who would prevail, the people or the Supreme Court?

Horace Mann

During the Second Great Awakening, this person campaigned for universal public education and improvements in teacher training.

Sugar Act

Duty on imported sugar from the West Indies, first tax levied on the colonists by the crown.

Panic of 1837

Economic crisis triggered by bank failures, elevated grain prices, and Andrew Jackson's efforts to curb over speculation on western lands and transportation improvements. In response, President Martin Van Buren proposed the "Divorce Bill," which pulled treasury funds out of the baking system altogether, contracting the credit supply

capitalism

Economic system characterized by private property, generally free trade, and open and accessible markets

Mercantilism

Economic theory that closely linked a nation's political and military power to its bullion reserves. *Money is Power*

Orders in Council

Edicts that closed the European ports under French control to foreign shipping, including American.

Voter Education Project

Effort by Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and other civil rights groups to register the South's historically disenfranchised black population. The project typified a common strategy of the civil rights movement, which sought to counter racial discrimination by empowering people at grassroots levels to exercise their civic rights through voting.

Civil Law

Elaborate Legal Codes. This led to very lengthy Constitutions, such as India's with 200 pages.

U.S. Sanitary Commission

Elizabeth Blackwell, America's first female physician, helped organize this organization that assisted the Union armies in the field. This commission trained nurses, collected medical supplies, and equipped hospitals. Commission work helped many women to acquire the organizational skills and the self-confidence that would propel the women's movement forward after the war.

Headright system

Employed in the tobacco colonies to encourage the importation of indentured servants, the system allowed an individual to acquire 50 acres of land if he paid for a laborer's passage to the colony

Valley Forge

Encampment where George Washington's poorly equipped army spent a wretched, freezing winter. George Washington saved soldiers through vaccinations.

Puritan

English Protestant reformers who sought to purify the Church of England of Catholic rituals and creeds

James Wolfe

English general, led troops up steep cliff to capture Quebec which marked the beginning on the end of the French/Indian War.

Royal African Company (1672)

English joint-stock company that enjoyed a crown-granted monopoly on the colonial slave trade from 1672 until 1698

Virginia Company

English joint-stock company that received a charter from King James I that allowed it to found the Virginia colony

Louis XIV

Enthroned as a 5 year old, reigned for no less than 72 years.

Indian Reorganization Act (1934)

Established by Commissioner of Indian Affairs John Collier, this act encouraged tribes to establish local self-government and to preserve their native crafts and traditions. The act also helped to stop the loss of Indian lands and revived tribes' interest in their identity and culture. Not all Native Americans liked it though, as they saw it as a way to set up "Native American museums" for the White Settlers. 77 refused this act, but 200 others did establish tribal governments.

Massachusetts Bay Colony

Established by non-separating Puritans, it soon grew to be the larges and most influential of the New England colonies

Liberia (1822)

Established by the American Colonization Society, this republic was established on the fever-stricken West African coast for former slaves. Its capital was named Monrovia, after President Monroe, and some fifteen thousand freed blacks were transported there over the next four decades.

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) (1933)

Established by the Hundred Days Congress, this was one of the most revolutionary of the New Deal public work projects, which built dams which would bring cheap electric power, full employment, low-cost housing, and environmental improvements to Americans in the Tennessee Valley. It found out how much electricity cost to produce, so that fair rates would be charged by private companies. It turned one of the most poverty-cursed areas into one of the most flourishing regions of the U.S.. Despite its massive success, it would not be able to expand and build more dams across the country, due to Critics complaining that this program was "creeping socialism in concrete."

Barbados slave code

First formal statute governing the treatment of slaves, which provided for harsh punishments against offending slaves but lacked penalties for the mistreatment of slaves by masters

Townshend Acts

External, or indirect, levies on glass, white lead, paper, paint and tea, the proceeds of which were used to pay colonial governors, who had previously been paid directly by colonial assemblies.

Court-Packing Plan (1937)

FDR's scheme to add a new justice to the Supreme Court for every member over 70 who would not retire. He tried to get this passed, as the conservative Supreme Court constantly shut down his progressive New Deal reforms. FDR would be vilified for attempting to break the three-branch checks and balances. Critics started to denounce FDR as a dictator. This ill-fated plan would even turn many Democrats away from the New Deal and FDR, causing it to never get passed, even in the Democratic Congress (though they would pass a different court reform bill). However, eventually FDR would be able to turn the court to the New Deal reforms.

Operation Dixie (1948)

Failed effort by the Congress of Industrial Organizations after WW2 to unionize southern workers, especially in textile factories. This highlighted unions' difficulty at organizing during the post-war period.

Black Legend

False notion that Spanish conquerors did little but butcher the Indians and steal their gold in the name of Christ

Federalists

Favored a stronger federal government. (Had power and influence on their side; George Washington and Benjamin Franklin; Wealthier, more educated, and better organized)

Fourteenth Amendment (1868)

Fearing that a future Southern president could repeal the hated Civil Rights Bill, Republicans passed this amendment. This proposed amendment was among the most sweeping amendments ever passed. It 1) Conferred civil rights, including citizenship but excluding the franchise, on the freedmen; 2) Reduced proportionally the representation of a state in Congress and in the Electoral College if it denied blacks the ballot; 3) Disqualified from federal and state office former Confederates who as federal officeholders had once sworn to "support the Constitution of the United States"; and 4) Guaranteed the federal debt, while repudiating all Confederate debts.

Harper's Ferry (1859)

Federal arsenal in Virginia seized by radical abolitionist John Brown. Brown was captured by Robert E. Lee and executed, making him a martyr and therefore raising support for the abolitionist cause. However, this raid alarmed Southerners who believed that all Northerners shared in Brown's extremism.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Federal law that banned racial dicriminationin public facilities and strengthened the federal government's power to fight segregation in schools. Title VII of the act prohibited employers from discriminating based on race in their hiring practices, and empowered the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to regulate fair employment.

Federal Highway Act of 1956

Federal legislation signed by Dwight D. Eisenhower to construct thousands of miles of modern highways in the name of national defense. Officially called the National Interstate and Defense Highways Act, this bill dramatically increased the move to the suburbs, as white middle-class people could more easily commute to urban jobs.

Chinese Exclusion Act

Federal legislation that prohibited most further Chinese immigration to the United States. *This was the first major legal restriction of immigration in U.S. history.*

Samuel Chase

Federalist Supreme Court justice impeached by the House in 1804 but acquitted by the Senate.

John Marshall

Federalist Supreme Court justice whose brilliant legal efforts established the principle of judicial review

Bank of the United States (1791)

Federally chartered financial institution established by Hamilton to create a stable currency and bitterly opposed by states' rights advocates.

John Paul Jones

First US navy, blockade runner

The Battle of Lexington and Concord

First battles of the Revolutionary War, fought outside of Boston. The colonial militia successfully defended their stores of munitions, forcing the British to retreat to Boston. "Shot heard 'round the world" happened here.

Platt Amendment (1901)

Following the American military occupation, this was an amendment that the Cuban government was forced to write into their constitution which would serve McKinley's ultimate purpose of bringing Cuba under American control. In this amendment, the "liberated" Cubans were forced to agree not to conclude treaties that might compromise their independence (according to the U.S.) and not to take on debt beyond their resources (according to the U.S.). It also stated the the U.S. could intervene to restore order when it saw fit.

Jay Gould

For nearly 30 years, this man boomed and busted the stocks of the Erie, the Kansas Pacific, the Union Pacific, and Texas and Pacific in an incredible circus of speculative skullduggery.

Trail of Tears

Forced marches of Indians under Jackson's presidency and removal act in which countless Indians died. They were placed into the newly established Indian Territory where they were to be "permanently" free of white encroachments.

Policy of Boldness

Foreign policy objective of Dwight Eisenhower's Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, who believed in changing the containment strategy to one that more directly engaged the USSR and attempted to roll back communist influence around the world. This policy led to a build-up of America's nuclear arsenal to threaten "massive retaliation" against communist enemies, launching the Cold War's arm race.

Declaration of Independence.

Formal pronouncement of independence drafted by Thomas Jefferson and approved by Congress on July 4, 1776.

American Temperance Society (1826)

Formed in Boston, this society implored drinkers to sign the temperance pledge and organized children's clubs, known as the "Cold Water Army." Crusaders in this society also made effective use of pictures, pamphlets, and lurid lecturers, some of which were reformed drunkards. This society spawned as a result of the drinking problem, among men especially, in America which posed a threat to the physical safety among women and children.

Aaron Burr (sir)

Former vice-president, killer of Alexander Hamilton, and plotter of mysterious secessionist schemes.

Berlin Wall

Fortified ad guarded barrier between East and West Berlin erected on orders from Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev in 1961 to stop the flow of people to the West. Until its destruction in 1989, the wall was a vivid symbol of the divide between communist and capitalist worlds.

Battle of Acoma

Fought between Spaniards and the Pueblo Indians in Mexico, where the survivors each had a foot severed by the Spanish. The Spanish would proclaim the area to be the province of New Mexico in 1609 and founded its capital at Santa Fe the following year.

Women's Christian Temperance Union (WTCU)

Founded in Ohio in the 1870s to combat the evils of excessive alcohol consumption, this union went on to embrace a broad reform agenda, including campaigns to abolish prostitution and gain the right to vote for women. The founder, Frances E. Willard, would fall to her knees in prayer on saloon floors and mobilized nearly 1 million women to "make the world homelike" and built this organization as the largest for women in the world. She would find an ally in the Anti-Saloon League. This union would contribute to the 18th amendment in 1819.

Tripolitan War

Four-year conflict between the American Navy and the North-African nation of Tripoli over piracy in the Mediterranean. This is the first act of aggression by the new country, happened under Jefferson's term.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

Free trade zone encompassing Mexico, Canada, and the United States. A symbol of increased reality of a globalized market place, this treaty passed despite opposition from protectionists and labor leaders.

European Economic Community (EEC)

Free trade zone in Western Europe created by Treaty of Rome in 1957. Often referred to as the "Common Market," this collection of countries originally included France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. The body eventually expanded to become the European Union (EU), which by 2005 included 27 member states.

Huguenots

French Protestant dissenters, granted limited toleration under the Edict of Nantes

Declaration of the Rights of Man

French declaration, which was inspired by Declaration of Independence, adopted during the French Revolution

Charles Maurice de Talleyrand

French foreign minister during the conflict in France around the French revolution and undeclared naval war between the U.S. and France. He was notoriously corrupt and he issued three agents to ask the United States for a bribe in what became known as the XYZ affair.

Coureurs de bois

French fur trappers; "runners of the woods"

Acadians

French residents of Nova Scotia, many of whom were uprooted by the British in 1755 and scattered as far south as Louisiana, where their descendants became known as "Cajuns"

Napoleon Bonaparte

French ruler who acquired Louisiana from Spain only to sell it to the United States

voyaguers

French-Canadian fur trappers and adventurers.

"Don't Ask, Don't Tell"

From 1993 to 2010, the policy affecting homosexuals in the military. It emerged as a compromise between the standing prohibition against homosexuals in the armed forces and President Clinton's push to allow all citizens, regardless of sexual orientation. Military authorities were forbidden to ask about a service member's orientation, and gay service personnel would be discharged if they publicly revealed their homosexuality. At President Obama's urging, Congress repealed this policy in 2010, permitting gays to serve openly in uniform.

Richard Henry Lee

From Virginia. On June 7, 1776 he moved that the colonies should be independent states and after considerable debate the motion was adopted nearly a month later, on July 2, 1776.

Detente

From the French for "reduced tension," the period of Cold War thawing when the U.S. and the USSR negotiated reduced armament treaties under Presidents Nixon, Ford, and Carter. As a policy prescription, detente marked a departure from the policies of proportional response, mutually assured destruction (MAD), and containment that had defined the earlier years of the Cold War.

squatters

Frontier farmers who illegally occupied land owned by others or not yet officially opened for settlement

Betsy Ross

Gathered women to make uniforms, made the US flag, "mother of our country"

Meuse-Argonne Offensive (September 26 - November 11, 1918)

General John J. "Black Jack" Pershing led American troops in this effort to cut the German railroad lines supplying the western front. It was one of the few major battles that Americans participated in during World War I, and was still underway when the war ended. The killed and wounded Americans mounted to 120,000, or 10% involved in the war. The slow progress and severe losses from machine guns resulting from inadequate training and open-field tactics. Luckily, victory was in sight during this battle because American was running short on supplies.

Sam Houston

General of the Texan revolution and former governor of Tennessee.

"Mad Anthony" Wayne

General who routed the Miamis at the Battle of Fallen Timbers

Battle of Yorktown

George Washington, with the aid of the French Army, besieged Cornwallis here, while the French naval fleet prevented British reinforcements from coming ashore. American victory for the revolution in 1781.

Kristallnacht

German for "night of broken glass," it refers to the murderous pogrom (instigated by Nazi propagandist Joseph Goebbels) that destroyed Jewish businesses and synagogues and sent thousands to concentration camps on the night of November 8, 1938. At least 91 Jews lost their lives and about 30,000 were sent to concentration camps during this. Thousands more attempted to find refuge in the United States, but were ultimately turned away due to restrictive immigration laws.

Hessians

German troops hired from their princes by George III to aid in putting down the colonial insurrection. These troops were more interested in money and weren't truly loyal to the crown, and many left the army and remained in the colonies as respected citizens.

Toussaint L' Ouverture

Gifted black revolutionary whose successful slave revolution indirectly led to Napoleon's sale of Louisiana.

Thomas Hutchinson

Governor of Boston who ordered cargo of tea to be unloaded in Boston despite colonial objection.

Dust Bowl

Grim nickname for the Great Plains region devastated by drought and dust storms during the 1930s. The disaster led to migration into California of thousands of displaced "Okies" and "Arkies." Victims of this tragedy predicted the end of the world. Although drought and dust storms contributed, this tragedy was mostly brought on by dry-farming methods and the mechanization of agriculture, leaving a powdery topsoil to be swept away easily. The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck is a famous novel written about this event.

Hoovervilles

Grim shantytowns where impoverished victims of the Great Depression slept under newspapers ("Hoover Blankets") and in makeshift tents. Their visibility and sarcastic name tarnished the reputation of the Hoover administration.

Samuel Adams

He was a Master propagandist and an engineer of rebellion. Though very weak and feeble in appearance, he was a strong politician and leader that was very aware and sensitive to the rights of the colonists. He organized the local committees of correspondence in Massachusetts, starting with Boston in 1772.

Martin Delaney

He was one of the few black leaders to take seriously the notion of the mass recolonization of Africa and in 1859 he visited West Africa's Niger seeking a suitable site for relocation.

J.P. "Jupiter" Morgan

He was referred as the bankers' banker who exercised the interlocking directorates entrepreneurial practice. He made a legendary reputation for himself and his Wall Street banking house by financing the reorganization of railroads, insurance companies, and banks. He did not believe that "money" was dangerous, except when in dangerous hands-and he did not regard his own hands as dangerous.

Thaddeus Stevens

He was the leading radical Republican in the House of Representatives. At 74 years old in 1866, he was a great friend of the blacks and defended runaway slaves in court without fee. He also asked, before dying, to be buried in a black cemetery. He was the leading radical figure on the Joint (House-Senate) Committee on Reconstruction.

Charles Sumner

He was the leading radical republican in the Senate who labored not only for black freedom but for racial equality.

War Industries Board (1918)

Headed by Bernard Baruch, this federal agency coordinated industrial production during WWI, setting production quotas, allocating raw materials, and pushing companies to decrease inefficiency and eliminate waste. Under the economic mobilization of this agency, industrial production in the U.S. increased 20% during the war. *This agency set a precedent for the federal government to take a central role in economic planning in moments of crisis.* During the Great Depression, policymakers would look back at this agency as a model.

Conference of Tehran (Nov. 28-Dec. 1, 1943)

Held at the capital of Iran (Persia), this was a conference between Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin. Perhaps the most important achievement of the conference was agreement on broad plans, especially those for launching Soviet attacks on Germany from the east simultaneously with the future Allied assault from the west. It set up the invasion of D-Day.

Pacific Railroad Act (1862)

Helped fund the construction of the Union Pacific transcontinental railroad with the use of land grants and government bonds.

"Immortal Trio"

Henry Clay, John C. Calhoun, and Daniel Webster. They all appeared for the last time on the public stage in 1850 where Webster gave his Seventh of March speech, Clay proposed compromise and Calhoun defended slavery.

The Compromise Tariff of 1833

Henry Clay, although a supporter or tariffs, wrote this compromise to avoid President Jackson from invading South Carolina and causing disunity among the states and to resolve the nullification crisis. It would gradually reduce the tariff of 1832 by about 10 percent over a period of eight years; in 1842 the rates went back down the the mildly protective level of the tariff of 1816.

Incas

Highly advanced South American civilization in Peru until it was conquered by Spanish forces under Francisco Pizarro in 1532, developed terrace farming

Nuremberg War Crimes Trial (1945-1946)

Highly publicized proceeding against former Nazi leaders for war crimes and crimes against humanity as part of the Allies "denazification program" in postwar Germany. The trials led to 12 Nazi hangings, and 7 jail long prison terms.

Abraham Lincoln Brigade

Idealistic American volunteers who served in the Spanish Civil War, defending Spanish republican forces from the fascist General Francisco Franco's nationalist coup. Some 3,000 Americans served alongside volunteers from other countries.

Seventh of March Speech (1850)

If measured by its immediate effects, this was Daniel Websters finest speech. It helped turn the tie in the North toward compromise. In this speech, Webster argued that there is no need for legislation on the subject, as the "Almighty God had already passed the Wilmot Proviso." This visibly strengthened the Union sentiment and was especially pleasing to the banking and commercial centers of the North, which stood to lose millions of dollars by secession. The Free-Soilers and abolitionists called him a "Benedict Arnold," because he said that disunion would be worse than slavery, yet still condemned slavery

The Great Train Robbery

In 1903, this was the first story sequence that reached the newly popular movie industry. It was featured in 5-cent theatres, popularly called "nickelodeons."

Oregon (territory)

Territory beyond the boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase, along the Columbia River, explored by Lewis and Clark

Panay

In December 1937, Japanese aviators bombed and sank this American gunboat in Chinese waters, with the last of 2 killed and 30 wounded. In the days of the Maine, this might have caused war, but during the isolationist 1930s, it did not. After Tokyo apologized, the U.S. hastily accepted the apology. This thus encouraged the Japanese to continue venting their anger against the Americans.

Buffer

In politics, a territory between two antagonistic powers, intended to minimize the possibility of conflict between them. Georgia was a one between Spanish Florida and the English colonies.

Modernism

In response to the demanding conditions of modern life, this artistic and cultural movement revolted against comfortable Victorian standards and accepted chance, change, and uncertainty. Originating among avant-garde artists and intellectuals around the turn of the 1900s, this blossomed into a full-fledged cultural movement in art, music, literature, and architecture. *Central to this was the questioning of social conventions and traditional authorities.*

Insular Cases (1901)

In these court cases, a badly divided Supreme Court decreed that the Constitution followed the flag when some Puerto Ricans asked if they were "citizens or subjects?". It stated that Puerto Ricans (and Filipinos) might be subject to American rule, but they did not enjoy all American rights.

Specie Circular

Issued by Jackson's treasury, this was a decree that required all public lands to be purchased with "hard", or metallic, money. This was in response to "wildcat" currency becoming so unreliable, especially in the west. This decree slammed the brakes on the speculative boom,, a neck-snapping change of direction that contributed to a financial panic and crash in 1837.

Russo-American Treaty (1824)

In this agreement, the russian tsar decided to retreat, fixing his southern most limits at the line 54, 40'-the present southern tip of the Alaska panhandle.

Second Battle of Bull Run (August 29-30, 1862)

In this battle, Confederate General Robert E. Lee defeated the Union General John Pope and then thrust his Confederate armies into Maryland, hoping to encourage foreign intervention and also seduce the Border States to the side of the Confederacy.

Havana Conference of 1940

In this conference, the U.S. agreed to share with its 20 New World neighbors the responsibility of holding up the Monroe Doctrine. The conference occurred in preparation of World War II after France had fallen to Germany and the U.S. feared for itself and the Western hemisphere. *This strengthened the Monroe Doctrine because it had more countries upholding it--in theory.*

Adkins v. Children's Hospital (1923)

In this court case, the Supreme Court reversed the Muller v. Oregon case. Therefore, the case took away special legislation and protection from women, claiming that they were legal equals of men since they passed the 19th amendment. The contradictory premises of this case and the Muller case framed the debate over gender differences in the following decades: were women different enough to require special legislation, or were they legal equals with no need of special protections?

Commonwealth v. Hunt (1842)

In this court case, the supreme court of Massachusetts ruled that labor unions were not illegal conspiracies, provided that their methods were "honorable and peaceful." Although it did not legalize strikes overnight, it was a significant signpost of the times.

Election of 1924

In this election, the Republicans easily nominated incumbent Calvin Coolidge for the president candidacy. The Democrats were split, including "wets" and "drys," urbanites and farmers, Fundamentalists and Modernists. The party could barely agree on anything, but eventually nominated John W. Davis, a wealthy corporation lawyer. Robert "Fighting Bob" La Follette entered the race as newly revived Progressive Party candidate. He gained the support of the AFL and the Socialist party. The now weak progressive party called for relief for farmers, lashed out against monopolies, and urged an amendment to limit the Supreme Court's power to invalidate laws passed by Congress. Electoral votes: 382 for Coolidge, 136 for Davis, and 13 for La Follette (all from his home state of Wisconsin).

Mueller v. Oregon (1908)

In this legal case, attorney Louis D. Brandies persuaded the Supreme Court to accept the constitutionality of laws protecting women workers and limiting their hours by presenting evidence of the harmful effects of factory labor on women's weaker bodies. Although this seemed discriminatory and closed many "male" jobs to women, progressives at the time hailed the attorney's achievement as a triumph over existing legal doctrine which afforded employers total control over the work place. It established a different standard for female and male workers.

Florida Purchase Treaty (AKA Adams-Onis Treaty) (1819)

In this mislabeled treaty, Spain ceded Florida, as well as shadowy Spanish claims to Oregon, in exchange for America's abandonment of equally murky claims to Texas, soon to become part of independent Mexico. This 'treaty' was brought on by Andrew Jackson's overstepping his boundaries-who was backed by John Quincy Adams.

Great Compromise

In this plan proposed by Connecticut delegates, larger states were conceded representation by population in the House of Representatives and smaller states were appeased by equal representation in the senate (2 representatives per states).

Convention of 1800

In this treaty, signed by President John Adams, France agrees to end the French-American alliance, but also end the undeclared war with France.

Washington's Farewell Address (1796)

In this, Washington strongly advised avoidance of "permanent alliances" (such as Franco-American Treaty of 1778). He warned the American people to stay out of European affairs and wars. Washington also advised the people to get out of debt and to avoid political parties.

Middlemen

In trading systems, those dealers who operate between the original producers of goods and the retail merchants who sell to consumers

Triangular Trade

Infamously profitable, though small in relation to total colonial commerce. Goods (Rum, etc.) were sold from America to Britain, Guns were sold from Britain to Africa, and Slaves were sold from Africa to America.

Reaganomics

Informal term for Ronald Reagan's economic policies, which focused on reducing taxes social spending and government regulation, while increasing outlays for defense.

Meat Inspection Act (1906)

Inspired by Upton Sinclair's The Jungle which showed the horrors found in food factories, this Act decreed that the preparation of meat shipped over state lines would be subject to federal inspection from corral to can. Although the largest packers resisted certain features of this act, they accepted it as an opportunity to drive their smaller competitors out of business. At the same time, they could receive the government's seal of approval on their exports.

Aldrich-Vreeland Act

Inspired by the Panic of 1907 ("Roosevelt's Panic"), this act authorized national banks to issue emergency currency backed by various kinds of collateral. This act smoothed the path for the Federal Reserve Act.

Settlement Houses

Inspired largely by Jane Addams Hull House, the most prominent (though not the first) of these. These houses, mostly run by middle-class native-born women, in immigrant neighborhood provided housing, food, education, child care, cultural activities, and social connections for new arrivals to the United States. Many women, both native-born and immigrant, developed life-long passions for social activism in these houses. The most prominent of these houses were Addams' Hull House and Lillian Wald's Henry Street in New York.

Conversion

Intense religious experience that confirmed an individual's place among the "elect" or the "visible saints"

Albany Congress

Intercolonial congress summoned by the British government to foster greater colonial unity and assure Iroquois support in the escalating war against the French.

Jay's Treaty (1794)

International agreement whose terms favoring Britain outraged Democratic Republicans. Included a British promise to evacuate outposts on U.S. soil and pay damages for seized American vessels, in exchange for the United States repaying pre-Revolutionary war debts and to bide by Britain's restrictive trading policies toward France. Even Washington's huge popularity was compromised by the controversy of this treaty.

United Nations

International body formed in 1945 to bring nations into dialogue in hopes of preventing further world war. It was the successor to the League of Nations, but this organization was more realistic in recognizing the authority of the Big Five Powers (U.S., GB, France, USSR, China) in keeping peace in the world. Thus, it guaranteed veto power to all permanent members of its Security Council (the Big Five). The League of Nations was great-power conflict; this was great-power cooperation.

Suez Crisis (1956)

International crisis launched when Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, which had been owned mostly by French and British stockholders. The crisis led to a British and French attack on Egypt, which failed without aid from the U.S.. This marked an important turning point in the post-colonial Middle East and highlighted the rising importance of oil in world affairs.

Earth Day (1970)

International day of celebration and awareness of global environmental issues launched by conservationists on April 22, 1970.

Kyoto Treaty

International treaty to limit greenhouse gas emissions. It was negotiated and opened for signatories in 1997, and took effect in 2005. Although signed by 169 (of 192) countries, the Bush Administration rejected the plan as too costly in 2001.

McCormick Reaper

Invented by Cyrus McCormick, this mechanical mower-reaper was to the western farmers what the cotton gin was to the southerners. With this, a single husbandman could do the work of five men with sickles and scythes. This invention made ambitious capitalists out of humble plowmen, who now scrambled for more acres on which to plant more fields of billowing wheat.

Cotton Gin

Invented in 1793 by Eli Whitney, this machine was fifty times more effective at picking cotton than the handpicking process. Before this invention, slavery was starting to die out, even in the south. However, with this, an insatiable demand for cotton reriveted the chains on the limbs of the downtrodden southern blacks.

House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) (1938)

Investigatory body established to root out "subversion." Sought to expose communist influence in American government and society, in particular through the trial of Alger Hiss. Future president Richard Nixon would be a prominent member. *This was an organization to seek out Soviet spies.*

Land Ordinance of 1785

It provided that the Old Northwest should be sold and proceeds be used to pay off National Debt.

Old Northwest

Land acquired by states after the war;Northwest of Ohio, East of Mississippi river, and South of the Great Lakes.

Gadsen Purchase (1853)

James Gadsen, sent by Secretary of War Jefferson Davis and a prominent South Carolina railroad man, negotiated a treaty which ceded the United States this Mexican territory for $10 million from Santa Anna. This transaction aroused much criticism among Northerners, who objected to paying a huge sum for a cactus-strewn desert nearly the size of South Carolina. This new territory enabled the south to claim the coveted railroad with even greater insistence, as a southern track would be easier to build because the mountains were less high up and it would not pass through unorganized territory.

Embargo Act (1807)

Jefferson's Policy of forbidding the shipment of any good in or out of the United States. Enacted in response to British and French mistreatment of American merchants

Meriwether Lewis

Jefferson's personal secretary sent on exploration of Louisiana Purchase

Standard Oil Company (1870)

John D. Rockefeller's company which came to symbolize the trusts and monopolies of the Gilded Age. With this company, Rockefeller located his refineries in Cleveland and sought to eliminate the middleman and squeeze out competitor. By 1877, this company controlled 95% of the oil refiners in the U.S. It was also one of the first multinational corporations, and at times distributed more than half of the company's kerosene production outside the United States. By the turn of the century, it had become a target for trust busting reformers, and in 1911 the Supreme Court ordered it to break up into several dozen smaller companies.

Abraham Lincoln

Known as the "Rail-Splitter" this Illinois lawyer would be prominently seen in his debates with Senator Stephen Douglas during the Senate race of 1858. This president is known for his abnormally long legs, arms, and neck; his head was crowned by coarse, black, and unruly hair; and his face was sad, sunken, and weather-beaten. He was born in a log cabin, therefore being a "common man" and would later be elected president in 1860, sparking the Civil War.

National Recovery Administration (NRA) (1933)

Known by critics as the "National Run Around," this New Deal program established by the Emergency Congress was designed to assist industry, labor, and the unemployed. Industry was assisted by the establishment of codes of "fair competition," under which hours of labor would be reduced so that employment could be spread over more people. It also set a limit on the maximum hours and the minimum wages. Laborers were granted the right to organize and bargain collectively under this program, and "yellow-dog" contracts were forbidden. It also set restrictions on child labor. The program would eventually collapse in 1935 when the Supreme Court shut it down.

Roe vs. Wade (1973)

Landmark Supreme Court decision that forbade states from barring abortion by citing a woman's constitutional right to privacy. Seen as a victory for feminism and civil liberties by some, the decision provoked a strong counter-reaction by opponents to abortion, galvanizing the Pro-Life movement.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas

Landmark Supreme Court decision that overturned Plessy v. Ferguson and abolished racial segregation in public schools. The Court reasoned that "separate" was inherently "unequal," rejecting the foundation of the Jim Crow system of racial segregation in the South. This decision was the first major step toward the legal end of racial discrimination and a major accomplishment for the Civil Rights Movement.

Americans With Disabilities Act

Landmark law signed by President George H.W. Bush that prohibited discrimination against people with physical or mental handicaps. It represented a legislative triumph for champions of equal protections to all.

plantation

Large-scale agricultural enterprise growing commercial crops and usually employing coerced or slave labor

Manifest Destiny

Largely brought on by James K. Polk, this idea among citizens in the 1840s and 1850s had a feeling of a sense of mission. These American citizens believed that Almighty God had "manifestly" destined the American people for a hemispheric career. They wished to spread their uplifting and ennobling democratic institutions over at least the entire North American continent, and maybe even South America.

Second Anglo-Powhatan War

Last-ditch effort by the Indians to dislodge Virginia settlements

War Powers Act

Law passed by Congress in 1973 limiting the President's ability to wage war without Congressional approval. The act required the President to notify Congress within 48 hours of committing troops to a foreign conflict. An important consequence of the Vietnam War, this piece of legislation sought to reduce the President's unilateral authority in military matters.

Public Works Administration (PWA)

Led by Harold L. Ickes, a freeswinging Bullmooser, this agency's primary purpose was long-range recovery and over $4 billion was spent on projects, including public buildings, highways, and parkways. One spectacular achievement was the Grand Coulee Dam on the Columbia River, the largest structure erected by humans since the Great Wall of China. This dam actually created more electricity than the entire Tennessee Valley Authority.

Ku Klux Klan (1866)

Led by Nathan Bedford Forrest, this group founded in Tennessee was also called the "Invisible Empire of the South." It was the most infamous of the organizations formed out of resentment of the success and ability of black legislatures. Besheeted night-riders would secretly approach the cabin of an "upstart" black and use scare tactics, such as claiming they had died at Shiloh and were coming back to haunt them. If scare tactics did not work, members of this group would mutilate and murder blacks, their sympathizers, and carpetbaggers. By the 1890s, their violence and Democratic legislation virtually disenfranchised all Southern blacks. This organization became a refuge for numerous bandits and cutthroats. It would become revived in the 1920s, and it was anti-foreign, anti-black, anti-Jewish, anti-pacifist, anti-communist, anti-internationalist, anti-evolutionist, and anti-bootlegger.

Irreconcilables

Led by Senators William Borah of Idaho and Hiram Johnson of California, this was a hard-core group of militant isolationists, also known as the "Battalion of Death," who opposed the Wilsonian dream of international cooperation in the League of Nations after WWI. Their efforts played an important part in preventing American participation in the international organization, the League of Nations, thus postponing the Treaty of Versailles.

Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) (1905)

Led by William D. Haywood, this labor organization, also known as the "Wobblies" and the "I Won't Works," sought to build "one big union" and advocated industrial sabotage in defense of that goal. At its peak in 1923, it could claim 100,000 members and could gain the the support of 300,000. This organization particularly appealed to migratory workers in agriculture and lumbering and to minors, all of whom suffered from horrific working conditions. *Unlike the AFL, this labor organization did not support World War I*

Sandistas

Left wing anti-American revolutionaries in Nicaragua who launched a civil war in 1979.

charter

Legal document granted by a government to some group or agency to implement a stated purpose, and spelling out the attending rights and obligations

primogeniture

Legal principle that the oldest son inherits all family property or land

USA Patriot Act

Legislation passed shortly after the terrorist attacks of 9/11 that granted broad surveillance and detention authority to the government.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Legislation pushed through Congress by President Johnson that prohibited ballot-denying tactics, such as literary tests and intimidation. This act was a successor to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and sought to make racial disenfranchisement illegal.

Welfare Reform Bill (1996)

Legislation that made deep cuts in welfare grants and required able-bodied welfare recipients to find employment. Part of Bill Clinton's campaign platform in 1992, the reforms were widely seen by liberals as an abandonment of key New Deal/Great Society provisions to care for the impoverished.

Greenbacks

Paper currency issued by the Union Treasury during the Civil War. Inadequately supported by gold, this paper currency fluctuated in value throughout the war, reaching a low of 39 cents on the dollar.

Bull Run (Manassas Junction) (July 21, 1861)

Lincoln decided to launch an attack on a small Confederate force here. If the Union won, it would demonstrate the superiority of Union arms and might even lead to the capture of the Confederate capital at Richmond, thus ending the war and restoring the Union. However, *this was a Confederate victory, largely due to Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson, who got his nickname at this battle. Defeat was beneficial to the Union, however, because the Confederacy gained overconfidence and it also dispelled Union illusions of a swift victory.* Many people came to this battle and had a picnic while they watched.

"10 Percent" Reconstruction Plan (1863)

Lincoln proposed this plan for re-integrating the South back into the Union even before the Civil War had ended. It decreed that a state could be welcomed back into the Union when 1/10th of its voters in the presidential election of 1860 had taken an oath of allegiance to the United States and pledged to abide by emancipation. Under this plan, the next step would be formal erection of a state government.

Antietam (September 17, 1862)

Lincoln restored McClellan back to position of Union General for this battle, where he would find a copy of Lee's battles plan dropped by a careless CSA officer. McClellan succeeded in halting Lee at this battle in one of the bloodiest days of the war. This Union victory led to the British and French forces postponing their involvement in the war. Although this essentially ended in a military draw, this showed the power of the Union and gave Lincoln his much needed "victory" for his Emancipation Proclamation.

Committees of correspondence

Local committees established across Massachusetts, and later in each of the thirteen colonies, to maintain colonial opposition to British policies through the exchange of letters and pamphlets.

Armed Neutrality

Loose alliance of nonbelligerent naval powers, organized by Russia's Catherine the Great, to protect neutral trading rights during the war for American independence.

Iran-Contra Affair

Major political scandal of Ronald Reagan's second term. An illicit arrangement of selling "arms for hostages" with Iran and using money to support the Contras in Nicaragua, the scandal deeply damaged Reagan's credibility.

Kent State University (shooting 1970)

Massacre of four college students by National Guardsmen on May 4, 1970, in Ohio. In response to Nixon's announcement that he had expanded the Vietnam War into Cambodia, college campuses across the country exploded in violence. On May 14 and 15, students at historically black Jackson State College in Mississippi were protesting the war as well as this shooting when highway patrolmen fired into a student dormitory, killing 2 students

March on Washington

Massive civil rights demonstration in August 1963 in support of Kennedy-backed legislation to secure legal protections for Americans blacks. One of the most visually impressive manifestations of the Civil Rights Movement, the march was the occasion of Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech.

Marshall Plan (1948)

Massive transfer of aid money to help rebuild postwar Western Europe, intended to bolster capitalist and democratic governments and prevent domestic communist groups from riding poverty and misery to power. The plan was first announced by the Secretary of State under Truman at Harvard's commencement in June 1947; he invited the Europeans to get together and work out a joint plan for economic recovery, and if they did, the U.S. would help them. It was offered to the USSR, but with ridiculous terms, so they declined (which is what the U.S. wanted). *Fighting Communism with supplies.*

Glasnost

Meaning "openness," a cornerstone along with Perestroika of Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev's reform movement in the USSR in the 1980s. These policies resulted in great market liberalization, access to the West, and ultimately the end of communist rule.

Perestroika

Meaning "restructuring," a cornerstone along with Glasnost of Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev's reform movement in the USSR in the 1980s. These policies resulted in greater market liberalization, access to the West, and ultimately the end of communist rule.

Molasses Act (1733)

Meant to squelch North American trade with French West Indies; if successful, this scheme would have stuck a crippling blow to American international trade and the to colonists' standard of living. Previous to this, the colonists enjoyed trade with the West Indies, especially the French islands. American merchants responded to this ruling by Parliament by bribing and smuggling their way around the law. This foreshadowed great resistance to British rule to come in the following years. v uii

Great Migration

Migration of seventy thousand refugees England to the North American colonies. However, not all were Puritans and only 20,000 of 70,000 refugees came to the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Many were attracted to the warm and fertile West Indies, especially the sugar-rich island of the Barbados.

War Hawks

Militantly nationalistic western congressmen eager for hostilities with the Indians, Canadians, and British. These democratic-republican congressmen who pressed James Madison to declare war on Britain

Yalta Conference (February 1945)

Meeting of the "Big Three" (FDR, Churchill, Stalin) at an old Tsarist resort on the Black Sea, where they laid the foundations for the postwar division of power in Europe, including a divided Germany and territorial concessions to the USSR. At this meeting, the USSR agreed that Poland, Bulgaria, and Romania should have a representative government based on free elections; an agreement Stalin would break. Stalin also agreed to help the U.S. with Japan, but only under the condition he would receive land from Japan. *The Big Three also announced plans for the United Nations.*

Atlantic Charter (1941)

Meeting on a warship off the coast of Newfoundland, FDR and Winston Churchill signed this covenant outlining the future path toward disarmament, peace, and a permanent system of general security. Its spirit would animate the founding of the United Nations and raise awareness of human rights of individuals after WWII. The document would specifically promise there would be no territorial changes contrary to the wishes of the inhabitants. It also affirmed the right of people to choose their own government and regain governments abolished by dictators. Poles would praise the document, while American isolationists would condemn it.

Realism

Mid-nineteenth century movement that came to dominate post-civil war American literature (although it was prevalent in Europe as well) and the arts that sought to depict contemporary life and society as it actually was, in all its unvarnished detail. Adherents eschewed the idealism and nostalgia of the earlier romantic sensibility. These authors often depicted middle-and upper-class characters in everyday settings. Famous writers of this movement were William Dean Howells (the "father" of this movement), Mark Twain, and Henry James, and Edith Wharton

Indentured servants

Migrants who, in exchange for transatlantic passage, bound themselves to a colonial employer for a term of service, typically between four and seven years

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

Military alliance of Western European powers (Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg) and the United States and Canada established in 1949 to defend against the common threat from the Soviet Union, marking against stride forward for European unity and American internationalism. The powers involved pledged to regard an attack on one as an attack on all and promised to respond with "armed force" if necessary. Despite the U.S. not wanting to get into permanent alliances, they agreed to join due to their common enemy of Russia.

My Lai Massacre

Military assault in a small Vietnamese village on March 16, 1968, in which American soldiers under the command of 2nd Lieutenant William Calley murdered hundreds of unarmed Vietnamese civilians, mostly women and children. The atrocity produced outrage and reduced support for the war in American and around the world when details of the massacre and an attempt cover-up were revealed in 1971.

Six-Day War

Military conflict between Israel and its Arab neighbors, including Syria, Egypt, and Jordan. The war ended with an Israeli victory and territorial expansion into the Sinai Peninsula, the Golan Heights, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank. The 1967 war was a humiliation for several Arab states, and the territorial disputes it created formed the basis for continued conflict in the region.

Battle of Diem Bien Phu

Military engagement in French colonial Vietnamese in which French forces were defeated by Viet Minh nationalists loyal to Ho Chi Minh. With this loss, the French ended their colonial involvement in Indochina, paving the way for America's entry.

James Wilkinson

Military governor of Louisiana Territory, secret agent in the pay of the Spanish crown. Aaron Burr launched a conspiracy with this person to foment a rebellion against Spanish rule in Mexico, but this person would betray Burr's scheme to both the Spanish and American governments.

Vietnamization

Military strategy launched by Richard Nixon in 1969. The plan reduced the number of American combat troops in Vietnam and left more of the fighting to the South Vietnamese, who were supplied with American armor, tanks, and weaponry.

Cahokia

Mississippian settlement near East St. Louis, home to as many as 25,000 Native Americans

Pogroms

Mob attacks approved or condoned by local authorities. A major example was Kristallnacht during the year before World War II broke out.

Joseph Brant

Mohawk chief who converted to Anglicanism; believed that a victorious Britain would restrain American expansion into the West

"Racketeers"

More commonly known as gangsters, these are people who obtain money illegally by fraud, bootlegging, gambling, or threats of violence. They invaded the ranks of labor as organizers and promoters during the 1920s, a decade when gambling and gangsterism were prevalent in American life. This was the beginning of large-scale organized crime becoming a gigantic business.

Black Panther Party

Organization of armed black militants formed in Oakland California, in 1966 to protect black rights. These people represented a growing dissatisfaction with the non-violent wing of the civil rights movement, and signaled a new direction to the movement after the legislative victories of 1964 (Civil Rights Act) and 1965 (Voting Rights Act).

Protestant Reformation

Movement to reform the Catholic Church launched in Germany by Martin Luther

Contract With America

Multi-point program offered by Republican candidates and sitting politicians in the 1994 midterm election. The platform proposed smaller government, Congressional ethics reform, term limits, great emphasis on personal responsibility, and a general repudiation of the Democratic party. This articulation of dissent was a significant blow to the Clinton Administration and led to the Republican party's takeover of both houses of Congress for the first time in half a century.

Dollar Diplomacy

Name applied by President Taft's critics to the policy of supporting U.S. investments and political interests abroad. First applied to the financing of railways in China after 1909, the policy then spread to Haiti, Honduras, and Nicaragua. It included Washington warmly encouraging Wall Street bankers to sluice their surplus dollars into foreign areas to strategic concern to the U.S.. Woodrow Wilson disavowed the practice, but his administration undertook comparable acts of intervention in support of U.S. interests, especially in Latin America.

Southern Strategy (1972)

Nixon reelection campaign strategy designed to appeal to conservative whites in the historically Democratic south. The President stressed law and order issues and remained noncommittal on civil rights. This strategy typified the regional split between the two parties as white Southerners became increasingly attracted to the Republican party in the aftermath of the Civil Rights Movement.

Yellow Journalism

Named after Joseph Pulitzer's colored comic supplements featuring the "Yellow Kid," this was a scandal-mongering practice of journalism that emerged in New York during the Gilded Age out of circulation battles between Pulitzer's New York World and William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal. *This expression has remained a pejorative term referring to sensationalist journalism practiced with unethical, unprofessional standards and with crude exaggeration.*

Lindbergh Law

Named after the famous pilot, this law came about when the aviator-hero's son was kidnapped and eventually murdered. The law made interstate abduction a death-penalty offense in certain circumstances.

Malaise Speech (1979)

National address by Jimmy Carter in which he scolded American materialism and urged a communal spirit in the face of economic hardships. Although Carter intended the speech to improve both public morale and his standings as a leader, it had the opposite effect and was widely perceived as a political disaster for the embattled president.

Checkers Speech

Nationally televised address by vice-presidential candidate Richard Nixon. Using the new mass medium of television shortly before the 1952 election, the vice presidential candidate saved his place on the ticket by defending himself against accusations of corruption.

Aztecs

Native American empire that controlled Mexico until 1521 when they were conquered by Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes, known for their advances in math and writing

"Biddle's Panic"

Nicholas Biddle caused a minor financial crisis, called this, to illustrate the Bank of the United States' power.

"Old Hickory"

Nickname given to Andrew Jackson by his supporters to represent he was a 'tough hero'

Gibbons v. Odgen (1824)

Nicknamed the "steamboat case" this suit grew out of an attempt by the State of New York to grant a private concern a monopoly of waterborne commerce between New York and New Jersey. With this case, Marshall struck another blow to states rights, as he reminded the state that the Constitution conferred on Congress alone the control of interstate commerce.

Silent Majority

Nixon Administration's term to describe generally content, law-abiding middle class Americans who supported both the Vietnam war and America's institutions. As a political tool, the concept attempted to make a subtle distinction between believers in "traditional" values and the vocal minority of civil rights agitators, student protesters, counter-culturalists, and other seeming disruptors of the social fabric.

The Association

Non-importation agreement crafted during the First Continental Congress calling for the complete boycott of British goods.

Democratic Leadership Council

Non-profit organization of centrist Democrats found in the mid-1980s. The group attempted to push the Democratic party toward growth, strong defense, and anticrime policies. Among its most influential early members was Bill Clinton, whom it held up as an example of "third way" politics.

Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) (1942)

Nonviolent civil rights organization founded during WW2 and committed to the "Double V" -- victory over dictators abroad and racism at home and to "direct action". After WW2, this organization would become a major force in the civil rights movement.

Rebels

Northern nickname for the Confederate soldiers, inspired by Johnny Reb.

Black Monday

October 19, 1987. Date of the largest single-day decline in the Dow Jones Industrial Average (stock market index) until September 2001. The downturn indicated instability in the booming business culture of the 1980s but did not lead to a serious economic recession.

jeremiad

Often-fiery sermons lamenting the waning piety of parishioners fist delivered in New England in the mid 17th century

Battle of Trenton (Crossing the Delaware)

On December 26, 1776, George Washington ambushed and captured a thousands Hessians. This victory was a huge morale booster for the patriots, which was much needed after previous defeats.

Anti-Federalists

Opposed a stronger federal government. (Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, and Richard Henry Lee, poor debtors and farmers)

Freedom Riders

Organized mixed-race groups who rode interstate buses deep into the South to draw attention to a protest racial segregation, beginning in 1961. This effort by northern young people to challenge racism proved a political and public relations success for the Civil Rights Movement.

Executive Order No. 9066 (1942)

Order of FDR authorizing the War Department to remove Japanese "enemy aliens" into isolated internment camps. Immigrants and American-born Japanese citizens were sent away from their lives. The prisoners lost millions of dollars of their earnings because they were taken out of their homes and businesses. The U.S. apologized for its actions in 1988 and payed $20,000 to all camp survivors.

Common Sense

One of the most influential pamphlets ever written, by Thomas Paine. Paine urged the colonies to declare independence from Britain and establish a republican government.

Admiral de Grasse

Operated with a powerful fleet in the West Indies; advised the Americans that he was free to join with them in an assault on Cornwallis at Yorktown; he, Washington, and Rochambeau cornered Cornwallis, who surrendered his troops.

Mason-Dixon Line

Originally the southern boundary of colonial Pennsylvania this was now the line that separated the slave states and the free states.

Second Great Awakening

Originating from a fresh wave of roaring revivals, beginning on the Southern frontier and then the Northeast, this was one of the most momentous episodes in the history of American religion. It was spread to the masses on the frontier by huge "camp meetings." This tidal wave of spiritual fervor left in its wake countless converted souls, many shattered and reorganized Churches, and numerous new sects. It encouraged evangelicals that bubbled up into innumerable areas of American life - including prison reform, temperance cause, the women's movement and the crusade to abolish slavery.

Old Lights

Orthodox clergymen; skeptical of the emotionalism and the theatrical antics of the revivalists in the Great Awakening.

Proprietary Colonies

Owned by an individual with direct responsibility to the king; proprietor selected a governor, who served as the authority figure for the property. These were colonies - MD, PA, DE - under the control of local proprietors (Owners of a business or property), who appointed colonial governors.

Bureau of Corporations

Part of Teddy's Department of Commerce and Labor, this arm of the cabinet body was authorized to probe business engaged in Interstate commerce. This was very useful for the "trust-busting" in the following decades.

Civil Works Administration (CWA) (1933)

Part of the Federal Emergency Relief Act (FERA) this administration, also under Harry Hopkins, was designed to provide temporary jobs by the state during the cruel winter emergency of 1933. Tens of thousands of jobless were employed at leaf raking and other make-work tasks, which were dubbed "boondoggling." *Lake Cumberland was built by this agency.*

Declaratory Act

Passed alongside the repeal of the Stamp Act, it reaffirmed Parliament's unqualified sovereignty over the North American colonies.

Force Bill

Passed by Congress along with the Compromise Tariff, this bill authorized the president to use the army and navy, if necessary, to collect federal tariff duties; known by Carolinians as the "Bloody Bill"

Taft-Hartley Act (1947)

Passed by a republican congress over Harry Truman's veto, this was labeled as a "slave-labor law" by critics, this act outlawed the "closed" shop, made unions liable for damages that resulted from jurisdictional disputes among themselves, and required union leaders to take a noncommunist oath. This act weakened many of labor's New Deal gains and purged the union movement of many of its most committed and active organizers.

Judiciary Act of 1801

Passed by the departing Federalist Congress, it created 16 new federal judgeships ensuring a Federalist hold on the judiciary

Act of Toleration

Passed in Maryland (called the "Catholic Haven") by Lord Baltimore, it guaranteed toleration to all Christians but decreed the death penalty for those like Jews and atheists , who denied the divinity of Jesus Christ

Workingmen's Compensation Act (1916)

Passed under Woodrow Wilson, this act granted assistance to federal civil-service employees during periods of disability. It was a precursor to the labor-friendly legislation passed during the New Deal.

Francis Marion

Patriot, "swamp fox", used guerilla warfare

Sons and Daughters of liberty

Patriotic groups that played a central role in agitating against the Stamp Act and enforcing non-importation agreements.

Treaty of Paris (1783)

Peace treaty signed by Britain and the United States ending the Revolutionary War. The British recognized American independence, granted the United States the Old Northwest. The Americans also won lucrative fishing rights off Newfoundland and Nova Scotia and promise the British that prewar debts to British merchants would be paid and Loyalists would have confiscated property returned.

Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) (1964)

Political party organized by civil rights activists to challenge Mississippi's delegation to the Democratic National Convention, which opposed the civil rights planks in the party's platform. Claiming a mandate to president the true voice of Mississippi, where almost no black citizens could vote, this party demanded to be seated at the convention but were denied by party bosses. The effort was both a setback to civil rights activism in the south and a motivation to continue to struggle for black voting rights.

mestizos

People of mixed Indian and European heritage, notably in Mexico

"Nullies"

People who supported nullification of the tariff of 1828.

"The American Scholar" (1837)

Perhaps Ralph Waldo Emerson's most thrilling public effort was this Phi Beta Kappa address delivered at Harvard College. This brilliant appeal was an intellectual declaration of independence, for it urged American writers to throw off European traditions and delve into the riches of their own backyards.

New Freedom (1912)

Platform of reforms advocated by Woodrow Wilson (proposed by Democrats in Baltimore) in his first presidential campaign, including stronger antitrust legislation to protect small business enterprises from monopolies, banking reform, and tariff reductions. It favored small enterprise, entrepreneurship, and the free function of unregulated and monopolized markets. Wilson's strategy involved taking action to increase opportunities for capitalist competition by fragmentation of big industrial combines, not government regulation.

Moral Majority

Political action committee founded by Reverend Jerry Falwell in 1979 to promote traditional Christian values and oppose feminism, abortion, and gay rights. The group was a major linchpin in the resurgent religious right of the 1980s.

French Revolution

Political and Social upheaval supported by most Americans during its moderate beginning in 1789, but the cause of bitter divisions after it took a radical turn in 1792.

Lewinsky Affair

Political sex scandal that resulted in Bill Clinton's impeachment and trial by Congress. In 1998, Clinton gave sworn testimony in a sexual harassment case that he had never engaged in sexual activity with a White House intern named Monica (last name). When prosecutors discovered evidence that the President had lied under oath about the affair, to which Clinton admitted, Republicans in Congress began impeachment proceedings. Although Clinton was ultimately not convicted by the Senate, the scandal put a lasting blemish on his presidential legacy.

Republicanism

Political theory of representative government, based on the principle of popular sovereignty, with a strong emphasis on liberty and civic virtue

New Frontier

President Kennedy's nickname for his domestic policy agenda. Buoyed by youthful optimism, the program included proposals for the Peace Corps and efforts to improve education and health care.

Great Society

President Lyndon Johnson's term for his domestic policy agenda. Billed as a successor to the New Deal, the Great Society aimed to extend the postwar prosperity to all people in American society by promoting civil rights and fighting poverty. These programs included the War on Poverty, which expanded the Social Security system by creating Medicare and Medicaid to provide health care for the aged and the poor. Johnson also signs laws protecting consumers and empowering community organizations to combat poverty in grassroots levels.

Nixon Doctrine

President Nixon's plan for "peace with honor" with Vietnam. The doctrine stated that the U.S. would honor its existing defense commitments but, int he further, countries would have to fight their own wars.

Nicholas Biddle

President of the Bank of the United States (AKA the "moneyed monster" by Jackson); he held an immense - and to many unconstitutional -amount of power over the financial affairs.

Lord North

Prime Minister of Great Britain during most of her conflict with America; attempted to appease the colonies by modifying the Townshend Acts and imposing the Tea Act, but he just caused tensions to escalate and boil over; forced to resign after the British surrender at Yorktown

Hulks

Prisoners of war ship. (3x more died on these than the battlefield)

Privateers

Privately owned armed ships authorized by Congress to prey on enemy shipping during the Revolutionary War.

Affirmative Action

Program designed to redress historic racial and gender imbalances in jobs and education. The term grew from an executive order issued by JFK in 1961 mandating that projects paid for with federal funds could not discriminated based on race in their hiring practices. In the late 1960s, President Nixon's Philadelphia Plan changed the meaning of this word to require attention to certain groups, rather than protect individuals against discrimination.

Philadelphia Plan (1969)

Program established by Richard Nixon to require construction trade unions to work toward hiring black apprentices. The plan altered Lyndon Johnson's concept of "affirmative action" to focus on groups rather than individuals.

Apollo

Program of manned space flights run by Americans National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The project's highest achievement was the landing of Apollo 11 on the moon on July 20, 1969.

Fifteenth Amendment (1870)

Prohibited states from denying citizens the franchise on account of race. It disappointed feminists who wanted the amendment to include guarantees for women's suffrage.

Treaty of Wanghia (July 3, 1844)

Proposed by Caleb Cushing, a dashing Massachusetts lawyer-scholar, who was sent by Tyler to secure comparable concession from China to the United States after the Opium War. This was the first formal diplomatic agreement between the United States and China. The U.S. was interested in commerce, not colonies, and they secured some vital rights and privileges from the Chinese. "Most favored nation" status afforded the U.S. any and all trading terms accorded to other powers. "Extraterritoriality" provided for trying Americans accused of crimes in China before American officials, not in Chinese courts. *More immediately important, was the opportunity it opened for American missionaries, thousands of whom soon flooded prayerfully through the treaty ports to convert the "heathen Chinese."*

Wade-Davis Bill (1864)

Proposed by the Republicans through Congress as a response to Lincoln's reconstruction plan, this bill required that 50 percent of a state's voters take the oath of allegiance and demanded stronger safeguards for emancipation than Lincoln's as a price of re-admission to the Union. Lincoln "pocket-vetoed" this by refusing to sign it after Congress had adjourned. This proposed bill reflected divisions between Congress and the President, and between radical and moderate Republicans, over the treatment of the defeated South.

Initiative

Proposed by the progressives, this was created so that voters could directly propose legislation themselves, thus bypassing the boss-bought state legislatures. This brought democracy directly "to the people," and helped foster a shift toward interest-group politics and away from old political "machines."

Crittenden Amendments

Proposed in an attempt to appease the South, the failed Constitutional amendments would have given federal protection for slavery in all territories south of the Mason Dixon line, including future states to be admitted (such as Cuba) where slavery was supported by popular sovereignty. In short, the slavery supporters were to be guaranteed full rights in the southern territories, as long as they were territories, regardless of the wishes of the majority under popular sovereignty. Lincoln would flat out reject this compromise.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

Protest, sparked by Rosa Park's defiant refusal to move to the back of the bus, by black Alabamians against segregated seating on city buses. The bus boycott lasted from December 1, 1955, until December 26, 1956, and became one of the foundational moments of the Civil Rights Movement. It led to the rise of MLK Jr., and ultimately led to a Supreme Court decision opposing segregated busing.

New Jersey Plan

Provided for equal representation in a unicameral congress by states, regardless of size and population, as under the existing Articles of Confederation. Smaller states feared larger states would band together and 'lord over the rest'

Pope's Rebellion

Pueblo Indian rebellion that drove Spanish settlers from New Mexico

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)

Reagan administration plan announced in 1983 to create a missile-defense system over American territory to block a nuclear attack. Derided as "Star Wars' by critics, the plan typified Reagan's commitment to vigorous defense spending even as he sought the limit the size of government in domestic matters.

Shays' Rebellion (1786)

Rebellion by poor back-country farmers who were losing farms due to mortgage foreclosures and tax delinquencies. Led by a Continental Army veteran, these debtors demanded that the state issue paper money, lighten taxes, and suspend property takeovers. The most important result was that many people realized the need for a stronger central government.

"Smoking Gun Tape"

Recording made in the Oval Office in June 1972 that proved conclusively that Nixon knew about the Watergate break-in and endeavored to cover it up. Led to a complete break-down in Congressional support for Nixon after the Supreme Court ordered he hand the tape to investigators.

Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD)

Refers to weapons - nuclear, biological, and chemical - that can kill large numbers of people and do great damage to the built and natural environment. The term was used to refer to nuclear weapons during the Cold War. The Bush administration's claim that Saddam Hussein had developed these weapons provided the rationale for the United States's invasion of Iraq in 2003. These weapons were never found after the invasion.

Dawes Severalty Act (1887)

Reflecting the forced-civilization views of the reformers, the act dissolved many tribes as legal entities, wiped out tribal ownership of land, and set up individual Indian family heads (households) with 160 acres. If the Native Americans behaved themselves "like good white settlers," they would get full title to their holdings, as well as U.S. citizenship in 25 years. Former reservation land not allotted to the Indians under this act was to be sold to railroads and white settlers, with the proceeds used by the federal government to educate and "civilize" native peoples. Of 130 million acres held in Native American reservations before the Act, 90 million were sold to non-native buyers. This act would be a major cause of the Battle of Wounded Knee.

Northwest Ordinance (1787)

Related to governing of Old Northwest. Two evolutionary stages: 1. Area would be subordinate to federal government. 2. When there were 600,000 residents, it could be admitted as a state with all privileges of 13 charter members. It forbade slavery (exempted already existing slaves).

Glorious (or Bloodless) Revolution

Relatively peaceful overthrow of the unpopular Catholic monarch, James II, replacing him with Dutch-born William III and Mary. When news of this overthrow in Old England reached New England, the ramshackle Dominion of New England collapsed, overthrowing Sir Edmund Andros.

3 R's.

Relief, Recovery, Reform. These were the goals that FDR aimed at in his New Deal. Relief an immediate recovery were short-term goals of FDR, especially in the first two years. Long-range goals were permanent recovery and reform of current abuses. these would over overlap and get in one another's way.

Quakers

Religious group known for their tolerance emphasis on peace, and idealistic Indian policy, who settled heavily in Pennsylvania

Second Continental Congress

Representative body of delegates from all 13 colonies, drafted the Declaration of Independence. George Washington was appointed as commander of militia here, although most did not want war, and the delegates would draft the Olive Branch petition.

Edmond Genet

Representative of the French Republic, undertook to fit out privateers and otherwise take advantage of the existing Franco-American alliance

House of Burgesses

Representative parliamentary assembly created to govern Virginia, establishing a precedent for government in the English colonies

Quartering Act

Required colonies to provide food and quarters for British troops.

Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom

Result of Virginia's struggle for divorce of government and religion, which was very fierce. The struggle prolonged to 1786, until Thomas Jefferson and co-reformers (including baptists) won this complete victory with this.

Spoils System

Rewarding political supporters with public office. Under Jackson, this system was introduced into the federal government on a large scale. This also helped to cement loyalty to the forming two party system; the promise of patronage was a compelling reason for Americans to pick a party and stick with it.

Hiram Revels and Blanche K. Bruce

These were the only two black senators between 1868 and 1876. They were both from Mississippi

Boston Tea Party

Rowdy protest against the British East India Company's newly acquired monopoly on the tea trade.

Mayans

Ruled over Central America, best known for writing system

Crispus Attucks

Runaway slave and leader of the Boston protests that resulted in the "Boston Massacre," in which this person was the first to die.

Model Treaty

Sample treaty drafted by the Continental Congress as a guide for American diplomats.

XYZ Affair (1797)

Scandal in which three French secret agents attempted to bribe U.S. diplomats, outraging the American public and causing the undeclared war with France. These french diplomats demanded an un-neutral loan of 32 million florins and a bribe of $250,000 just for the privilege of merely talking to them.

John Adams

Second president, stubborn, tactless, and prickly intellectual aristocrat. His Federalist enemies and political weaknesses undermined his administration

Ostend Manifesto

Secret Franklin Pierce administration proposal to purchase or, that failing, to wrest militarily Cuba from Spain, as Spanish ownership endangered American interests. Once leaked, it was quickly abandoned from the North.

Pentagon Papers

Secret U.S. government report detailing early planning and policy planning and policy decisions regarding the Vietnam War under Presidents Kennedy and Johnson. Leaked to the New York Times in 1971, it revealed instances of governmental secrecy, lies, and incompetence in prosecution of the war.

Allies

These were the powers of World War I that included France, Britain and Russia, and later Japan, Italy and the United States.

Congregational Church

Self-governing Puritan congregations without the hierarchical establishment of the Anglican Church. This logically led to democracy in political government

Lincoln-Douglas Debates (1858)

Series of 7 debates between Illinois lawyer Abraham Lincoln and Senator Stephen Douglas during the U.S. Senate race in Illinois. Douglas won the election but Lincoln gained national prominence and emerged as the leading candidate for the 1860 Republican nomination.

King Philip's War

Series of assaults by Metacom, called King Philip by the English, on English settlements in New England. This war slowed the westward march of English settlement in New England for several decades. After this, the Indians only posed sporadic threats to the New England colonists, as they were defeated.

Pequot War

Series of clashes between English settlers and Pequot Indians in the Connecticut River valley. This war virtually annihilated the Pequot tribe and inaugurated four decades of uneasy peace between Puritans and Indians.

First Anglo-Powhatan War

Series of clashes between the Powhatan confederacy and English settlers in Virginia

Hungarian Uprising

Series of demonstrations in Hungary against the Soviet Union. Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev violently suppressed this pro-Western uprising, highlighting the limitations of America's power in Eastern Europe.

Navigation Laws

Series of laws passed to regulate colonial shipping; the acts provided that only English ships would be allowed to trade in English and colonial ports and that all goods destined for the colonies would first pass through England

Intolerable Acts (AKA Coercive Acts)

Series of punitive measures passed in retaliation for the Boston Tea Party, closing the Port of Boston, revoking a number of rights in the Massachusetts colonial charter, and expanding the Quartering Act to allow for the lodging of soldiers in private homes.

Watergate

Series of scandals that resulted in President Richard Nixon's resignation in August 1974 amid calls for his impeachment. The episode sprang from a failed burglary attempt at Democratic party headquarters in Washington's Watergate Hotel during the 1972 election.

Salem witch trials (1692)

Series of witchcraft trials launched after a group of adolescent girls in Salem, Massachusetts, claimed to have been bewitched by certain older women of the town. This resulted in the legal lynchings of twenty individuals. These trials reflected the widening of social stratification of New England, as well as the fear of many religious traditionalists that the Puritan heritage was being eclipsed by Yankee commercialism.

Central Powers

These were the powers of World War I that included Germany and Austria-Hungary and later Belgaria and Turkey.

Slave codes (1662)

Set of laws defining racial slavery beginning in 1662, including establishing the hereditary nature of slavery and legally limiting the rights and learning of slaves. This made blacks and their children the property (or "chattels") for life of their white masters. These were established to differentiate between black slaves and white indentured servants.

Fort Pillow

Several black soldiers were massacred by Confederate soldiers even after formally surrendering at this battle in Tennessee. The South put many African American soldiers to death, claiming they were slaves in revolt rather than prisoners of war.

Tenskwatawa

Shawnee brother of Tecumseh known to nonIndians as 'the Prophet"

Tecumseh

Shawnee leader who organized a major Indian confederation against U.S. expansion

Catharine Beecher

She tirelessly urged women to enter the teaching profession, and eventually succeeded beyond her dreams, as men left teaching for other lines of work and school teaching became a thoroughly "feminized" occupation. She was also the sister of the author of Uncle Tom's Cabin.

Sojourner Truth

She was a freed black women in New York who fought tirelessly for black emancipation and women's rights.

California Bear Flag Republic

Short-lived California republic which was established by local American settlers who revolted against Mexico. Once news of the war with Mexico reached the Americans, they abandoned the republic in favor of joining the United States.

Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, and 1937

Short-sighted acts passed to prevent American participation in European War. It stipulated that when the president proclaimed the existence of a foreign war, certain restrictions would go up. Among others, the restrictions prevented Americans from sailing a belligerent ship, sell transport munitions to belligerent countries, or make loans to a belligerent country. These acts were passed due to citizens believing arm manufactures and bankers selling to countries led to U.S. involvement in WWI.

joint-stock company

Short-term partnership between multiple investors to fund a commercial enterprise

Sacajawea

Shoshone woman who helped Lewis and Clark (Through Translation)

Treaty of Tordesillas (Aka Line of Demarcation)

Signed by Spain and Portugal, dividing the territories of the New World

Colored National Labor Union

Since the National Labor Union was reluctant to allow blacks to join, the black workers organized this union as an adjunct, but their support for the Republican party and the persistent racism of white unionists prevented the two national unions from truly working together.

Roanoke Island

Sir Walter Raleigh's failed colonial settlement off the coast of North Carolina

Sally Hemings

Slave woman who had intimate relationship with Jefferson

"Fifty-Four Forty or Fight"

Slogan doted by mid-nineteenth century expansionists who advocated the occupation of Oregon territory, jointly held by Britain and the United States. Though President Polk had pledged to seize all of Oregon, to 54 40', he settled on the forty-ninth parallel as a compromise with the British, which angered the Manifest-Destiny supporters.

Separatists

Small group of Puritans who sought to break away entirely from the Church of England

caravel

Small regular vessel with a high deck and three triangular sails

"Code Talkers"

Some 25,000 Native American men (mostly Navajo and Comanches) who served in the military during WW2 by transmitting radio messages in their native languages, which were undecipherable by German and Japanese spies.

Fort Sumter (April 12, 1861)

South Carolina location (Charleston harbor) where Confederate forces fired the first shots of the Civil War when the Union attempted to supply the fort (though not reinforce it, as he didn't want to intentionally provoke war.) This led to the Union officially declaring war on the Confederate States of America (CSA) and also led to the seven seceded states becoming eleven.

Redeemers

Southern Democratic politicians who sought to wrest control from Republican regimes in the South after Reconstruction. After federal troops left a state, that state's government swiftly passed back the power to these people, also called "Home Rule" regimes.

Yankees

Southern nickname for the Union soldiers, inspired by Billy Yank.

Sputnik

Soviet satellite first launched into Earth orbit on October 4, 1957. This scientific achievement marked the first time human beings had put a man-made object into orbit and pushed the USSR noticeably against of the U.S. in the Space Race. A month later, the Soviet Union sent a larger satellite into space, prompting the U.S. to redouble its space exploration efforts and raising American fears of Soviet superiority.

Spanish Armada

Spanish fleet defeated in the English Channel in 1588. The defeat of this Spanish fleet marked the end of Spain's colonization era.

encomienda

Spanish government's policy to give Indians to certain colonists in return for the promise to Christianize them

Brain Trust

Specialists in law, economics, and welfare, many of them young university professors who advised President FDR and helped develop the policies of the New Deal. Many of FDR's speeches were written by these reform-minded intellectuals.

Maine Law of 1851

Sponsored by the "Father of Prohibition"- Neal S. Dow- this law prohibited the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquor. This drastic new law was hailed as "the law of Heaven Americanized." Dozens of states followed the example of this law and about a dozen had passed various prohibitory laws in 1857. However, most were repealed within a decade. This failed law showed that it was impossible to legislate thirst for alcohol out of existence.

Cuban Missile Crisis

Standoff between JFK and Soviet Premier Nikitia Khrushchev in October 1962 over Soviet plans to install nuclear weapons in Cuba. Although it was ultimately settled in America's favor and represented a foreign policy triumph for Kennedy, it brought the world's superpowers perilously close to the brink of nuclear confrontation.

New Nationalism

State interventionist reform program devised by Herbert Croly and advocated by Teddy Roosevelt during his Bull Moose campaign. This rival to Wilson's New Freedom did not object to continue consolidation of trusts and labor unions. Rather, it sought to create stronger regulatory agencies to insure that they are operated to serve the public, not just private gain. Along with this, Roosevelt also pushed for woman suffrage and a broad program of social welfare, including minimum wage.

SALT II

Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty agreement between Soviet Leader Leonid Brezhnev and American President Jimmy Carter. Despite an accord to limit weapons between the two leaders, the agreement was ultimately scuttled in the U.S. Senate following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979.

Thomas Jefferson

Strong believer in strict construction, weak government, and antimilitarism who was forced to modify some of his principles in office

Levittowns

Suburban communities with mass-produced houses built in the New York and Philadelphia metropolitan areas in the 1950s by William Levitt and Sons. Typically inhabited by white middle-class people who fled the cities in search of homes to buy for their growing families. The first appeared on Long Island, NY in the 1940s.

blue laws

Sumptuary laws, they are designed to restrict personal behavior in accord with a strict code of morality. These laws prohibited "ungodly revelers," state plays, playing cards, dice, games, and excessive hilarity.

Dred Scott v. Sandford (March 6, 1857)

Supreme Court decision that extended federal protection to slavery by ruling that Congress did not have the power to prohibit slavery in any territory (therefore declaring the Missouri Compromise of 1820 unconstitutional.) It also declared that slaves were not citizens of the United States, but rather they were property, and because of this their masters could take them anywhere and be legally held in slavery. This was one of the opening paper-gun blasts of the Civil War. The case involved a black slave who had lived with his master for five years in Illinois and Wisconsin Territory and sued for his freedom on the basis of his long residence on free soil. Republicans and other antislaveryites declared that the court's ruling was merely an opinion, not a decision.

Ex Parte Milligan (1866)

Supreme Court decision that ruled that military tribunals could not try civilians, even during wartime, in areas where the civil courts were open.

Theodore Dwight Weld

Swept up in the religious spirit of the Second Great Awakening, he was strongly against the sin that was slavery. He had been evangelized by Charles Grandison Finney in the Burned-Over District and appealed with special power and directness to his rural audiences of untutored farmers, with his simple manner and speech. *In 1839, This person wrote a potent propaganda pamphlet, American Slavery as It Is, which inspired Harriet Beecher Stowe's famous novel and was one of the most effective abolitionist tracts*

Albert Gallatin

Swiss-born treasury secretary who disliked national debt (Saw it as a bane rather than a blessing) but kept most Hamiltonian economic measures in effect. "Watchdog of the Treasury".

Jim Crow Laws

System of racial segregation in the American South from the end of Reconstruction until the mid-1900s. Based on the concept of "separate but equal" facilities for blacks and whites, this set of laws sought to prevent racial mixing in public, including restaurants, movie theatres, and public transportation. An informal system, it was generally perpetuated by custom, violence, and intimidation.

Jim Crow Laws

System of racial segregation in the American South from the end of Reconstruction until the mid-20th century. Based on the concept of "separate but equal" facilities for blacks and whites, these laws sought to prevent racial mixing in public, including restaurants, movie theatres, and public transportation. An informal system, it was generally perpetuated by custom, violence, and intimidation.

Corps of Discovery

Team of adventurers, led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, sent by Thomas Jefferson to explore Louisiana Territory and find a water route to the Pacific.

Kitchen Debate (1959)

Televised exchange between Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev and American Vice President Richard Nixon. Meeting at the American National Exhibition in Moscow, the two leaders sparred over the relative merits of capitalist consumer culture versus Soviet state planning. Nixon won applause for his staunch defense of American capitalism, helping lead him to the Republican nomination for president in 1960.

Revolution of 1800

Term applied by historians to suggest the dramatic, unprecedented change that took place when the Republican Thomas Jefferson defeated the incumbent Federalist John Adams for his presidency.

Boll Weevils

Term for conservative southern Democrats who voted increasingly for Republican issues during the Carter and Reagan administrations.

Stephen A. Douglas

The "Little Giant" who proposed that the Territory of Nebraska be sliced into two territories, Kansas and Nebraska. He decided that popular sovereignty would be the status of slavery in these states. Kansas would presumable become a slave state, while Nebraska would become a free state.

James K. Polk

The 11th president of the United States was the presidential candidate for the Democrats in the election of 1844. He was America's first "dark-horse" or "surprise" presidential candidate. He pushed strongly for Manifest Destiny and therefore the Mexican War and also a lowered tariff. He was also known as "Young Hickory" after "Old Hickory" Jackson.

Andrew Johnson

The 17th president of the United States who had come from extremely humble beginnings, having been born in North Carolina and orphaned early. He would become a tailor's apprentice at age 10, and taught himself to read. He moved to TN at 17 and became active in politics early. Although a Southerner, he did not secede with his states and therefore attracted favorable attention from the North. He would become the vice president, as the Republican/Union party wished to have a war democrat on the ballot to bring in more support. He also was known for his vetoes, and he was nicknamed "sir veto." (He would veto the Civil Rights Bill and also tried to kill the freedmen's bureau.) This person was an advocate for the Constitution and was buried with a copy of it.

Iranian Hostage Crisis

The 444 days, from November 1979 to January 1981, in which American embassy workers were held captive by Iranian revolutionaries. The Iranian Revolution began in January 1979 when young Muslim fundamentalists overthrew the oppressive regime of the American-backed shah, forcing him into exile. Deeming the U.S. as "The Great Satan," these revolutionaries triggered an energy crisis by cutting off Iranian oil. The hostage crisis began when revolutionaries stormed the American embassy, demanding the United States to return the shah to Iran for trial. The episode was marked by botched diplomacy and failed rescue attempts by the Carter Administration. After permanently damaging relations between the two countries, the crisis ended with the hostages' release the day Ronald Reagan became President on January 20, 1981.

Cold War

The 45-year-long diplomatic tension between the U.S. and the USSR that divided much of the world into polarized camps, capitalist against communist. Most of the international conflicts during the period, particularly in the developing world, could be traced to the competition between the U.S. and the USSR. This time period was not a full-on war, but it did include an atomic arms race.

John Quincy Adams (National-Republican)

The 6th President of the United States (1824-1828), short, thickset, and billiard-bald, and essentially was a closeted thinker rather than a politician (irritable, sarcastic, and tactless). Accused of bribing Clay to win the electoral vote. He was the first "minority" president, that is winning the electoral vote but losing the popular vote.

Roger B. Taney

The Chief Justice that presided over the Dred Scott court case.

U.S. Coast Guard Women's Reserve (SPARS)

The Coast Guard branch of women established during WW2 to employ women in noncombatant jobs beyond their traditional roles as nurses.

Franklin Pierce

The Democratic "dark horse" candidate for the election of 1852 and 14th president of the United States. His platform revived the Democrats' commitment to territorial expansion as pursued by President Polk and emphatically endorsed the Compromise of 1850, Fugitive slave law and all.

General Lewis Cass

The Democratic candidate for the election of 1848 and a veteran of the War of 1812. Although a senator and diplomat of wide experience and considerable ability, he was somewhat pompous. His enemies called him a jackass.

William Henry Harrison (Whig)

The Ninth President of the United States (Won 1840 election) who had portrayed his party's hero as the poor "Farmer of North Bend" (although he wasn't poor, he was born in a log cabin). The symbols of his campaign were hard cider and log cabins.

1914

The Panama canal finishes construction (year)

July 4, 1946

The Philippines is finally granted independence, 30 years after the Jones Act (Month/Day/Year)

Robert J. Walker

The Secretary of Treasury under James K. Polk who proposed the Tariff of 1846.

The Great Awakening

The Spread of Religion in 1730s and 1740s, first ignited by Jonathan Edwards. It emphasized emotive spirituality, which would undermine the Old Lights. It also encouraged a fresh wave of missionary work among the Indians and even mong black slaves.

April 6, 1917

The United States officially issues its war declaration (Month, Day, Year)

Zachary Taylor

The Whig candidate for the election of 1848 and the 12th president of the United States. He later died in office in 1850, passing his presidency over to his Vice President, Millard Filmore

Compromise of 1877

The agreement that finally resolved the 1876 election and officially ended Reconstruction, in exchange for the Republican candidate. Rutherford B. Hayes, winning the presidency, agreed to withdraw the last of the federal troops from the former Confederate states, This deal effectively completed the southern return to white-only, Democratic-dominated electoral policies.

Cabinet

The body of advisers to the president, not mentioned in the Constitution, that George Washington established as an important part of the new federal government.

Nicholas P. Trist

The chief clerk of the State Department who was sent to Mexico by Polk to discuss a peace treaty and eventually signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, ending the war.

Comte de Rochambeau

The commander of a powerful French army of 6,000 troops who landed in Newport, RI in the summer of 1780 and helped plan for a potential Franco-American attack on New York.

Hurricane Katrina (2005)

The costliest and one of the deadliest hurricanes in the history of the United States, killing nearly 2000 Americans. The storm ravaged the Gulf Coast, especially the city of New Orleans, in late August 2005. In New Orleans, high winds and rain caused the city's levees to break, leading to catastrophic flooding, particularly centered on the city's most impoverished wards. A tardy and feeble response by local and federal authorities exacerbated the damage and led to widespread criticism of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).

Black Tuesday (October 29, 1929)

The dark, panicky day when 16,410,000 shares of stock were sold on Wall street. It would be the trigger that helped bring on the Great Depression. Suicides on Wall Street skyrocketed as it crashed, as $40 billion was lost within 2 months. This day would lead to 12 million Americans being jobless by 1932 because there were no jobs to "give out". For those with jobs, wages and salaries were slashed.

November 11, 1918 11:00

The date and time of the World War I armistice.

February 6, 1899

The date in which the Senate approved the Treaty with Spain to claim the Philippines, making American officially an Empire. (Month, Day, Year)

August 12, 1898

The date which the Spanish surrendered Cuba to America. (Month, Day, Year)

Mechanization of Agriculture

The development of engine-driven machines, like the combine, which helped to dramatically increase the productivity of land in the 1870s and 1880s. This process contributed to the strengthening of agricultural big business that drove many family farms out of business. With this, the farm was attaining the status of a factory.

Santa Anna

The dictator of Mexico and enemy of the Texans in the Texan Revolution.

Nullification

The doctrine, proclaimed in the Thomas Jefferson's Kentucky resolution, that a state can block a federal law it considers unconstitutional.

New Deal

The economic and political policies of FDR's administration in the 1930s, which aimed to solve the problems of the Great Depression by providing relief for the unemployed and launching efforts to stimulate economic recovery. These policies built on reforms of the progressive era to expand greatly an American-style welfare state. This launched many new acts and organizations, including the "Alphabet Agencies."

George Washington

The esteemed war hero, unanimously drafted as president by Electoral College in 1789- only presidential nominee ever to be honored by unanimity

Hetch Hetchy Valley

The federal government allowed the city of San Francisco to build a dam here in 1903. This was a blow to preservationists, who wished to protect the Yosemite National Park, where the dam was located. Roosevelt supported this, wanting to use the nation's natural endowment intelligently.

Deleveraging

The inverse of "leveraging," whereby businesses increase their financial power by borrowing money (debt) in addition to their own assets (equity). In times of uncertainty of credit tightening, the same businesses seek to improve their debt-to-equity ratios by shedding debt through the sale of assets purchased with borrowed money.

Hundred Days

The first days of FDR's administration, stretching from March 9th to June 16th, 1933, when an unprecedented number of reform bills were passed by a Democratic Congress to launch the New Deal. During these days, FDR depended on an overwhelmingly Democratic Congress (which would almost always agree with him), calling them into a special session to cope with the national emergency (Great Depression), thus giving the congress the nickname "Emergency Congress."

Articles of Confederation (1777)

The first draft of a written Constitution for America after declaring independence. It was translated into French to show France that America had a government in the making. It was not ratified by all 13 states until 1781 (Maryland did not ratify due to disputes over western lands). *Its greatest weakness was its inability to impose taxes and control commerce*

John Winthrop

The first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, who accepted this opportunity. believing he had a "calling" from God to lead the new religious experiment.

Battle of Chateau-Thierry (1918)

The first significant engagement of American troops in World War I, and any European war. To weary French soldiers, the American doughboys were an image of fresh and gleaming youth. The doughboys came just in time to stop the German juggernaut that was threatening to knock out France. With American troops' arrival, it was clear that a new American giant had arisen in the West to replace the dying Russian titan in the East.

Bill of Rights (1791)

The first ten amendments of the constitution written to protect American liberties. A list of guarantees the Federalists promised to add to the Constitution to ratify the Constitution. Drafted by James Madison.

Rendezvous

The fur-trading empire was based off this French word that means "meeting."

Patent Office

The governmental office which reviews patents, which are legal recognitions of inventions. This office grants the inventor exclusive rights for a certain number of years

Ecological Imperialism

The historian's term for the aggressive and often heedless exploitation of the West's natural bounty caused the near-extinction of beaver, buffalo, and otters.

Civil Rights Act of 1875

The last piece of federal civil rights legislation until the 1950s, this law promised blacks equal access to public accommodations and banned racism in jury selection, but the Act provided no means of enforcement and was therefore ineffective.

John Slidell

The minster Polk dispatched to Mexico in 1845 who was instructed to offer a maximum of $25 million for California and territory to the east. He was rejected to even present his "insulting" proposition.

Progressives

The new social crusaders of the 20th century who waged war on many evils, notably monopoly, corruption, inefficiency, and social injustice. "Strengthen the State" was their battle cry. These people were found in both political parties and opposing views, but they all had two main goals: to use the state to curb monopoly power and to improve the common persons' conditions of life and labor.

"Domestic Feminism"

The newly assertive role for women in the household to have less children which signified the growing power and independence of women.

Civic Virtue

The notion that democracy depended on the unselfish commitment of each citizen to the public good. It was central to republican ideology.

Border States

The only 5 slave states that did not secede from the Union and it included Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia. These states were essential to the Union and thus lead to Abraham Lincoln declaring that the war was about keeping the Union together, not abolishing slavery. It also lead to him suspending habeas corpus in some of these states and declaring martial law in Maryland and also to him sending troops to mainly West Virginia and Missouri. Though these actions were seen as unconstitutional, they were needed in order to gain these states and therefore win the war.

"Phony War"

The period of "silence" after Hitler invaded Poland and the French and British declared war. This period was marked by France and Britain preparing for war, but all-out war had not broken out yet. This period was abruptly ended in April 1940 when Hitler, without warning, overran Denmark and Norway. Then it was broken further when, a month later, he attacked the Netherlands and Belgium, followed by a paralyzing blow to France (which was forced to surrender completely by June).

Alamogordo, New Mexico on July 16, 1945

The place and date of first ever atomic bomb detonation.

Virginia Plan (1787)

The plan that said both houses of a bicameral congress should be based on population (gave larger states an advantage)

Interlocking Directorates

The practice of having executives or directors from one company serve on the Board of Directors of another company. J.P. Morgan introduced this practice to eliminate banking competition in the 1890s by placing directors of his own banking system into competitor's banking systems.

Monroe Doctrine (December 2, 1823)

The president for which this document is named for incorporated a stern warning to the European powers in his annual message to congress. It had to basic features: 1) Noncolonization 2) nonintervention in the Southern and Northern Americas. If the European powers attempted either of these, the United States swore to fight back. Although they couldn't have actually defend their hemisphere, the warning worked, as Europe steered clear of them.

Jefferson Davis

The president of the independent Confederate States of America who was tense, humorless, legalistic, and stubborn. Although a great speaker and able administrator, he never really enjoyed any personal popularity. He would overwork himself for the Confederacy, but was faced with opposition from states righters, as he favored a central government.

Union League

The primary party of freed black men who wished to contribute politically. This party was originally a pro-Union party organization based in the North. Assisted by Northern blacks, freedmen turned this party into a network of political clubs that educated members in their civic duties and campaigned for Republican candidates and soon the building of black church and schools, representing black grievances before local employers and government, and recruiting militias to protect black communities from white retaliation.

Judicial Review

The principle, established by Chief Justice Marshall in the Marbury vs Madison case, that the Supreme Court can declare laws unconstitutional

Romanticism

The rise of young American authors answering their call for an authentic national literature after the War of 1812 spawned this genre of art. It was conceived as a reaction against the hyper-rational Enlightenment and originated in the revolutionary salons of continental Europe and England. This art style emphasized imagination over reason, nature over civilization, intuition over calculation, and the self over society. *Emotion, expression, and experimentation were core values.* It also celebrated human potential and prized the heroic genius of the individual artist. With this art form, American literature flowered in the mid-nineteenth century like never before.

Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

The redrafting of Napoleon's map of Europe. Preoccupation with this was one of the reasons the British were forced to compromise and sign the Treaty of Ghent.

Bible Belt

The region of the American South, extending roughly from North Carolina west to Oklahoma and Texas, where Protestant Fundamentalism and belief in literal interpretation of the Bible were traditionally strongest. The KKK could be seen especially in this region.

Three-fifths Compromise

The result of a debate on whether or not slaves would count towards a states population (for House of Representatives). The North said No, while the South said Yes. This declared that slaves would count as 3/5 of a person in population count.

Bolshevik Revolution

The second stage of the Russian Revolution in November 1917 when Vladimir Lenin and his party seized power in Russia and established a communist stage. The first stage had occurred the previous February when more moderate revolutionaries overthrew the Russian Czar. The Americans had fought against the revolutionaries in Russia, and when the revolutionaries won, tensions grew between Russia and the United States. Also because of this, Russia would leave World War I. This establishment of communism in Russia led to a red scare in the U.S.

Arabic

The sinking of this British liner in August 1915, with a loss of 2 American lives, lead to Wilson forcing Germany to agree not to sink unarmed and unresistant passenger ships without warning.

V-E Day (Victory in Europe) (May 8, 1945)

The source of frenzied rejoicing, this day marked the official end of WW2 in Europe, following the unconditional surrender of what remained of the German government the previous day.

Disestablished

The term used when the Anglican church was de-Anglicized, it reformed into the Protestant Episcopal Church.

Monitor

The tiny Union ironclad built in about 100 days was a counterpart to the Confederate Virginia. This iron ship fought the Virginia on March 9, 1862, which essentially ended in a draw. Along with the Virginia, this ship marked the end of wooden warships.

Columbian exchange

The transfer of goods, crops, and diseases between New and Old World societies after 1492

"Waving the Bloody Shirt"

The use of Civil War imagery by poltical candidates and parties to draw votes to their side of the ticket.

Land Act of 1820

The west partially achieved its goal of cheap acreage in this act, which authorized the buyer to purchase eight virgin acres at a minimum of $1.25 acre in cash.

Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES)

The woman branch established during WW2 for the U.S. Navy, which employed women in noncombatant jobs, allowing women to go beyond their traditional roles as nurses in wars.

Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAACS)

The woman branch of the U.S. army established during WW2 to employ women in noncombatant jobs. This marked the era of women participating in armed services in ways that went beyond their traditional roles as nurses.

Paxton Boys

These Scots-Irish protested the Quaker oligarchy's lenient policy towards Indians in 1764. Many of these hotheads - including Andrew Jackson - would join the American Revolutionary War.

Conscience Whigs

These antislavery Whigs were also dubbed "Mexican Whigs" and they denounced the "damnable war" with increasing heat. When they gained control of the House in 1847, they even threatened to vote down supplies for the armies in the field, and if they had done so the American army most likely would have lost.

The Big Four

These far-seeing men were becoming the chief financial bankers of the railroad enterprise (especially regarding the Central Pacific Railroad pushing over the Sierra Nevada). It included Leland Stanford of California, who had useful political connections, and the burly, energetic Collis P. Huntington, an adept lobbyist. These men and two others cleverly operated through two construction companies, and although they walked away with tens of millions in profits, they kept their hands relatively clean by not becoming involved in the bribing of congressmen.

"government girls"

These five hundred women clerks in Washington D.C. during the Civil War became government workers, with over 100 in the treasure alone.

Pet Banks

These were state economic institutions; This is where surplus federal funds were placed after the death of the Bank of the United States. Also called "wild cat banks", these often consisted of little more than a few chairs and a suitcase full of printed notes, and they flooded the country with paper money.

Insurrectos

These insurgents in Cuba sought to drive their Spanish oppressors out of their country. Their destructive tactics, including torching cane fields and sugar mills and dynamiting passenger trains, threatened American economic interests in Cuban plantations and railroads. American (civilian) sympathies would go out to these Cuban underdogs.

Black Codes

These laws were designed to regulate the affairs of the emancipated blacks, particularly with respect to negotiating labor contracts, much as the slave states had done in pre-Civil War days. This increased Northerners' criticisms of President Andrew Johnson's lenient Reconstruction policies. Mississippi was the first to pass one of these laws in 1865. Mississippi had the harshest, while Georgia had the most lenient.

Lyceum

These lecture associations included traveling lecturers who helped to carry learning to the masses. They provided platforms for speakers in such areas as science, literature, and moral philosophy. Speakers such as Ralph Waldo Emerson journeyed in these traveling lectures and cast their pearls of civilization before appreciative audiences.

Social Darwinists

These mislabeled theorists, starting with English philosopher Herbert Spencer and Yale professor William Graham Sumner, argued that individuals won their stations in life by competing on the basis of their natural talents, The wealthy and powerful had simply demonstrated greater abilities than the poor according to these theorists. They believed that people gained wealth by "survival of the fittest." Some believers in this idea applied this theory to whole nations and races, explaining that powerful peoples were naturally endowed with gifts that allowed them to dominate "lesser peoples," often defined by race. This theory provided one of the popular justifications of the U.S. imperial ventures like the Spanish-American war.

"Border Ruffians"

These people were proslaveryites who poured into Kansas from Missouri to vote early and often regarding slavery in the territory.

ABC Powers

These powers in South America included Argentina, Brazil, and Chile.

"Three-hundred-dollar men"

These rich men, such as John D. Rockefeller, could avoid the Union draft of 1863 by paying the government $300. They and the government were scorned, as others did not have the money to avoid this draft, claiming the government demanded "three hundred dollars or your life"

New York Draft Riots (1863)

These riots protesting the army draft in the North touched off largely by underprivileged and antiblack Irish Americans who shouted "Down with Lincoln!" and "Down with the Draft!" these protests put the city of New York at the mercy of a rampaging, pillaging mob for several days. Many lives were lost due to these riots and the victims included many lynched blacks.

Minstrel Shows

These shows featured white actors with blackened faces playing stock plantation characters and were special favorites by Americans in the mid-nineteenth century.

"Tom Shows"

These shows were performances based off of Uncle Tom's Cabin that were put on stage for lengthy runs.

Fort Henry and Fort Donelson (February 1862)

These two battles were the first successes of Ulysses S. Grant. Grant demanded "an unconditional and immediate surrender" from the Confederates. His triumph here was crucial, as it riveted Kentucky securely to the Union and also opened the gateway to the strategically important region of Tennessee as well as to Georgia and the CSA capital.

Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper

These two people attained international recognition in the 1820s as the United States' first writers of importance to use American scenes and themes. With these two writers, school textbooks were being written by Americans for Americans.

Nicola Sacco and Bartholomew Venzetti

These two people were accused of the murder of a Massachusetts paymaster and his guard and were convicted, most likely because of prejudice among the jury, as these Italians were atheists, anarchists, and draft dodgers. This case was regarded as "judicial lynching" by liberals, and the two were put to death in 1927. Their deaths gave communists and other radicals two martyrs in the "class struggle."

Spot Resolutions

These were Abraham Lincoln's resolutions that requested information as to the precise location on "American soil" where American blood had been shed, after Zachary Taylor and his command were attacked, and the Mexican war had been declared. Lincoln proposed these resolutions as he thought it was suspicious that Polk provoked the war, as he clearly pushed for it in his presidency.

Criminal Syndicalism Laws (1919-1920)

These were a series of laws passed by many states during the anti-red years of 1919-1920 that made illegal the mere advocacy of violence to secure social change. Critics would protest that mere words were not criminal deeds and claim that these laws went against the First Amendment. Stump Speakers of the International Workers of the World were especially targeted.

"Chiselers"

These were business people who publicly displayed the National Recovery Administration blue eagle in their windows but secretly violated the codes. This would contribute to the downfall of the NRA.

First Families of Virginia (FFV)

These were families that were established in Virginia before 1690 and 70 percent of the leaders of Virginia legislature before the Revolutionary War came from these families.

"Exodusters"

These were former slaves which moved from Louisiana, Texas, and Mississippi in 1878 to 1880 into Kansas.

New Immigrants

These were people in the 1880s that came from southern and eastern Europe to the United States. They came from countries with little history of democratic government, where people had grown accustomed to cringing before despotism and where opportunities for advancement were few. Among these people were Jews, Croats, Slovaks, Greeks and Poles. Although they only accounted for 19% of the population in the 1880s, they constituted 66% of the total inflow in the first decade of the 1900s. These people would hive together in cities like New York and Chicago, which further developed urbanization. *These people left their European Countries to travel to the United States because Europe seemed to have no room for them and came to the U.S. for opportunity.* Their arrival would bring about a new nativist party, much like the Know-Nothings in the 1840s.

"Draft Dodgers"

These were people who avoided the draft. During WWI, these people could not hire a substitute unlike the Civil War, but men in key industries, such as shipbuilding, were exempted.

"Cultural Pluralists"

These were people who were opposed to the immigration act of 1924, as criticized the idea that an American "melting pot" would eliminate ethnic differences. Horace Kallen and Randolph Bourne were two prime examples and they championed alternative conceptions of the immigrant role in American society. In Kallen's vision (like many of these kind of people), the U.S. should provide a protective canopy for ethnic and racial groups to preserve their cultural uniqueness. Meanwhile, Bourne advocated great cross-fertilization among immigrants.

"Fireside Chats"

These were radio talks from FDR to the public (some 35 million people) to make them feel safer. After passing the Emergency Banking Relief Act (which gave the POTUS power to regulate banking transactions), FDR gave assurances that it was safer to keep money in a reopened bank than "under the mattress" in one of these talks. *These talks were meant to ease the people and raise morale.*

Breakers

These were slave drivers who were employed to punish strong-willed slaves, usually by lashing. However, these were relatively uncommon, as savage beating made sullen laborers, and lash marks hurt resale values if the slaver wished to sell them later on.

"Factory Girls"

These women who worked factory jobs typically toiled six days a week, earning a pittance for dreary, limb-numbing, earsplitting stints of twelve or thirteen hours-"From dark to dark." These New England farm girls were forbidden to form unions, and had few opportunities to share dissatisfactions over their grueling working conditions.

James Buchanan Duke

This "cigarette czar" absorbed his main competitions into the American tobacco company by harnessing the machine-made cigarettes rather than the roll-your-own variety. He later showed generosity to Trinity College, near his birthplace in Durham, North Carolina, that the trustees changed to college's name to bear his name.

West Virginia

This "mountain white" area somewhat illegally tore itself from the side of Virginia in mid-1861. Most of the residents of this state were independent farmers and miners who didn't own slaves and therefore opposed the Confederate cause, which lead to them becoming an independent state. It would be admitted into the union in 1863.

John D. Rockefeller

This "oil baron" was famous for establishing the Standard Oil Company and his horizontal integration economic practice. "Let us prey" was said to be his unwritten motto, as his company cornered the world petroleum market, taking over the market. He was also famous for "lighting up the world" with his kerosene lamp, with kerosene (the first major product of the infant oil industry) becoming America's fourth most valuable export by the 1870s.

John Tyler

This 10th president of the United States was the vice president under William Henry Harrison, and took Harrison's position after he died of pneumonia only four weeks into his term. Although he campaigned with a Whig, he was still a Democrat at heart. This person was anti-bank, differing from his Whig "party" and vetoed Clay's bank bill on practical and constitutional grounds. This greatly pleased the Democrats, as they were saved by the "monster of the bank" only by the death of Harrison. Eventually, this president's entire cabinet resigned in a body, except Secretary of State Webster.

Warren Harding

This 29th POTUS was one of the most well-liked men at the time, but had a mediocre mind that allowed corruption to flourish in his cabinet. Under him, corporations were allowed to expand once more, as he often ignored the anti-trust laws, believing in laissez-faire. Under him and his two successors, labor unions would lose about 30% of members. In his three years as president, he appointed 4 out of 9 Supreme Court Justices, including William H. Taft. He would die of pneumonia on August 2, 1923, leaving his vice president Calvin Coolidge to take over.

Calvin "Silent Cal" Coolidge

This 30th POTUS took office after Warren Harding died of pneumonia. Like his predecessor, he was friendly to big business and believed in the laissez-faire doctrine. Also like Harding, he continued the isolationist feeling of the 1920s. However, many Americans troops would occupy countries during his presidency, including Haiti and Nicaragua. He insisted that the European Nations pay the U.S. back for the war. His nickname was the "Sphinx of the Potomac."

Herbert Hoover

This 31st POTUS was a self-made engineer and famous for his role in the Food Administration during World War 1. He served as Secretary of Commerce under both Harding and Coolidge and shared many of their views in free enterprise, individualism, and small government. Unlike his predecessors, he endorsed labor unions and supported federal regulation of the new radio industry. When the stock market crashed under him, his reputation crashed with it. However, believing self-reliance made American great, he refused to give out handouts during the Great Depression. *This president would pioneer the Good Neighbor Policy, taking all American soldiers out of Latin America.*

Eighteenth Amendment (1919)

This Amendment prohibited all alcohol drinks and was made easier to pass during the WWI era because many brewers were German-descended, and many Americans were fearful that they were spies.

William Walker

This American adventurer tried repeatedly to gain control of Nicaragua. Backed by an armed force recruited largely in the South, he installed himself as president in July 1856 of Nicaragua and made slavery legal. He was to meet his end to a firing squad in 1860 after a coalition of Central American countries formed an alliance to overthrow him.

Creole

This American ship harbored 130 Virginia Slaves who rebelled and which the British officials in the Bahamas offered asylum to in 1841. (Britain had abolished slavery in 1833, and this raised southern fears that its Caribbean possessions would become Canada-like havens for escaped slaves.)

Maine (February 15, 1898)

This American ship mysteriously blew up in Havana harbor on a "friendly visit" to Cuba, with a loss of 260 soldiers. Americans would go on to blame this explosion on Spaniard submarine mines with little to no evidence, building up war tension between the two countries. It would be later revealed that the ship exploded due to spontaneous combustion in one of the coal bunkers.

Alvin C. York

This American soldier from Tennessee and member of the antiwar religious sect became a hero at the Meuse-Argonne Offensive when he single-handedly killed 20 Germans and captured 132 more.

Caroline

This American steamer was carrying supplies to the insurgents across the swift Niagara River when it was attacked on the New York shore by a determined British force, which set the vessel on fire in 1837. Although only one American was killed, this incident brought passions between Britain and America to a boil.

Maximilian

This Austrian Archduke was installed as emperor of Mexico by French Napoleon III, thus breaking the U.S. Monroe Doctrine rules. He would eventually be killed by a Mexican firing squad when Napoleon III backed out of Mexico.

Adolf Hitler

This Austrian-Born, German demagogue seized power by making political capital of the Treaty of Versailles and Germany's depression-spawned unemployment. He withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933 and started illegally rearming Germany. He used the Jewish people as a scapegoat and eventually his extremely nationalistic attitude would lead to the Holocaust. This dictator was the main contributor towards WWII when he invaded Poland in 1939, causing France and Britain to declare war on Germany.

The Battle of New Orleans

This Battle took place on January 5th, 1815, after the War of 1812 had already ended two weeks earlier. Led by Andrew Jackson and some 7000 men, including militiamen from Louisiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee and two regiments of black volunteers numbering 400 men. The British were brutally defeated, losing over two thousand compared to the American Casualty list of 70. *This battle unleashed a wave of nationalism and self-confidence in the nation*

Lusitania (May 7, 1915)

This British passenger liner was torpedoed and sank by a German U-boat of the coast off Ireland, costing 1,198 lives, including 128 Americans. Because the ship was carrying forty-two hundred cases of ammunition, the Germans believed they were justified in doing so, but the people of the U.S. were swept up by a wave of shock and anger at this "piracy." After this attack and a few others, Wilson would warn the Germans that unless the practice of sinking merchant ships without warning ended, the U.S. would have to break diplomatic relations.

James J. Hill

This Canadian American was the so called "greatest railroad builder of all" and created the Great Northern railroad company, which ran from Duluth to Seattle north of the Northern Pacific. His enterprise was so soundly organized that it rode through later financial storms with flying colors.

McLeod

This Canadian allegedly boasted in a tavern of his part in the Caroline raid and he was arrested and indicted for murder. The London Foreign office warned the New York jury that his execution would mean war, and therefore was released.

William McKinley

This Civil War Major was the leading candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in 1896. He was a former congressmen, where he had been friendly towards silver, but now his campaign strived for the gold standard monetary policy. He was largely the creature of a fellow Ohioan Marcus Alonzo Hanna.

Merrimack

This Confederate ship was made by Southerners out of a former wooden U.S. warship which they plated its sides with old railroad rails. It was also known as the Virginia and this clumsy but powerful ship easily destroyed two wooden ships of the Union navy in the Virginia waters of Chesapeake Bay; it also threatened catastrophe for the Union Blockade. However, the Confederates later destroyed this ship to keep it from the grasp of advancing Union troops.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt

This Democratic 32nd POTUS was elected in 1932 after Herbert Hoovers failures as a president in the eyes the public. He was previously a governor of New York known for his policies to combat the depression. The president suffered from paralysis, but this was kept hidden from the public to avoid making him seem weak. He passed many laws to try to get the U.S. out of the Depression during the 1930s. His immense popularity would allow him to be the only president to be elected more than twice, totaling 4 times, though he died during his 4th term. *This president revealed a deep concern for the "forgotten man" - a phrase he used in a 1932 speech.* When he was elected, he promise a balanced budget, which would prove to be ironic.

Philippe Bunau-Varilla

This French engineer of the New Panama Canal Company would represent and lead the building of the Panama Canal. He would later become the Panamanian minister despite his French citizen and sign a treaty with John Hay formally giving the canal to the U.S.

Foch

This French marshal was the supreme leader for the Allied Nations for the first time in WWI. His axiom was "To make war is to attack." Until he became the leader during Germany invasion of France, the Allies had been fighting imperfectly coordinated actions.

Cordell Hull

This Secretary of State under FDR was originally scheduled to represent the U.S. at the London Economic Conference until FDR backed out. Like Roosevelt, he believed trade was a 2-way street and proposed to lessen tariffs to sell and buy abroad, helping to pass the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act. When Jews on the St. Louis came to the U.S. seeking refuge from Hitler, this secretary of state convinced FDR not to accept them.

Sussex

This French passenger steamer was sunk by a German U-Boat in March 1916, not even a year after the previous sinking ships. This infuriated Wilson, who already warned Germany that they could not sink a passenger ship without warning. The sinking of this passenger steamer led to Wilson threatening to break diplomatic relations if another American life was lost due to an unwarranted passenger ship sinking. Germany agreed, but only after the United States agreed to persuade the Allies to modify what Germany regarded as their illegal blockade.

Marcus Alonzo Hanna

This Hamiltonian was a strong supporter of William McKinley as the Republican candidate of 1896 and believed that a prime function of government was to aid business. Because of this he would become the personification of big industry in politics. This Ohioan nominated McKinley on the first ballot in Saint Louis in June 1896.

Victoriano Huerta

This Indian general of the Mexican revolution was installed as president after overthrowing the previous president was murdered. With him and the revolutionary chaos, many Mexicans fled to Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. Wilson would send an ambassador to try 'dethrone' this man from the presidency.

Guglielmo Macroni

This Italian invented the wireless telegraphy in the 1890s and his brainchild was used for long-range communications during World War I. With his invention, radio started to become extremely popular.

Helen Hunt Jackson

This Massachusetts author of children's literature pricked the moral sense of Americans when she published A Century of Dishonor in 1881, which chronicled the sorry record of government ruthlessness and trickery in dealing with the Indians. She would also write Ramona in 1884, which was a love story about discrimination against California Indians. Ramona would sell some 600,000 copies and the author further inspired sympathy for the Indians.

Buena Vista (February 22-23, 1847)

This Mexican War battle led by Zachary Taylor took place when his weakened force of five thousand men was attacked by some twenty thousand march-weary troops under Santa Anna, and Taylor pushed them back. Due to this battle, Zachary Taylor became known as the a hero, and one Kentuckian predicted that "Old Zack" would be elected in 1848 by "spontaneous combustion."

Know-Nothing Party

This Nativist's party name derives from its secretiveness and formed in opposition to the Irish Catholics. This party agitated for rigid restrictions on immigration and naturalization and for laws authorizing the deportation of poor 'aliens.' It was previously known as the Order of the Star-Spangled Banner which formed in 1849.

William Jennings Bryan

This Nebraska opponent of William McKinley in 1896 was a defender of the silver monetary policy, which fueled fear among conservatives, as he threatened to convert their holdings overnight into fifty-cent dollars. This fear of a silver monetary policy was his worst enemy, which would lead to his lost in the election to McKinley - 271 to 176 electoral votes. This person's defeat marked the last serious effort to win the White House with mostly agrarian votes and his defeat also meant a victory for big business, big cities, middle-class values and financial conservatism.

Jacob A. Riis

This New York Sun reporter wrote his novel "How the Other Half Lives" which shocked many middle-class Americans, showing the dirt, disease, and misery infested lives that the poor live. This author's book would deeply influence future New York City police commissioner, Teddy Roosevelt.

Herbert C. Hoover

This Quaker-humanitarian was chosen to head the Food Administration during WWI and was put in charge of feeding the U.S. and its allies. He would introduce "Wheatless Wednesdays" and "Meatless Tuesdays" in an attempt to get Americans to save food -- all on a voluntary basis (this was the alternative to issuing ration cards). He would also encourage "victory gardens," which had many Americans growing their own food. Because of these measures, food export to the allies tripled.

Josiah Strong

This Reverend wrote the book Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis, which would inspire many pious missionaries to look overseas for new souls to convert. This person also trumpeted the superiority of Anglo-Saxon civilization and summoned Americans to spread their religion and their values to the "backward" peoples.

Andrew Carnegie

This Scottish business leader centralized in Pittsburgh was called the steel king and he pioneered the vertical integration entrepreneurial tactic, eliminating the middle man. He integrated every phase of his steel-making operation: his miners scratched the ore from the Earth in the Mesabi Range; his ships floated it across the Great Lakes, his railroads delivered it to the blast furnaces in Pittsburgh. By 1900, this "Napoleon of the Smokestacks" was producing 1/4 of the nation's Bessemer steel and received $25 million all for himself.

Frances Perkins

This Secretary of Labor under FDR was America's first women cabinet member. This showed that women were earning a voice in politics.

John Hay

This Secretary of State under McKinley proposed the Open Door note and Open Door Policy regarding China. In 1900, he also announced that the Open Door would embrace the territorial integrity of China as well as commercial integrity. He would also be part of a later treaty regarding the Panama canal.

Andrew Mellon

This Secretary of the Treasury was a millionaire who favored other millionaires. He believed that high taxes discouraged business and that they brought a smaller net return to the Treasury than moderate taxes. He made many "save-the-rich" policies that shifted much of the tax burden from the wealthy to the middle-class group. He was referred to as the "greatest secretary of Treasury since Hamilton" by wealthy conservatives.

"Butcher" Weyler

This Spanish general planned to crush the insurrectos' rebellion by herding many civilians into barbed-wire reconcentration camps. These camps lacked proper sanitation and many would die in them.

Amistad

This Spanish slave ship harbored an enslaved African rebellion in 1839, in which the slaves seized command of the vessel off the coast of Cuba and attempted to sail back to Africa, but were driven ashore on Long Island. After two years of the slaves' imprisonment and several trails, John Quincy Adams secured their freedom in a moving argument before the U.S. Supreme Court in 1841, and the Africans returned to the British colony of Sierra Leone in West Africa.

Reuben James

This U.S. destroyer that was protecting arms from the U.S. to Britain was torpedoed by a German U-Boat. It sunk off southwestern Iceland, with the loss of more than a 100 officers and enlisted men.

Greer

This U.S. destroyer was trailing a German U-boat while transporting a British liner (according to the Lend-Lease Bill) when it was attacked by the submarine, without damage to either side. However, Germany was ordered to shoot only in self-defense and this was an unwarranted attack. It would lead to FDR proclaiming a shoot-on-sight policy.

General Winfield Scott

This United States General had emerged from the War of 1812 as a hero and later earned the nickname "Old Fuss and Feathers" because of his resplendent uniforms and strict discipline. Although handicapped in the Mexican campaign by inadequate numbers of troops, expiring enlistments, a numerous enemy, a mountainous terrain, disease, and political backbiting at home, he succeeded in battling his way up to Mexico City by September 1847. He proved to be the most distinguished general produced by the country between the Revolution and the Civil War.

The Ringshout

This West African religious dance performed by a preacher's shouts, was brought to America by slaves and eventually contributed to Jazz.

Eli Whitney

This Yale graduate who practiced law, decided to invent a workable device for separating the seed from cotton, making it more efficient. In 1793, he invented the cotton gin, which gave further rise to the dying peculiar institution in the South. Frustrated in his earlier efforts to monopolize the cotton gin, he turned to the mass production of muskets for the U.S. army. In 1798, he seized upon the idea of having machines make each part, so that all triggers, for example, would be as much alike as the successive imprints, and thus came the idea of interchangeable parts.

Sir Edmund Andros

This able English military man was the head of the new Dominion of New England. He would establish headquarters in Puritanical Boston and therefore generated much hostility by his open affiliation with the despised Church of England.

Foraker Act (1900)

This act accorded the Puerto Ricans a limited degree of popular government and outlawed cockfighting. This was the first comprehensive congressional efforts to provide for governance of territories acquired after the Spanish American War and served as a model for a similar act adopted for the Philippines in 1902. After this act, Congress granted U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans in 1917 and great numbers of Puerto Ricans would move to NYC.

Merchant Marine Act (1920)

This act authorized the Shipping Board, which controlled about 1500 vessels, to dispose of much of the hastily built wartime fleet at bargain-basement prices.

21st Amendment (1933)

This amendment repealed prohibition, legalizing light wine and beer with an alcohol content not exceeding 3.2 percent by weight (presumably non-intoxicating).

Naturalization Act

This act changed the requirement to become a citizen of 5 years up to 14 years. The federalists made this act as Most immigrants would be poor farmers and they would vote for Democratic Republicans, and this Act hoped to weaken the party.

Forest Reserve Act (1891)

This act dealing with the conservation of natural resources and land authorized the president to set aside public forests as national parks and other reserves. Under this statue, some 46 million acres were rescued from the lumberman's saw and preserved for posterity.

Esch-Cummins Transportation Act (1920)

This act encouraged private consolidation of the railroads and pledged the Interstate Commerce Commission to guarantee their profitability. This act highlighted the laissez-faire ideas of the 1920s, which allowed companies to rule themselves rather then the government ruling companies.

Panama Canal Tolls Act (1912)

This act exempted American coastwise shipping from tolls and thereby provoked sharp protests from injured Britain. In his war against imperialism, Wilson persuaded Congress to repeal this act in 1914.

Federal Farm Loan Act (1916)

This act made credit available to farmers at low rates of interest-as long demanded by the Populists.

Employment Act of 1946

This act made it government policy "to promote maximum employment, production, and purchasing power," as well as to keep inflation low (a general commitment that was much shorter on specific targets and rules than its liberal creators had wished). The act created a 3-member Council of Economic Advisers to provide the president with data and recommendations to make economy policy.

Judiciary Act of 1789

This act organized the Supreme Court, with a chief justice and five associates, as well as federal district and circuit courts. Also established the office of attorney general New Yorker John Jay.

Agricultural Marketing Act (1929)

This act passed by Congress was designed to help the farmers help themselves, largely through producers' cooperatives. The act set up the Federal Farm Board, a lending bureau for hard-pressed farmers. As the depression worsened in the 1930s, the Board tried to bolster falling prices by buying up surpluses, but it was unable to cope with the flood of farm produce to market.

Pure Food and Drug Act (1906)

This act passed by Congress was designed to inspect and regulate the labeling of all foods and pharmaceuticals intended for human consumption. This legislation, and additional provisions passed in 1911 to strengthen it, aimed particularity at the patent medicine industry. It would be replaced by a different act in 1938.

Interstate Commerce Act (1887)

This act passed by Congress was the first large scale attempt by Washington D.C. to regulate business in the interest of society at large, though railroad companies would warp the act to fit their own means. It prohibited rebates and pools and required the railroads to publish their rates openly. This act also forbade unfair discrimination against shippers and outlawed charging more for a short haul than for a long one over the same line. *Most importantly, it set up the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to administer and enforce the new legislation.* Despite acclaim, this new legislation did not represent a popular victory over corporate wealth, instead it did provide an orderly forum where competing business interests could resolve their conflicts in peaceable ways, helping the country avoid ruinous rate wars among the railroads.

Elkins Act (1903)

This act passed during Teddy's presidency was aimed primarily at the rebate evil. Heavy fines could now be imposed both on the railroads that gave rebates and on the shippers who accepted them with this Act. This law strengthened the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887.

Norris-La Guardia Anti-Injunction Act (1932)

This act passed during the Great Depression outlawed "yellow-dog" (anti-union) contracts and forbade the federal courts to issue injunctions to restrain strikes, boycotts, and peaceful picketing. This was an early piece of labor-friendly federal legislation.

Adamson Act (1916)

This act passed under Woodrow Wilson established an 8 hour work day for all employees on trains in interstate commerce, with extra pay for overtime. It was the first federal law regulating the hours of workers in private companies and was upheld by the Supreme Court in Wilson v. New.

Johnson Debt Default Act (1934)

This act prevented debt-ridden nations from borrowing further in the U.S.. This act reflected isolationist feelings during the shadow of World War II, rooted in ugly memories from World War I.

Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934)

This act provided for independence for the Philippines after a twelve-year period of economic and political tutelage--that is, by 1946. The U.S. agreed to relinquish its army bases, but its naval bases were reserved for future discussion -- and retention.

Indian Removal Act (1830)

This act provided for the transplanting of all Indian tribes then resident east of the Mississippi, and ironically, the Five Civilized Tribes felt this act most. Tribes resisting eviction were forcibly removed by American forces, often after prolonged legal or military battles.

Newlands Act (1902)

This act pushed by Teddy Roosevelt authorized Washington to collect money from the sale of public lands in the sun-baked western states and use the funds for the development of irrigation projects.

La Follette Seaman's Act (1915)

This act required decent treatment and a living wage on American merchant ships in response to the cruel treatment towards sailors. However, the result of this law was the crippling of America's merchant machine, as freight rates spiraled upward with the crew's wages.

17th Amendment (1913)

This amendment to the U.S. Constitution spawned due to progressives push for the direct election of U.S. Senators.

Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act (1934)

This act reversed traditional high-protective-tariff polices by allowing the president to negotiate lower tariffs up to 50% with trade partners, without Senate approval. Its chief architect was Secretary of State Cordell Hull, who believed that tariff barriers choked off foreign trade. This act increased U.S. foreign trade appreciably, and trade agreements bettered economic and political relations with Latin America and proved to be an influence for peace in a war-bent world by 1939.

Sedition Act

This act was a direct slap at two priceless freedoms of the Bill of Rights(Freedom of speech and press), granting the government the ability to impose a heavy fine or imprison anyone who impeded the polices of the government or falsely defamed its officials

Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act (1943)

This act was created during WW2 when labor strikes threatened to lower production of wartime goods. This act authorized the federal government to seize and operate tied-up industries; strikes against any government-operated industry was made a criminal defense. Under the act, Washington took over the coal mines and, for a brief time, the railroads.

Homestead Act of 1860

This act was passed by Congress in response to the Panic of 1857 and the Northern uproar by pioneers losing land. This act made public lands available at a nominal sum of twenty-five cents an acre. However, this act was vetoed by President Buchanan, probably influenced by Southerners or southern sympathizers.

Adjusted Compensation Act (1924)

This act was passed due to the demands of WWI doughboy veterans and it gave every soldier a paid-up insurance policy due in 20 years - adding $3.5 billion to the total cost of WWI.

Warehouse Act (1916)

This act, coming from a populist idea, authorized loans on the security of staple crops.

Tallmadge Amendment

This act, passed by Congress to stymie the plans of the Missourians, stipulated no more slaves should be brought into Missouri and also provided for gradual emancipation of children born to slave parents already there. Southerners saw this as a threat to sectional balance

Roosevelt Corollary (1904)

This addition to the Monroe Doctrine was called a policy of "preventative intervention" in which President Roosevelt announced that in the event of future financial wrongdoing by the Latin American nations, the U.S. would intervene, pay off the debts, and keep the troublesome Europeans on the other side of the Atlantic. In short, no outsiders could push around Latin American except Uncle Sam (in order to restore military and financial order).

Federal Emergency Relief Administration

This administration's chief aim was immediate relief rather than long-range recovery for many of the unemployed in the U.S. It was led by Harry L. Hopkins, a New York social worker who was one of FDR's most influential advisers. This agency granted about $3 billion to the states for direct dole payments or preferably for wages on work projects.

Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC)

This agency established during the Depression was designed to refinance mortgages on nonfarm homes and ultimately assisted about a million badly pinched households. It did not only bail out mortgage-holding banks, but also bolted the political loyalties of relieved middle-class homeowners securely to the Democratic party.

Hitler-Stalin Pact (August 23, 1939)

This agreement between Stalin of the USSR and Hitler of Germany was one to not fight each other. This meant that Hitler would now have a green light to make war on Poland and the Western democracies without fearing a stab in the back from the Soviet Union. It was clear the Stalin hoped to turn Hitler towards war with the Western democracies, and then the USSR would be left to claim all of Europe.

Root-Takahira agreement (1908)

This agreement between the United States and Japan pledged both powers to respect each other's territorial possessions in the Pacific and to uphold the Open Door Policy in China. This agreement was credited with easing tensions between the two nations, but it also resulted in a weakened American influence over further Japanese hegemony in China.

"Gentlemen's Agreement" (1907-1908)

This agreement came about due to the Japanese immigrants into California and when the San Francisco school board ordered the segregation of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean students. Aided by Teddy Roosevelt, this agreement involved Californians agreeing to repeal the offensive school order and Tokyo agreeing to stop the flow of laborers to the American mainland by withholding passports.

Thirteenth Amendment (1865)

This amendment officially ended slavery in the United States. Former Confederate states were required to ratify this amendment before reentering into the Union.

Nineteenth Amendment (1920)

This amendment passed in Congress in 1919 and ratified in 1920 gave women the right to vote - 70 years after the first calls at Seneca Falls.

Wilmot Proviso (1846)

This amendment proposed by David Wilmot of Pennsylvania stipulated that slavery would never exist in any of the territory to be wrested from Mexico. This amendment passed twice through the House, but never the Senate, due to southern voters. Although it never became law, it was endorsed by the legislatures of all but one of the free states, and it came to symbolize the burning issue of slavery in the territories.

Black Belt

This area of the Deep South that stretched from South Carolina and Georgia into the new southwest states of Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana is where most of the slaves were concentrated by 1860, typically on large plantations. This was the region of the southern frontier, into which the explosively growing Cotton Kingdom had burst into a few short decades.

City Beautiful Movement

This artistic movement was brought on by a new generation of architects and planners to reshape American urban space, inspired by the wrenching changes to the nation's cities. Architects and planners in the movement wanted the new American city not just to look beautiful but also to convey a confident sense of harmony, order, and monumentality by building grand boulevards, welcoming parks, and monumental public buildings. To achieve these effects, they would copy European styles of beaux arts classicism and planning ideas from the master builder of Paris, Baron Georges-Eugéne Haussmann. Through this movement, architects constructed grandiose urban landmarks, such as New York's Grand Central Terminal. City Planners like Daniel Burnham redesigned Chicago and Washington D.C..

National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) (1890)

This association was established by militant feminist suffragists who continued to insist on the ballot, which they had been demanding since before the Civil War. The association's founders included aging pioneers like Elizabeth Cady Stanton (who organized the Woman's Rights Convention at Seneca Falls) and her long-time comrade Susan B. Anthony, the radical Quaker spitfire who had been jailed in 1872 for trying to cast her vote. This association argued that women should be allowed to vote because of their responsibilities in the home and family made them indispensable in the public decision-making process. Fearful that an campaign including black women would compromise its efforts to get votes, this association restricted membership to white women. During WWI, the association supported the war effort and landed women's role in the Allied victory, which helped them to achieve woman suffrage in the 19th amendment.

Charles A. Lindbergh

This aviator-hero, the so called "Flyin' Fool," electrified the world with the first solo west-to-east conquest of the Atlantic. He flew his plane, the "Spirit of Saint Louis", from New York to Paris in 33 hours. This stunt did much to dramatize and popularize flying, while giving a strong boost to the infant aviation industry.

Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863)

This battle in Pennsylvania was a major Union victory (called the turning point of the war). The failure of Pickett's Charge broke the back of the Confederate attack and broke the heart of the Confederate cause.

The battle of Chattanooga (November 1863)

This battle in Tennessee involved Grant's Union forces being driven from the battlefield at Chickamauga by Confederates, to which they then laid siege of the Union at this battle. Grant led a series of desperate engagements in the vicinity of this besieged area, including Missionary Ridge and Lookout Mountain. This battle was also known as the "Battle above the clouds" and Grants victory here lead to an opening for the invasion of Georgia. *Grant was also rewarded by being made general in chief after this battle*

Civil Rights Bill (1866)

This bill conferred on blacks the privilege of American citizenship and struck at the Black Codes. President Andrew Johnson would veto this bill, but it was passed over his veto, making it a crime to deprive blacks of their rights to sue, testify in court, or hold property.

A. Phillip Randolph

This black leader threatened a massive "Negro March on Washington" in 1941 to demand equal opportunities for blacks in war jobs and in the armed forces. This would lead to the Fair Employment Practices Commission.

The Influence of Sea Power upon History; 1660-1783 (1890)

This book written by Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan argued that control of the sea was the key to world dominance. Therefore, he helped stimulate the naval race among the great powers that gained momentum in around 1900. This would inspire Americans to join in the demands for a mightier navy and for an American-built canal between the Atlantic and Pacific.

The Man Without a Country (1863)

This book written by Edward Everett Hale was inspired by the strange case of Clement L. Vallandingham. It was immensely popular in the North and it helped stimulate devotion to the Union. The story told of fictional Philip Nolan who was a young army officer found guilt of participation in the Aaron Burr plot of 1806.

Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World (1829)

This book written by black abolitionist David Walker advocated a bloody end to white supremacy.

Awful Disclosures (1836)

This book written by the Nativist party member, Maria Monk, sold over 300,000 copies and portrayed an escaped Catholic nun and described the shocking sins they imagine the nuns concealed, including the secret burial of babies.

John L. Lewis

This boss of the United Mine Workers successfully formed the Committee for Industrial Organization (Later known as the Congress for Industrial Organizations). This was made possible by the Wagner Act.

Lancaster Turnpike

This broad, hard surfaced highly thrust sixty-two miles westward from Philadelphia to Lancaster and was completed in the 1790s. It introduced toll gates and is where the term turnpike originates.

Federal Style

This building style in early America borrowed from classical Greek and Roman examples and emphasized symmetry, balance, and restraint. Examples of buildings with this style include Charles Bulfinch's design of the Massachusetts State House (1798) and Benjamin Latrobe's additions to the U.S. Capital and White House.

Fletcher v. Peck (1810)

This case arose when a Georgia legislature, granted 35 million acres in the Yazoo River Country to private speculators. John Marshall decreed that the legislative grant was a contract and that the Constitution forbids state laws "impairing" contracts. This decision was perhaps most noteworthy in further protecting property rights against popular pressures. It was also one of the earliest clear assertions of the right of the Supreme Court to invalidate state laws conflicting with the federal constitution.

Cohens v. Virginia (1821)

This case gave Marshall one of his greatest opportunities to defend federal power. Two brothers from Vermont were found guilty of illegally selling lottery tickets. Virginia 'won' in the sense that the conviction of the brothers were upheld. But in fact, Virginia and all the individual states lost, as Marshall resoundingly asserted the right of the Supreme Court to review the decisions of the state supreme courts in all questions involving powers of the federal government.

Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819)

This case, perhaps the best remembered of Marshall's decisions, involved a college which had been granted a charter by King George III in 1769, but the New Hampshire legislature had seemed fit to change it. Marshall ruled that the original charter must stand, as it was a contract and the Constitution protected contracts against state encroachments. This decision had the fortunate effect of safeguarding business enterprise from domination by the state governments, but the unfortunate effect of creating a precedent that enabled chartered corporations to escape the handcuffs of needed public control.

Zenger Trial (1734-1735)

This celebrated legal case involved a newspaper printer who assailed the corrupt royal governor and charged with seditious libel and sent to court to be defended by Andrew Hamilton. The newspaper printer argued that what he printed was true but the court originally said it does not matter what was printed was true or not, only that it was printed. However, they would be convinced by Andrew Hamilton that the printer should have the right to print his articles. *This trial was a banner achievement for freedom of the press and for the health of democracy.*

Dr. Harvey Wiley

This chief chemist of the Department of Agriculture had a famous "Poison Squad" and would perform experiments on himself.

"Pancho" Villa

This chief rival to President Carranza of Mexico was a combination of bandit and Robin Hood. This person ruthlessly hauled 16 American mining engineers off a train traveling through northern Mexico in Jan. 1916 and killed them. He would later blaze across the border into New Mexico and murdered another 19 Americans, hoping to provoke a war between Wilson and Carranza.

Council of National Defense

This civilian program was created by Woodrow Wilson while he was mildly preparing for war in 1915. This civilian program was to study problems of economic mobilization during World War I.

University of Pennsylvania

This college established by Benjamin Franklin would be the first American college free of denominational control.

America First Committee

This committee was formed during the debates over the Battle of Britain and whether or not the U.S. should aid their democratic brothers. This group comprised of isolationists and they argued that America should concentrate what strength it had to defend its own shores, lest a victorious Hitler, after crushing Britain, plot an assault on the U.S. Their basic philosophy was "The Yanks are Not Coming" and *their most effective speech maker was aviator hero Charles Lindbergh.*

New Harmony (1825)

This communal Utopian society founded in Indiana by Scottish Robert Owen harbored hard-working visionaries, radical, workshy theorists, and outright scoundrels. This colony sank in a morass of contradiction and confusion.

Washington "Disarmament" Conference (1921-1922)

This conference included every major naval power - except Bolshevik Russia. The conference's agenda included both naval disarmament and the situation in the Far East involving the race to oil. This conference would see the passage of the Four-Power Treaty, the Five-Power Naval Treaty, and the Nine-Power Treaty.

Carey Act (1894)

This conservation act distributed federal land to the state on the condition that it be irrigate and settled.

Gifford Pinchot

This conservationist was the head of the Agricultural Department's Division of Forestry. He believed that "wilderness was waste" and, with Teddy, supported the dam built in Hetch Hetchy Valley, wanting to use the nation's natural endowment intelligently. When President Taft dismissed this person, former friend and president Teddy Roosevelt, started to become Taft's antagonist.

Women's Rights Convention at Seneca Falls (1848)

This convention held in New York declared that "all men and women are created equal" in the spirit of the Declaration of Independence. One resolution at this convention demanded the ballot for females. This meeting in New York launched the modern women's rights movement.

Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific Railroad Company v. Illinois (1886)

This court case involved the Supreme Court decreeing that individual states had no power to regulate interstate commerce/railroads because the Constitution grants Congress the power to regulate interstate commerce. As a result of this court case, reformers turned their attention to the federal government, which now held sole power to regulate the railroad industry.

Korematsu v. U.S. (1944)

This court case upheld the constitutionality of Executive Order No. 9066/the Japanese internment camps.

Henry Ford

This creator of the Model T car perfected the moving assembly line and mass production. Because of this person's massive success in the automobile industry, in 1923, he was revealed to be the people's choice for presidential nomination in 1924. By 1929, 26 million motor vehicles were registered in the U.S., more cars than existed anywhere else in the world. Because of his cars, the oil industry would flourish in the following years.His cars also replaced the previous dirt roads with new hard-surfaced roadways. *Cars would also become a badge of freedom and equality, women would become more independent.*

Hoover Dam

This dam was part of President Hoover using the government funds for useful public works. This was originally voted by Congress in the days of Coolidge, but was begun in 1930 under Hoover and completed in 1936 under Roosevelt. The dam succeeded in creating a huge man-made lake for purposes of irrigation, flood control, and electric power.

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

This declared full constitutional equality for women. Although it passed both houses of Congress in 1972, a concerted grassroots campaign by anti-feminists led by Phyllis Schlafly persuaded enough state legislatures to vote against ratification. The amendment failed to become part of the constitution.

Sherman's March (1864)

This destructive march through Georgia led by General William Sherman was mainly to destroy supplies destined for the Confederate army and to weaken the morale of the men at the front by waging war on their homes. Although this was very brutal, Sherman probably shortened the war with this action, thus saving lives. He would seize Savannah through this "attack." This was an early instance of "total war", purposely targeting infrastructure and civilian property to diminish morale and undercut the Confederate war effort.

Referendum

This device proposed by progressives would place laws on the ballot for the final approval by the people, even after being passed by the legislature. Used especially for laws that had been railroaded through a compliant legislature by free-spending agents of big business.

Mary McLeod Bethune

This director of the Office of Minority Affairs in the National Youth Administration served as the highest-ranking African American in the Roosevelt administration.

Burned-Over District

This district in Western New York originated its nickname from the descendants of New England Puritans who preached of "hellfire and damnation." Millerites, or Adventists, rose from the superheated soil of this district in the 1830s.

Charles Drew

This doctor helped saved thousands of lives in WW2 by establishing the first blood banks and transfusions, which mostly dealt with plasma.

Stimson Doctrine (1932)

This doctrine was proclaimed by the U.S. after Japan had invaded Manchuria and many Americans called for a blockade by the league backed by the U.S. This doctrine, proclaimed by Hoover's secretary of state, simply declared that the U.S. would not recognize any territorial acquisitions achieved by force, replacing solid initiatives with a preach-and-run policy. This would not stop Japan.

Phillis Wheatley

This enslaved girl who was brought to Boston at a young age and never formally educated was an outstanding poet. She was taken to England when she was 20 and published a book of verse and wrote other polished poems that revealed the influence of Alexander Pope.

Jefferson Davis

This former cabinet member and West Pointer with wide military and administrative experience became the president of the newly formed Confederate States of America. He suffered from chronic ill health, as well as from a frustrated ambition to be a Napoleonic strategist.

Reconstruction Act (March 2, 1867)

This drastic legislation passed by the newly elected Republican Congress divided the South into five military districts, each commanded by a Union general and policed by blue-clad soldiers, about twenty thousand all told. This act also temporarily disfranchised tens of thousands of former Confederates. *It also required that Southern states ratify the Fourteenth Amendment and write state constitutions guaranteeing freedmen the franchise before gaining re-admission into the United States.*

"Pool"

This earliest form of combination referred to an agreement to divide the business in a given area and share the profits between companies.

Keynesianism

This economic theory based on a British economist, holding that central banks should adjust interest rates and governments should use deficit spending and tax policies to increase purchasing power and hence prosperity. This use of government spending and fiscal policy to "prime the pump" (start the flow) of the economy and encourage consumer spending became the new economic orthodoxy in America and remained so for decades. The U.S. started using it when FDR realized he needed to stimulate the economy through planned government spending.

Edict of Nantes

This edict granted limited toleration to French Protestant. Marked a new era in 1598. Led to Religious war ceasing, and France blossoming into the mightiest and most feared nation in Europe, during the century.

Henry W. Grady

This editor of the Atlanta Constitution was a supporter of a "new South" which was a south dominated by factory rather than agriculture. He tirelessly exhorted the ex-Confederates to become "Georgia Yankees" and outplay the North at the commercial and industrial game.

Election of 1942

This election during the WW2 era set in a conservative congress in place of FDR's Democratic congress during the New Deal years. With the conservative congress reigning, the New Deal programs were almost entirely wiped out.

Election of 1944

This election during the climax of WW2 saw the republicans nominated Thomas E. Dewey, a New York governor. Dewey was an internationalist, so the Republicans nominated John W. Bricker, a strong isolationist, as the vice president. FDR was nominated as the Democratic candidate-for a fourth term. Harry S. Truman of Missouri was ultimately decided as the vice presidential nominee for this election. The Republicans feared that if FDR won again, nothing would stop him from continuing for another 2 terms. Electoral votes: 432 to 99; Roosevelt victory. FDR primarily won because the war was going well and the people did not want to switch presidents in the middle of the war.

Election of 1908

This election had Roosevelt sponsored William Howard Taft as the Republican candidate and William Jennings Bryan as the Democratic candidate. Taft would win with an electoral vote of 321 to 162. The election also involved the Socialist party, amassing 420,793 votes for Eugene V. Debs, the hero of the Pullman Strike in 1894.

Election of 1936

This election had the Democrats renominating FDR ("The Champ") on a platform endorsing the New Deal and the Republicans nominated governor of Kansas, Alfred M. Landon. Landon was a moderate who accepted some New Deal reforms, but not the popular Social Security Act. The Republican party as a whole, however, condemned the New Deal of Franklin "Deficit" Roosevelt and Hoover supported Landon. Landon would be overwhelmed by Roosevelt's popularity and win only 2 states (Maine and Vermont) with an electoral vote of 523 to 8, making Roosevelt the clear winner of the election. More importantly, the Democrats would retain their majority position in Congress. Blacks had shaken off their former allegiance. to the Republican party and mostly voted for FDR, claiming that Lincoln was "finally dead." FDR also partially won because he continued to appeal to the "forgotten man."

George Whitefield

This former alehouse attender was an orator of rare gifts who revolutionized the spiritual life of the colonies during the Great Awakening after Jonathon Edwards. *This person preached the message of human helplessness and divine omnipotence.*

Election of 1916

This election involved Teddy Roosevelt abandoning his Progressive party, fearing that this third party would spell out the victory for his enemy Woodrow Wilson. Some Republicans wanted to nominate Teddy as the Republican candidate, but they eventually drafted Supreme Court Justice Charles Evan Hughes. The Republican platform condemned the Democratic tariff, assaults on the trusts, and Wilson's wishy-washiness in dealing with Mexico and Germany. Teddy saw Hughes as a "whiskered Wilson," which hurt Hughes's campaign. Wilson would run as the incumbent, with his campaign slogan being "He Kept Us Out of War." Wilson was ready to accept defeat to Hughes, but on election day, Mid-westerners and westerners helped to give Wilson the presidency once more, with a electoral vote of 277 to 254.

Election of 1940

This election involved the Republicans nominating a colorful latecomer to the convention, Wendell L. Willkie, A German-descended son of Hoosier Indiana. Willkie had previously been a Democrat but had switched over. He was a novice in politics and had rocketed from political nothingness in just a few short weeks. The Democrats re-nominated FDR--for a third term. ("Better a Third Term than a Third-Rater.") The Republican platform condemned FDR's leadership as well as his New Deal policies. Willkie would deliver over 500 speeches, while FDR would only give a few due to how busy he was with international affairs. During this election, FDR said "your boys are not going to be sent into any foreign wars," a statement that would prove false. Electoral Votes: 449 (FDR) to 82 (Willkie). Democratic majorities remained about the same. FDR most likely won because voters felt that, should war come, an experienced politician should be in charge.

Election of 1860

This election involved the electing of the sixteenth president of the United States: Abraham Lincoln, who was a minority president (60% of voters preferred some other candidate.) His victory led to the secession of the southern states and eventually the Civil War. The Democrats nominated two people for the democratic presidential candidate: Stephen "Little Giant" Douglas and John Breckenridge. The third party in this presidential race was known as the Constitutional Union Party, also called the "Do Nothing" or "Old Gentleman's" party; they would nominate John Bell of Tennessee as their presidential candidate.

Election of 1856

This election involved the election of the fifteenth president James Buchanan. Buchanan was chosen as the democratic candidate since he was "Kansas-less" and therefore relatively enemy-less. The Republicans would nominate John C. Fremont, the so-called Pathfinder of the West. The Republican slogans were: "We Follow the Pathfinder" and "We are Buck Hunting." The Republican platform came out vigorously against the extension of slavery into the territories, while the Democrats declared no less emphatically for popular sovereignty. However, a third party entered, known as the Know-Nothing party. This "nativist" party formed in retaliation to Irish and German immigrants was named after its secretiveness. Their slogan was "Americans must rule America." and they nominated ex-president Millard Fillmore as their candidate and they threatened to cut into Republican strength, which it did, as it was a democratic victory.

Election of 1912

This election involved three parties and candidates: Woodrow Wilson with the Democrats; William H. Taft with the Republicans; and Teddy with his new party the Progressives, which sported a Bull Moose as its mascot. This election was really the choice between Wilson's New Freedom and Roosevelt's New Nationalism. However, because Taft and Roosevelt split the Republican party, it became a clear victory with Wilson winning 435 electoral votes. Roosevelt won 88, Taft won 8, and Socialist Eugene V. Debs won none. Although Wilson won the most popular votes, he would still be considered a minority president because he only received 41% (since TR and Taft split the votes) Since Wilson was for fragmentation of big industrial combines rather than regulation, this election offered the voters a choice of political and economic philosophies.

Election of 1928

This election nominated Herbert Hoover as the Republican candidate and the Democrats nominated Alfred Smith. Alfred Smith was a "wet," which was a severe handicap in the prohibition time. He also seemed top urban for many Democrats and was a Roman Catholic, making dry, rural Fundamentalists oppose him. Radio made a huge appearance in this election, but Smith could not project through the radio, while Hoover could. As a self-made millionaire Hoover made the ideal businessperson's candidate, as he recoiled from socialism and paternalism. Hoover ultimately won with 444 electoral votes because the rural South could not vote for the wet city-slicker, who polled 87 electoral votes. *Hoover was the first Republican candidate to carry a state that seceded (except for Harding with TN). Hoover swept 5 former CSA states and all the border states.*

Election of 1920

This election was largely about the League of Nations. The Republicans nominated Senator Warren G. Harding of Ohio, with Calvin Coolidge of Massachusetts as his vice president. The Republicans would operate on a teeter-totter rather than a platform, as they appealed to both pro-League and anti-League voters. The Democrats nominated James M. Cox of Ohio, who was strongly for the League, with Franklin D. Roosevelt as his vice president. Harding would issue contradictory statements about the League from his "front porch." This would steer the election away from the League, helping Harding win the election with 404 electoral votes compared to Cox's 127. Socialist Eugene V. Debs polled the largest vote ever for the left-wing Socialist party-919,799.

Napoleon III

This emperor of France, taking advantage of the American Civil War dispatched a French army to occupy Mexico City in 1863. He realized that, due to the war, the U.S. could not actively enforce the Monroe Doctrine. He would eventually take his "French leave" from Mexico city in 1867, realizing it was a lost cause.

Vertical Integration

This entrepreneurial tactic used primarily and pioneered by Andrew Carnegie was the combining into one organization all phases of manufacturing from mining to marketing. Carnegie's goal was to improve efficiency and limit competition by making supplies more reliable, controlling the quality of the product at all stages of production, and eliminating middlemen's fees.

Horizontal Integration

This entrepreneurial tactic was mastered by John D. Rockefeller and simply meant forming trusts and allying with competitors to monopolize a given market. Although it was not as efficient as Carnegie's tactic, as it only focused on one phase, it allowed Rockefeller to take over the Oil Industry and accumulate wealth.

California Gold Rush

This event attracted tens and thousands of people to the future Golden State almost overnight, completing overwhelming the one-horse territorial government. Due to this, an outburst of crime inevitable results from the presence of so many outcasts, and there was little to no law enforcement, except the occasional vigilante. This event was due to the claim that there was gold in the state, and people rushed to get rich quick. However, the most reliable profits were from those who mined the miners, notably by charging outrageous rates for laundry and other personal services.

Trent Affair (1861)

This event was caused by a Union warship stopping a British mail steamer and forcibly removing two confederate diplomats bound for Europe. The British were infuriated and they threatened war. The London Foreign Office demanded the surrender of the prisoners and an apology. Lincoln agreed to these terms, keeping Britain out of the American Civil War.

Union Party

This ex-Republican party joined with the War Democrats in the election of 1864, thus passed the Republican party out of existence temporarily. This would be the party of Abraham Lincoln during the Election of 1864 and would defeat anti-war Democrats

Andrew Johnson

This ex-tailor was Lincoln's running mate in the Election of 1864 who was a loyal War Democrat from Tennessee who had been a small slave owner when the conflict began. He was placed on the Union party ticket to "sew up" the election by attracting War Democrats and the voters in the Border States. After Lincoln died he was made to suffer the torment of the Legislative branch trying to wrestle the Executive branch for power after the war.

John Wesley Powell

This explorer of the Colorado River's Grand Canyon and director of the U.S. Geological Survey warned in 1874 that beyond the 100th meridian so little rain fell that agriculture was impossible without massive irrigation. Farmers ignored his advice and undertook "dry farming" which would lead to the notorious "Dust Bowl" decades later.

Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt

This famous creator of the Rough Riders would run as Vice President under McKinley's second term. However, McKinley would be assassinated in buffalo, handing the presidency over to this person. Therefore, this cowboy hero would become the youngest president to date, at age 42. This person also graduated Harvard with Phi Beta Kappa honors at 24 and would pursue the Canal through Panama during his presidency.

Red Scare

This fear of communism of 1919-1920 resulted in a nationwide crusade against left-wingers whose Americanism was suspect. Many innocent foreigners would be subject to this anti-communism hysteria, leading to deportations and even deaths for others. These deportations of about 6000, called "Palmer raids" came from Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer ("Fighting Quaker") who "saw red too easily." Socialists, Liberals, and Unions would fall victim to this. Some socialist legislatures were denied their seats because they were socialists.

National Banking System (1863)

This financial landmark that came from the Civil War was launched partly as a stimulate to the sale of government bonds and also it was designed to establish a standard bank-note currency. This war born bank turned out to be the first significant step taken toward a unified banking network (as banks that joined this larger bank could buy bonds and issue sound paper money backed by them) since 1836 when Andrew Jackson killed the "monster" of the Bank of the United States.

Eleanor Roosevelt

This first lady of the United States was known as the "conscience of the New Deal." She traveled with her husband during his campaigns and referred to herself as his "legs." When she moved to the white house with the POTUS, she brought an unprecedented number of women activists with her. Through her lobbying of her husband, speeches, and newspaper column, this woman powerfully influenced the policies of the national government. Always she battled for the poor and oppressed.

Panic of 1819

This first national financial panic since President Washington was primarily due to overspeculation in frontier lands (The Bank of the US, through its western branches had become deeply involved in this type of outdoor gambling.) This depression also created backwashes in the political and social world, as the poorer classes were severely strapped, and in this time was sown the seed of the Jacksonian democracy. In some extreme cases, mothers were torn from their infants for owing a few dollars during this panic.

General Joseph Wheeler

This former Confederate Calvary hero of about a thousand Civil War skirmishes was given a command in Cuba, showing that the "bloody chasm" was closing between the North and South.

James B. Weaver

This former Granger would be the candidate for the presidency in 1880 for the Greenback Labor Party. This Civil War general was a favorite of the veterans and he spoke to perhaps half a million citizens but only poled 3% of the total popular vote. However, in the later election of 1892 he would be the Populist party candidate for president and polled more than 1 million votes.

Florence Kelley

This former resident of Jane Addams's Hull House became Illinois' first chief factory inspector and one of the nation's leading advocates for improved factory conditions. In 1899, this woman took control of the newly founded National Consumer League, which mobilized female consumers to pressure for laws safeguarding women and children in the workplace.

William Taft

This future president became a civil governor of the Philippines in 1901. He formed an attachment to the Filipinos and called them "little brown brothers."

Bureau of the Budget (1921)

This government bureau was created during the 1920s stock market craze. The bureau's director was to assist the president in creating an annual budget, which would be sent to Congress.

Carlisle Indian School (1879)

This government funded school in Pennsylvania separated Native American children from their tribes and taught them English and instilled in them white values and customs. "Kill the Indian and save the man" was the school founder's motto. This school, along with others, was part of the Dawes Severalty Act selling former reservation and not allotted to Indians to educate and "civilize" the Native Americans.

Confederate States of America (CSA)

This government originally consisted of the first seven states which seceded from the Union: South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. The capital was decided to be in Montgomery, Alabama (it would be moved to Richmond, Virginia later to convince the state to join the secessionists) and was established in February 1861, with Jefferson Davis as its president.

Robert M. "Fighting Bob" La Follette

This governor of Wisconsin emerged as the most militant of the progressive Republican leaders. He reached the governor's chair after a desperate fight with entrenched monopoly, and he would continue this by wresting control from the corporations to return it to the people.

Copperheads

This group of Northerners was named after the poisonous snake that strikes without a warning rattle; They were Northern Democrats who obstructed the war effort by attacking Lincoln, the draft, and after 1863, emancipation. They denounced President Lincoln as the "Illinois Ape" and condemned the Civil War. They were especially potent in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois.

The American Legion

This group of WWI veterans had been founded in Paris in 1919 by Theodore Roosevelt. The legion was known for its militant patriotism, rockribbed conservatism, and zealous anti-radicalism. It also became known for demanding a compensation to make up wages they "lost" while fighting overseas.

National American Woman Suffrage Association

This group of women, which was the larger part of the feminist movement, supported Wilson's war. They justified Wilson's war by arguing that women must take part in the war effort to earn a role in shaping the peace. The fight for democracy abroad was women's best chance at winning true democracy at home. This group would help Women win the right to vote.

National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry (AKA Grange) (1867)

This group was led by Oliver H. Kelley, a shrewd and energetic Minnesota farmer. This group's first objective was to enhance the lives of isolated farmers through social, educational, and fraternal activities. Kelley set up a four-ply hierarchy for the farmers ranging from Laborer and Husbandman (for men) and from Maid to Matron (for women). The people in this group gradually raised their goals from individual self-improvement to improvement of the farmers' collective plight. They would establish cooperatively owned stores for consumers and cooperatively owned grain elevators and warehouses for producers, all in an effort to escape the clutches of trusts.

Farmer's Alliance

This group, founded in Texas in the 1870s, consisted of farmers who came together to break the the strangling grip of the railroads and manufacturers through cooperative buying and selling. Unfortunately, this group of farmers weakened itself by ignoring the plight of landless tenant farmers, sharecroppers, and farm workers, and also by excluding blacks, who counted for nearly half of the agricultural population of the South.

Chester W. Nimitz

This high grade naval strategist of WW2 directed a small carrier force at the Battle of Midway.

100th Meridian

This imaginary line running through north to south from the Dakotas through West Texas separated two climatological regions - a well-watered area to the east, and a semiarid area to the west.

Victor L. Berger

This immigrant from Austria was a Socialist representative who was elected to the House of Representatives from Milwaukee. However, he would eventually be denied his seat in 1919, during the wave of anti-red hysteria.

John Deere

This inventor from Illinois produced a steel plow that broke stubborn soil in 1837. Sharp and effective, his invention was aso light enough to be pulled by horses rather than oxen.

Writ of Habeas Corpus

This is a petition requiring law enforcement officers to present detained individual before the court to examine the legality of the arrest and protects individuals from arbitrary arrest. However, this was suspended by Abraham Lincoln during the time of the Civil War in hopes that the people of the Border States would join the Union rather than the Confederacy.

Alien Laws

This law empowered the president to deport foreigners considered "dangerous" in times of peace and to deport of imprison them in times of hostilities.

Clayton Anti-Trust Act (1914)

This law lengthened the shopworn Sherman Act's list of business practices that weren't allowed, including price discrimination and interlocking directorates (whereby the same individuals served as directors of supposedly competing firms). It also exempted labor unions and agricultural organizations from antimonopoly constraints. *This act conferred long overdue benefits on labor.* Samuel Gompers hailed this act as the Magna Carta of labor

Federal Trade Commission Act (1914)

This law passed under Wilson empowered a preferentially appointed committee to turn a searchlight on industries engaged in interstate commerce, such as meat-packers. These people in the committee were expected to crush monopoly at the source by rooting out unfair trade practices, including unlawful competition, false advertising, mislabeling, and bribery.

Social Security Act (1935)

This law provided for unemployment and old-age insurance financed by a payroll tax on employers and employees (ranging from $10 to $85/month). It also provided for the the physically handicapped and other dependents. It has long remained a pillar of the "New Deal Order." It was largely inspired by similar programs in Europe, although Americans had to be employed and in certain jobs to get coverage, opposed to the universal programs in Europe.

Gold Standard Act (1900)

This law provided that the paper currency be redeemed freely in gold, putting an end to the already dying "free silver" campaign.

Morrill Tariff Act (1861)

This law was passed by Congress which replaced the low Tariff of 1857. It increased the existing duties some 5 to 10 percent, boosting the rates up to the moderate level of the Walker Tariff of 1846. However, these rates were soon pushed up to support the Civil War (they were to raise additional revenue and provide more protection for the prosperous manufactures who were being plucked by the new internal taxes.) This tariff led to the Republican party being associated with a protective tariff.

Roger Williams

This leader of Rhode Island in the early colonization era of America was an advocate of separation of church and state. He decided that his colony, Rhode Island, would practice freedom of religion.

"Monkey Trial"

This legal case involved a likable biology teacher in Tennessee named John T. Scopes. Scopes was indicted for teaching evolution, but was defended by nationally known attorneys, while William Jennings Bryan, an ardent Presbyterian Fundamentalist, joined his prosecution. Five days after the trial, Bryan died of stroke and the outcome of the court case was inconclusive. Although Scopes was found guilty and fined $100, the court set aside the fine on a technicality. Therefore, the Fundamentalists only won a hollow victory as this case.

Transcendentalism

This literary style preened itself as "the Athens of America" and resulted in part from a liberalizing of the straight-jacket Puritan theology. It owed much to foreign influences, including the German romantic philosophers and the religions of Asia. The people who followed this style rejected the theory of John Locke, which stated that all knowledge comes to the mind through the senses, and instead believed that truth "transcends" the senses: it cannot be discovered by observation alone. They believed that every person possesses an inner light that can illuminate the highest truth and put them in direct touch with God, or the "Oversoul." The best known member of this style was Ralph Waldo Emerson. *This literary style emphasized self-reliance and individualism,*

The Sewing Machine (1846)

This machine invented by Elias Howe and perfected by Issac Singer gave a strong boost to northern industrialization. The invention became the foundation of the ready-made clothing industry, which took root about the time of the Civil War.

Alexander Graham Bell

This man introduced the invention of the telephone in 1876, which would turn American into a nation of "telephoniacs," as a gigantic communications network was built on his invention.

A.E. Burnside

This man replaced McClellan as commander of the army after Antietam. However, he protested saying he was not fit for the job and this was proven when his men were massacred at the battle of Fredericksburg. The term "sideburns" comes from this Union general.

"Commodore" Cornelius Vanderbilt

This man was the genius behind the New York Central, which brought bout the success of the western lines by welding together and expanding the older eastern networks. This man would help popularize the steel rail which replaced the old iron tracks of the New York Central with this safer and more economical because it could carry a heavier load. He offered superior railway service and amassed a fortune of $100 million and his best remembered through his contribution of $1 million to founding his University in Tennessee.

Ulysses S. Grant

This man would turn out to be the most brilliant leader of the Union Army. Although accused of being a drunk, Lincoln did not care, as he claimed "I cannot spare this man; he fights."

Fetterman Massacre

This massacre was an Indian response to the massacre at Sand Creek, Colorado by Colonel J.M. Chivington. In this, Native Americans attacked Captain William J. (name of massacre) and his forces and left not a single survivor and grotesquely mutilated the corpses. This would cause George Custer to claim this massacre "awakened a bitter feeling toward the savage perpetrators."

Non-Intercourse Act

This measure formally reopened trade with all the nations of the world, except arguably the two most important: France and Britain.

Recall

This measure proposed by progressives would enable voters to remove faithless elected officials, particularly those who had been bribed by bosses or lobbyists.

Bessemer Process (AKA Bessemer-Kelly process)

This method of making cheap steel was named after a derided British inventor, although an American named William Kelly had stumbled on it a few years later. Kelly, a Kentucky manufacture of iron kettles, discovered that cold air blown on red-hot iron caused the metal to become white-hot by igniting the carbon and thus eliminating impurities.

The Liberator (1831)

This militantly antislavery newspaper written by William Lloyd Garrison triggered a thirty-one war of words and in a sense fired one of the opening barrages of the Civil War. In this newspaper he proclaimed that under no circumstances would he tolerate slavery, but would stamp it out at once, 'root and branch.'

George Dewey

This military leader commanded the American Asiatic Squadron at Hong Kong and would fire upon Spanish ships at Manila, killing 4 hundred Spaniards while not losing a single American. However, he could not storm the forts of Manila, leaving the job to someone else.

David G. Phillips

This muckraker reporter startled the nation by his series in Cosmopolitan titled "The Treason of the Senate," which charged that 75 out of 90 of the senators did not represent the people, but rather the railroads and trusts. This author would impress Teddy, but was fatally shot in 1911 by a deranged young man whose family has allegedly been accused.

Dominion of Canada

This nation emerged from the fiery furnace of the American Civil War when British Parliament established it in 1867. It was partly designed to bolster the Canadians, both politically and spiritually, against the possible vengeance of the United States.

Clipper Ships

This new Yankee craft were long, narrow, and majestic ships, which glided across the sea under towering masts and clouds of canvas. These new ships sacrificed cargo space for speed, hauling high-value cargos in record times. They wrested much of the tea-carrying trade between the Far East and Britain and sped thousands of impatient adventurers to the goldfields of California and Australia.

Hudson River School (1820-1830)

This school excelled in romantic art and was led by Thomas Cole and Asher Durand, who celebrated the raw sublimity and grand divinity of nature.

Homestead Act (1862)

This new law allowed a settler to acquire as much as 160 acres of land by living on it for five years, improving it, and paying a nominal fee of $30. Before this law, public land had been sold primarily for revenue, now it was to be given away to encourage a rapid filling of empty spaces and to provide a stimulus to the family farm (the "backbone of democracy.") During the 40 years after it was passed, half a million farmers took advantage of it to carve out new homes in the new land. However, this act often turned out to be a cruel hoax because 160 acres proved inadequate on the rain-scarce Great Plains, as opposed to the well-watered Mississippi area. About 2/3 of farmers were forced to give up due to drought.

Tariff of 1857

This new law, responding to pressures from the South, reduced duties to about 20% on dutiable goods - the lowest point since the War of 1812. This law was introduced due to the Treasury surplus, and when the surplus melted away, Northerners called for a higher, more protective tariff.

Knights of Labor (1869)

This new organization, led by Terence V. Powderly, seized the torch of the National Labor Union and it began originally as a secret society, with a private ritual, passwords and a special handshake. This secrecy, which would last until 1881, protected the workers who participated in this union. This Union's slogan was "An injury to one is the concern of all" and its goal was to include all workers in "one big union." This union included more than the National Labor Union, welcoming blacks and women with open arms and only barring "non-producers" (liquor dealers, professional gamblers, lawyers, bankers, and stockbrokers). It campaigned for economic and social reform, including producers' cooperatives and codes for safety and health. It frowned upon industrial warfare while encouraging industrial arbitration. It also fought to lower the ten hour work day down to eight hours. However, after the mid-1880s the membership would decline for a variety of reasons, including the its participation in violent strikes and discord between skilled and unskilled members.

"Kentucky Bluegrass"

This nicknamed grass in Kentucky made ideal pasture for livestock and lured thousands of American homesteaders into the state.

Anglo-American Convention (1818)

This pact with Britain permitted Americans to share the coveted Newfoundland fisheries with their Canadian cousins. It also fixed the vague northern limits of Louisiana along the forty-ninth parallel from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. It also provided for a ten-year joint occupation of the untamed Oregon country.

Robert Fulton

This painter-engineer touched off the steamboat craze when he installed a powerful steam engine in a vessel that posterity came to know as the Clermot but that a dubious public dubbed at his folly.

The South Carolina Exposition (1828)

This pamphlet was secretly written by John C. Calhoun (had to conceal authorship since he was vice president). This pamphlet denounced the Tariff of Abominations as unjust and unconstitutional. It bluntly and explicitly proposed that the states nullify the tariff.

Coin's Financial School (1894)

This pamphlet written by William Hope Harvey illustrated the Populist stance on wanting the free and unlimited coinage of silver. Within the pamphlet were illustrations, one of which depicted the gold ogre beheading the beautiful silver maiden, showing how evil the gold-backed monetary policy was. This little booklet showed how the "little professor" (Harvey) overwhelmed the bankers and professors of economics with his brilliant arguments on behalf of free silver.

Emilio Aguinaldo

This part-Chinese leader of the Filipino insurgents helped George Dewey and American soldiers to capture Manila on August 13, 1898.

Jonathan Edwards

This pastor ignited the Great Awakening in Northampton, Massachusetts. he was perhaps the deepest theological mind ever nurtured in America and proclaimed with burning righteousness the folly of believing in salvation through good works and affirmed the need for complete dependence on God's grade.

Captain Robert Gray

This person had stumbled upon the majestic Columbia River in 1792, which was named after his ship.

Oliver O. Howard

This person headed the Freedmen's Bureau and was a sympathetic friend of blacks and a former Union general. He would also go on to found a university bearing his name in Washington D.C.

Samuel F. B. Morse

This person invented the telegraph, which was among the inventions that tightened the sinews of an increasingly complex business world. His experiment to invent the telegraph was called "talking wires"

William "Buffalo Bill" Cody

This person killed over 4,000 buffalo in eighteen months while employed by the Kansas Pacific. This person highlighted butchery of the buffalo leaving only a few thousand buffalo alive by 1885, forcing the Native Americans to abandon their nomadic lifestyle.

Joseph F. Glidden

This person perfected barbed wire in 1874, solving the problem of how to build fences on the treeless prairies.

Booker T. Washington

This person was a distinguished black leader and former slave who observed that whites "could not hold blacks in a ditch without getting down there with them."

Samuel Swartwout

This person was awarded the lucrative post of collector of the customs of the port of New York under the spoils system. He left for England nine years later, leaving his accounts more than a million dollars short *He was the first person to steal a million dollars from the Washington government*

John Dewey

This philosopher of Columbia University set forth the principles of "learning by doing" that formed the foundation of so-called progressive education. This person believed that the workbench was as essential as the blackboard and that "education for life" should be a primary goal for the teacher.

The Era of Good Feelings (1816-1824)

This phrase was used to describe Monroe's presidency from 1816-1824. Although considerable tranquility and prosperity occurred during his years as president, the Panic of 1819 also occurred under the Republican President.

Funding at par (1790)

This plan proposed by Alexander Hamilton meant that the federal government would pay off its debts at face value, plus accumulated interest (More than $54 million at the time); This policy was to strengthen the national credit. It included bonds, which had deprecated to ten of fifteen cents on the dollar.

"The Star Spangled Banner"

This poem, now the national anthem, was written by Francis Scott Key when he witness the Battle of Fort McHenry, where the Americans held their ground against the British.

Appeasement

This policy of giving into demands was followed by leaders of Britain and France at the 1938 conference in Munich, Germany. Their purpose was to avoid war, but they allowed Germany to take Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia and eventually Czechoslovakia itself.

Populists

This political party, officially known as the People's party, emerged from the Farmers' alliance in the early 1890s. These frustrated farmers of West and South attacked Wall Street and "the money trust" and believed that U.S. economic policy favored Eastern businessmen over the nation's farmers. They called for nationalizing the railroads, telephone, and telegraph; instituting a graduated income tax; and creating a new federal "sub-treasury." They also wanted the free and unlimited coinage of silver, possibly their most significant proposal.

"Self-Reliance"

This popular lecture-essay written by Ralph Waldo Emerson reflected the spirit of individualism pervasive in American popular culture during the 1830s and 1840s.

Venustiano Carranza

This president took power after Huerta's reign collapsed from within. He would not be happy at the U.S. and Woodrow Wilson after the Tampico incident, involving the U.S. sending the navy into Mexico. However, Wilson would reluctantly support him.

Limited Liability

This principal aids the concentration of capital by permitting the individual investor, in cases of legal claims or bankruptcy, to risk no more than his own share of the corporation's stock.

John Wilkes Booth

This pro-southern actor slipped into Ford's Theatre and shot and killed Abraham Lincoln on April 14, 1865.

Fair Deal

This program established by Truman called for social improvement, including better housing, raising minimum wage, more TVAS, etc. However, Republicans and Southern Democrats kept much of this from happening, except for *raising the minimum wage, providing for more public housing, and extending old-age insurance to many more beneficiaries under the Social Security Act.*

Louis D. Brandeis

This progressive Massachusetts attorney and friend to Woodrow Wilson wrote a novel Other People's Money and How Bankers Use It (1914). This was during Wilson's attack on the banks in his campaign against the "triple wall of privilege." This person would be nominated for the Supreme Court by Wilson, and was therefore the first Jew to be recommended.

Thorstein Veblen

This progressive author assailed the new rich with his novel "The Theory of the Leisure Class," a savage attack on "predatory wealth" and "conspicuous consumption." This author believed that the rich engaged in wasteful "business" (making money for money's sake) rather than productive "industry" (making goods to satisfy real needs).

Herbert Croly

This progressive thinker wrote the book The Promise of American Life (1910), and, with T. Roosevelt, favored continued consolidation of trusts and labor unions, paralleled by the growth of powerful regulatory agencies in Washington.

Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies

This propaganda group was the most prominent among supporters to aid Britain during the Battle of Britain. The committee's argument was double barreled: to interventionists it could appeal for direct succor to the British; to isolationists it could appeal for the assistance to the democracies with sayings like "All Methods Short of War," so that the terrible conflict would stay in faraway Europe.

Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)

This proposed that the issue of slavery be decided by popular sovereignty in the Kansas and Nebraska territories, thus revoking the 1820 Missouri Compromise. Introduced by Stephen Douglass in an effort to bring Nebraska into the Union and pave the way for a northern transcontinental railroad. The most dutiable offspring of this act was the new Republican party, which had sprung up spontaneously in the Middle West as a might moral protest against the gains of slavery.

Teller Amendment (1898)

This provisio of President McKinley's war plans proclaimed to the world that when the United States had overthrown Spanish misrule in Cuba, it would give the Cubans their freedom--a declaration that caused imperialistic Europeans to smile skeptically. This amendment testified to the ostensibly "anti-imperialist" designs of the initial war plans.

Queen Liliuokalani

This queen of Hawaii during America's imperialistic times insisted that the Hawaiians should control the islands, not the United States, after the McKinley Tariff was passed. She was against the annexation of Hawaii to the U.S.

Halifax-Quebec route

This route was one in which the British were determined to build a road through, although it ran through disputed territory-claimed also by Maine under the Treaty of Paris in 1783. This led to the Aroostook war, and the British won it with the compromise at the end of the war.

Benjamin Wade

This radical Republican would have been the successor to Andrew Johnson and was the president pro tempore of the Senate. The fact that he would be president after Johnson was a reason some voted to keep Johnson in office. He was disliked by many members of the business community for his high-tariff, soft-money, pro-labor views and was distrusted by moderate Republicans.

John Brown (AKA "Old Brown")

This radical abolitionist led a band of his followers in May 1856 and literally hacked to pieces five surprised men, supposedly all proslaveryites, in the event known as "Bleeding Kansas." was put to death after raiding Harper's Ferry Arsenal and causing a slave revolt.

Bonus Army (AKA Bonus Expeditionary Force)

This rag-tag group of 20,000 veterans marched on Washington to demand immediate payment of bonuses earned during WWI. After Hoover accused this group to be full of riffraff and reds, General Douglas MacArthur dispersed the veterans with tear gas and bayonets (which was more than Hoover had planned). Hoover would become even more unpopular after the episode.

Northern Securities Company

This railroad holding company organized by J.P. Morgan and James J. hill sought a virtual monopoly on railroads in the Northwest. Roosevelt challenged this "bad" trust, leading to a Supreme Court case in 1904 which dissolved the company. This would enhance Roosevelt's reputation as a trust smasher.

Johnson's Reconstruction Plan (1865)

This reconstruction plan disfranchised certain leading Confederates, but these people could ask for a pardon. This plan was largely modeled after Lincoln's 10% plan. It called for special state conventions, which were required to repeal ordinances of secession, repudiate all Confederate debts, and ratify the 13th amendment.

Greek Revival

This remarkable revival of building style in the 1820s and 1850s was partly stimulated by the heroic efforts of the Greeks in the 1820s to wrest independence from the "terrible Turk." This building style was seen especially in the Burned-Over District and the Old Northwest.

Sally Tompkins

This renowned woman in the South ran a Richmond infirmary for wounded Confederate soldiers and was awarded the rank of captain by Jefferson Davis.

Gag Resolution (1836)

This resolution which was pushed by sensitive southerners through the House of Representatives required all such antislavery appeals to be tabled without debate. This attack on the right of petition aroused the sleeping lion of John Quincy Adams and he waged a successful eight-year fight for its repeal. This resolution endangered free speech within the country.

Market Revolution

This revolution transformed a subsistence economy of scattered farms and tiny workshops into a national network of industry and commerce. New questions were asked during this time: How tightly should patents protect inventions? Should the government regulate monopolies? Who should own the technologies and networks that made America hum in the 1840s and 1850s?

Transportation Revolution

This revolution was primarily caused by the East's desire to tap into the West. It resulted in the use of more railroads, rather than canals, for trading purposes, and creating a truly continental economy. With the regions being connected, they could all focus on a specialty: The South raised cotton, the West grew grain and livestock, the East made machines and textiles.

Industrial Revolution

This revolution, started by a group of British inventors in 1750 who perfected a series of machines for the pass production of textiles, was a shift to factory life. This "uprising" was accompanied by a transformation in agricultural production and the methods of transportation and communication. It arrived late in America compared to the rest of the developed world due to westward expansion.

"Work or Fight" rule (1918)

This rule imposed by the War Department threatened any unemployed male with being immediately drafted--a powerful discouragement to go on strike.

Hartford Convention (1814)

This secret three week (Dec. 15-Jan. 5) conference of 26 Federalists from MA, CT, RI, NH, and VT was to discuss grievances and seek redress for their wrongs. Though a minority of these New England federalists talked of secession, the final report of this convention was financial assistance from Washington to compensate for lost trade and propose constitutional amendments requiring a 2/3 vote in Congress before an Embargo could be imposed, New states admitted, or war declared. Delegates also sought to abolish the three-fifths compromise, limit presidents to a single term, and to prohibit the election of two successive presidents from the same state. *This led to the death of the Federalist party*

Richard Olney

This secretary of state under Cleveland invoked the Monroe Doctrine onto the British and informed them that the United States was now in control of the Western Hemisphere. Britain would ignore this initially, but it would eventually lead to the Great Rapprochement.

Edwin M. Stanton

This secretary of war was removed by President Andrew Johnson, leading to his impeachment. The Tenure of Office Act was made mostly to protect him, as he was a holdover from the Lincoln administration. Although outwardly loyal to Johnson, he was secretly serving as a spay and informer for the radicals.

Senator Lodge

This senator said, "Whoever controls Cuba, controls the Gulf [of Mexico]," as a suggestion to claim Cuba for America after the insurrectos rebelled against the Spanish.

American Colonization Society (1817)

This society was founded by abolitionists who focused on transporting blacks bodily back to Africa. However, most blacks had no wish to be transplanted into a strange civilization after having become partially Americanized, as there were no longer southern slaves who were native to Africa. Despite this, the colonization appealed to some antislaveryites, including Abraham Lincoln.

Tennessee

This state was the heart of the Bible Belt South, where the spirit of evangelical religion was still robust.

Winston Churchill

This was the prime minister of Britain during World War II, a bulldog-jawed orator who nerved his people to fight off the fearful air bombings in their cities.

McCulloch v Maryland (1819)

This suit involved an attempt by the State of Maryland to destroy a branch of the Bank of the United States by imposing a tax on its notes. In this case, Marshall declared the bank constitutional through loose construction. At the same time, he strengthened federal authority and slapped at state infringement when he denied Maryland the right to tax the bank.

Reservation System

This system allotted land with designated boundaries to Native American tribes in the West, beginning in the 1850s with Fort Laramie (1851) and Fort Atkinson (1853) and ended with the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887. Most of the land allotted was used communally, rather than owned individually. The United States government established these boundaries for the territory of each tribe and attempted to separate the Indians into two great "colonies" (North and South). The government would also encourage and sometimes violently coerce Native Americans to stay on this allotted land at all times.

Pony Express (1860)

This system was used to carry mail speedily along the two thousand lonely miles from St. Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California. Daring, lightweight riders could make the trip in an amazing ten days. These unarmed horsemen galloped on no matter the circumstances- dust or snow, day or night, and past Indians and bandits. These mail carriers only missed one trip in its entire career. though the whole enterprise lost money heavily and folded after only eighteen legend-leaving months. This 'organization' was ultimately shut down by Samuel Morse's telegraph.

American System (1824)

This system, propose by Henry Clay, had three main parts: (1) A banking system, which would provide easy and abundant credit, (2) A protective tariff, behind which eastern manufactures would flourish, and (3) A network of roads and canals, especially in the burgeoning Ohio Valley. These roads and canals would link the country together both politically and economically

Underwood Tariff (1913)

This tariff passed by the House provided for a substantial reduction of rates as a response to Wilson's "triple wall of privilege." This tariff reduced import fees and enacted an unprecedented, graduated federal income tax. By 1917, revenue from the income tax surpassed receipts from the tariff, a gap that has since been widened. To get this passed, Wilson urged the people to hold their Senators in line.

McKinley Tariff (1890)

This tariff raised barriers against Hawaiian sugar, causing Hawaiian markets to sour. It also renewed efforts by White American planters to secure the annexation of Hawaii to the United States, leading to a small revolt in 1893 after the queen refused to comply.

Hawley-Smoot Tariff (1930)

This tariff started out as a reasonable protective measure in the House to assist farmers, but would be turned into the highest protective tariff in the nation's peacetime history in the Senate. It raised duties up to 60 percent, thus plunging America and other nations deeper into the terrible international depression. To Europe, it was like ugly economic warfare and would help Hitler to accumulate power in Germany.

Fordney-McCumber Tariff Law (1922)

This tariff was passed to protect domestic production from foreign competitors. It boosted rates up to 38.5 percent and duties on farm produce were increased. *This law authorized the president to reduce or increase tariff duties as much as 50 percent.* The business friendly Harding and Coolidge raised more duties than they lowered. A direct result of this law was European nations raising their own trade barriers, not only hurting American markets, but also European markets, which would give Adolf Hitler more incentive to rise to power.

Turnpike

This term inspired by the Lancaster Turnpike, was a barrier of sharp pikes, which were turned aside when drivers approached the tollgate and payed their tole.

"Stock watering"

This term originally referred to the practice of making cattle thirsty by feeding them salt and then having them bloat themselves with water before they were weighted in for sale. However, in the age of the railroad industry, railroad stock promoters grossly inflated their claims about a given line's assets and profitability and sold stocks and bonds far in excess of the railroad's actual value.

Iwo Jima

This tiny island, needed as a haven for damaged American bombers returning from Japan, was captured in March 1945. This desperate 25 day assault cost over 4,000 American lives. This famous picture is at this island.

Liberty Party

This tiny third party in the election of 1844 was an antislavery party and only accumulated approximately 16,000 votes in New York. However, this prevented Henry Clay from winning the election, as he only needed 5,000 more votes to beat James K. Polk. Ironically, they were anti-Texas but they unknowingly helped put the pro-Texas Polk in office.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (February 2, 1848)

This treaty between Mexico and the United States ended the Mexican War. This treaty confirmed the American title to Texas and yielded the enormous area stretching westward of Oregon and the ocean and embracing coveted California. This total expanse, including Texas, was about 1/2 of Mexico. In return, The U.S. agreed to pay $15 million.

Four-Power Treaty

This treaty replaced the 20 year old Anglo-Japanese alliance. The new pact bound Britain, Japan, France, and the U.S. to preserve the status quo in the Pacific. However, the U.S. did not agree to use any armed force to achieve this status quo.

Five-Power Naval Treaty (1922)

This treaty set a ratio between the U.S., Britain, and Japan on ships of 5:5:3, respectively. However, Japan only agreed to this after the U.S. and Britain conceded that they would refrain from fortifying their Far Eastern possessions, including the Philippines.

Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (1901)

This treaty signed between the U.S. and Great Britain (because they were bogged down by a South African War and unfriendly Europe), gave the U.S. a free hand to build a canal in Panama and the right to fortify it as well. This treaty nullified the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850, which prohibited the British or U.S. from acquiring territory in Central America.

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850)

This treaty stipulated that neither America nor Britain would fortify or seek exclusive control over any future isthmian waterway.

Security Treaty

This treaty that France received in negotiations regarding the League of Nations stated that both Britain and the U.S. would pledge to come to France's aid in the event of another German invasion.

John J. "Black Jack" Pershing

This veteran of the Cuban and Philippine campaigns was ordered to break up Pancho Villa's band. Although he clashed with the Villistas, he missed capturing Villa himself and war forced to retreat as threat of war with Germany loomed larger.

Underground Railroad

This virtual freedom train consisted of an informal chain of "stations" (anti-slavery homes), through which scores of "passengers" (runaway slaves) were spirited by "conductors" (usually white and black abolitionists) from the slave states to the free-soil sanctuary of Canada. The most famous "conductor" was Harriet Tubman, who rescued more than three hundred slaves, including her aged parents, and earned the title "Moses"

Opium War

This war was fought to secure the right of the British traders to peddle opium in the Celestial Kingdom (China). At the war's conclusion in 1842, Britain gained free access to five so-called treaty ports, as well as outright control of the island of Hong Kong.

National War Labor Board (NWLB)

This wartime agency was chaired by former President Taft when it was created in 1918 and aimed to prevent labor disputes by encouraging high wages and an eight-hour work day. During WW2, this agency imposed ceilings on wage increases. Also, despite its efforts, labor unions grew during WW2.

World's Colombian Exposition (1893)

This was Daniel Burnham's first major project in Chicago in 1893, which came to symbolize the City Beautiful movement. Burnham's imposing landscape of pavilions and fountains honored the 400-hundredth anniversary of the 'discovery' of America. This World's Fair honored art, architecture, and science, and its promoters built a mini-city in which to host the fair that reflected the ideals of city planning popular at the time. Americans saw this World's fair as their opportunity to claim a place among the world's most "civilized" societies (meaning western European countries). This project did much to raise American artistic standards and promote city planning.

"Swing 'round the circle"

This was Johnson's famous speeches during the congressional elections of 1866. During these "give 'em hell" speeches, Johnson accused radicals in Congress of having planned large-scale antiblack riots and murder in the South. As he spoke, hecklers insulted him. Old charges of drunkenness were also revived after these speeches. This would gain many votes - for the opposition.

Freeport Doctrine

This was Stephen Douglas's response to Lincoln's Freeport question. It stated that no matter how the Supreme Court ruled, slavery would stay down if the people voted it down. Laws to protect slavery would have to be passed by territorial legislatures.

"Square Deal"

This was Teddy Roosevelt's plan that was inspired by the progressive movement in the U.S. that embraced three C's: *C*ontrol of corporations, *C*onsumer protection, and *C*onservation of natural resources. This plan received an acid test when coal miners went on strike and Teddy threatened to send federal troops if the employers did meet the strikers' demands. This would be the "grandfather" of FDR's New Deal.

Sunbelt

This was a 15-state area reaching in a smiling crescent from VA through FL and TX to AZ and CA. After WW2, this region increased its population at a rate nearly double that of the old industrial zones of the Northeast.

Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson

This was a Confederate general and Robert E. Lee's right hand man. He was known for his ability to stand his ground, thus his nickname which he received at the First Battle of Bull Run.

George McClellan

This was a Union general in the Civil War, appointed by Abraham Lincoln. Known for his hatred to sacrifice his troops, he was idolized by his men who called him "Little Mac." He was very cautious and would not run risks, leading to Lincoln firing him.

Battle of Wounded Knee (1890)

This was a battle between the U.S. Army and Dakota Sioux Indians, in which several hundred Native Americans and 29 U.S. soldiers died. Tensions erupted violently over two major issues: the Sioux practice of the "Ghost Dance," which the U.S. government outlawed, and the dispute over whether Sioux reservation land would be broken up because of the Dawes Severalty Act.

Sicily, Italy

This was a battle planned by the "Big Two" of World War II (Britain and U.S.A.) and it eventually fell in August 1943. Shortly before this, Mussolini was deposed and Italy surrendered unconditionally in September 1943. Italy would soon declare war on Germany in October 1943.

"Millionaires Club"

This was a derogatory name for the Senate since it had so many rich men by 1900. This mostly came about because progressives wished to elect senators directly, and these rich senators did not represent the people.

Carpetbaggers

This was a derogatory nickname given to supposedly sleazy Northerners who had packed all their worldly goods into a suitcase at war's end and had went south to seek personal power and profit in Reconstruction. In fact, most of these people were Union soldiers and Northern businessmen and professionals who wanted to play a role in modernizing the "New South."

Seward's Folly (1867)

This was a derogatory nickname of William Seward signing a treaty with Russia that transferred Alaska to the United States for the bargain price of $7.2 million. It was also called "Frigidia" and "Walrussia." This derisive term reflected the anti-expansionist sentiments of most Americans immediately after the Civil War.

Desert Land Act (1877)

This was a first feeble step toward land conservation that stipulated that the government would sell arid land cheaply on the condition that the purchaser irrigate the thirsty soul within three years.

National Woman's Party

This was a group of pacifist feminists during World War I that was led by Quaker Alice Paul. This group would go on marches and hunger strikes against "Kaiser Wilson."

Gullah

This was a language which blacks evolved on the sea islands off South Carolina's coast. This language was probably a corruption of Angola, the African region from which many of them had come. It blended English with several African languages, including Yoruba, Igbo, and Hausa. Some words are still used today: goober meant peanut and voodoo means witchcraft

Potsdam Conference (July 1945)

This was a meeting between President Harry Truman (FDR had died), Joseph Stalin, and British leaders Churchill and later Clement Attlee (when the Labour party defeated Churchill's Conservative party) near Berlin to deliver an ultimatum to Japan: *Surrender or be destroyed.* American bombers showered the dire warning on Japan in tens of thousands of flyers (leaflets).

Regulator Movement

This was a movement by the Paxton Boys in North Carolina and was a nasty insurrection against eastern domination of the colony's affairs.

"Hyphenated Americans"

This was a nickname given by Woodrow Wilson to foreign-descent Americans, such as German-Americans or Italian-Americans. These Americans were angry at the Treaty of Versailles because it was not sufficiently favorable to their native lands.

"Buffalo Soldiers"

This was a nickname given by the Native Americans to the African American soldiers stationed in the Native American reservation.

"Doughboys"

This was a nickname given to American soldiers during World War I.

"The miracle at Kitty Hawk"

This was the event of Orville and Wilbur Wright successfully creating and flying a plane successfully for the first time in 1903 in North Carolina.

Tuskegee Institute (1881)

This was a normal school (teacher training school) and industrial school lead by Booker T. Washington in Alabama (with the school being the city's name). It focused on training young black students in agriculture and the trades to help them achieve economic independence. Booker T. Washington justified segregated, vocational training as a necessary first step on the road to racial equality (as Washington believed that economic independence would lead to black political and civil rights), although critics, like W.E.B. Du Bois, accused him of "accommodation" because it stopped short of directly challenging white supremacy.

Clement L. Vallindigham

This was a notorious Copperhead who publicly demanded an end to the "wicked and cruel" war. He was convicted by a military tribunal in 1863 for treasonable utterances and sentences to prison and then Lincoln sent him to the South, stating that he if liked the Confederates so much, he ought to be banished to their lines.

Tripartite Pact

This was a pact that extended the Rome-Berlin Axis to include Japan in 1940 when the country started to accelerate the construction of battleships and when it left the League of Nations in 1935.

Truman Doctrine (1947)

This was a pledge of support for any people fighting any communist or communist-inspired threat. The president at the time presented the this pledge to Congress in 1947 in support of his request for $400 million to defend Greece and Turkey against Soviet-backed insurgencies. *It was fighting communism with military action.*

Boxer Rebellion (1900)

This was a revolt by a superpatriotic group in China in response to the "Open Door Policy" and foreign influence in which the group murdered more than 200 foreigners and thousands of Chinese Christians and besieged the foreign diplomatic community in the capital, Beijing (Peking). This revolt would be suppressed by an international force of soldiers, including several thousand Americans. *This would pave the way for the revolution of 1911, which led to the establishment of the Republic of China.*

Ancient Order of Hibernians

This was a semi-secret society founded in Ireland to fight rapacious landlords and served in America as a benevolent society aiding the downtrodden Irish Immigrants. This was a result of the friendless "famine Irish" needing to fend for themselves.

Molly Maguires

This was a shadowy Irish miners' union that rocked the Pennsylvania coal districts in the 1860s and 1870s which was spawned by the Ancient Order of Hibernians.

Nat Turner's Rebellion (1831)

This was a slave revolt in which a semi-literate visionary black preacher lead an uprising that slaughtered about sixty Virginians, mostly women and children. Reprisals were swift and bloody, and his efforts were quickly extinguished. This rebellion, along with others, raised Southern fears about their slaves attacking them at any moment and taking over.

Aroostook War

This was a small-scale lumberjack clash between lumberjacks and local militia from both Maine and Canada who entered the disputed no-man's-land. This skirmish led to an official compromise on the Maine boundary between Britain and America, in which the Americans were to retain some 7,000 square miles of the 12,000 of wilderness in dispute. The British got less land, but won the desired Halifax-Quebec route.

Pullman Strike (1894)

This was a strike by railroad workers upset by drastic wage cuts, led by socialist Eugene V. Debs but was not supported by the American Federation of Labor. Eventually, President Grover Cleveland intervened and federal troops forced an end to the strike. This strike highlighted both divisions within labor and the government's new willingness to use armed forces to combat work stoppages, as it was the first time such a legal weapon had been used to break a strike (and also defiant workers who were help could be imprisoned without a jury trial).

Alexander Stephens

This was the ex-vice president of the Confederacy who was still under indictment for treason when the South had looked for people to put into Congress.

"Lockout"

This was a tactic Employers used against rebellious workers which had the employer locking their doors against these workers and "starve them into submission." Also with this, employers could compel rebellious workers to sign "ironclad oaths" or "yellow-dog contracts." which were solemn agreements to not join a labor union.

"Water Cure"

This was a tactic used by American soldiers against Filipinos that included forcing water down victims' throat until they yielded information or died.

Tariff of 1842

This was a tariff proposed by Clayites and wished to push down the rates to about the moderately protective level of 1832, roughly 32 percent on dutiable goods. Though he had no fondness for the protective bill, John Tyler reluctantly signed this tariff, realizing the need for additional revenue.

Zimmermann Note (March 1, 1917)

This was a telegraph from the German foreign secretary who had proposed a German-Mexican alliance against the U.S. When this telegraph to Mexico, which promised Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona back to Mexico, was intercepted by the British and published, it caused an uproar that led to many Americans wanting to enter The Great War. There is a conspiracy that the British made up this to push America in to the war.

Anti-Masonic Party

This was a third party in the election of 1832 - the first time a third party ever entered the field - which opposed the influence and fearsome secrecy of the Masonic order. This party became a potent political force in New York due to the probable murder in 1826 of a New Yorker, supposedly by a mason.This party appealed to long-standing American suspicions of secret societies, which they condemned as citadels of privilege and monopoly.

Free Soil Party

This was a third party in the election of 1848 made up of ardent antislavery men in the North, distrusting both Cass and Taylor. They came out foursquare for the WIlmot Proviso and against slavery in the territories. This party's nominee was former president Martin Van Buren. This party condemned slavery, but not so much for it enslaving blacks but for destroying the chances of free white workers to rise up from wage-earning dependence to the esteemed status of self-employment. It foreshadowed the emergence of the Republican party six years later.

Tariff of Abominations (1828)

This was also known as the "Black Tariff" and angered many southerners, as they were heavy consumers of manufactured goods with little manufacturing industry of their own. Therefore, the South hardly benefited from the tariff system. South Carolina flags were lowered to half-mast, and one South Carolinian proclamation "Let the New England beware how she imitates the Old"

Dwight D. ("Ike") Eisenhower

This was an American general during WW2 who led the attack in North Africa to open up a second front (though a poor one) that the Soviet Union desperately begged for. He was also in charge of leading D-Day.

Reform Bill of 1867

This was an English Bill brought on by the champions of Democracy (the Union) in the Civil War. With this, Britain became a true political democracy. Therefore, it granted suffrage to all male British citizens, dramatically expanding the electorate.

Bracero Program (1942)

This was an agreement between the U.S. and Mexico to bring thousands of Mexican agricultural workers to harvest the fruit and grain crops of the West during WWII, when the draft left the nation's farms and factories short of employees. However, the program persisted until 1964, by when it had sponsored 4.5 million border crossings and became a fixed feature of the agricultural economy in the west.

Rome-Berlin Axis (1936)

This was an allying-agreement between Nazi Hitler Germany and Fascist Mussolini of Italy. This pact was signed after both countries had intervened on behalf of Fascist Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War and after Hitler withdrew Germany from the League of Nations in 1933.

Battle of Britain (1940)

This was an attack on Britain by Hitler. it was a series of air attacks against the British isles, and it lasted for months until the Royal Air Force's tenacious defense eventually led Hitler to postpone his planned invasion indefinitely. *During these months, debate intensified in the U.S. over whether neutrality was a good idea. Sympathies for Britain were high, but it was not enough to push the U.S. to war.*

Thomas Alva Edison

This was an extremely versatile inventor whose severe deafness enabled him to concentrate without distraction. He was a gifted tinkerer and a tireless worker, not a pure scientist. Wondrous devices poured out of his "invention factory" in New Jersey - the phonograph, the mimeograph (like a copier, with pencil), the dictaphone, and the moving picture. He is best known for his 1879 invention the electric lightbulb. The lightbulb would transform human habits, as people previously spent on average 9 hours a day sleeping, now they slept a little more than 7.

Leisler's Rebellion

This was an ill-starred and bloody insurgence that rocked New York City from 1689 to 1691 that arose between lordly landholders and aspiring merchants led by Jacob _______ (name in rebellion). this was one of the many uprising that erupted across the colonies when wealthy colonists attempted to recreate European social structures in the New World.

Guadalcanal Island

This was an island in the Solomons that the U.S. targeted to seize to protect the lifeline from America to Australia through the Southwest Pacific. A battle here would result in Japanese evacuation of the islands after they lost 20,000 men compared to the 1,700 America lost.

Bacon's Rebellion (1676)

This was an uprising by indentured servants and farmers in Virginia in retaliation to the governor, Berkeley, and his friendly policies towards Indians. When Berkeley refused to retaliate against a series of brutal Indian attacks, these farmers chased Berkeley from Jamestown and put the torch to the capital. However, the leader of this revolt would soon die, making it a victory for the Governor. This rebellion showed the discontent among the farmers and indentured servants and Lordly planters now feared an even bigger rebellion. They then looked for substitute servants, which were found in Africa.

South Carolina Slave Revolt AKA Stono River Rebellion

This was an uprising of more than 50 South Carolina blacks along the Stono River which tried to march to Spanish Florida, only to be stopped by the local militia.

"The sinful eleven"

This was another name for the Confederacy, especially during Reconstruction.

Congressional Committee on the Conduct of War (1861)

This was especially burdensome to Lincoln in his presidential campaign of 1864. This group was dominated by "radical" Republicans who resented the expansion of presidential power in wartime and who pressed Lincoln zealously on emancipation.

War Production Board (WPB) (1942)

This was established during WW2 to direct all war production, including procuring and allocating raw materials to maximize the nation's war machine. This organization had immense power over the U.S. economy and was abolished in November 1945. With this, 40 billion bullets, 30,000 aircraft, 2.6 million machine guns, and many other weapons and war materials were produced.

Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) (1874)

This was founded in Ohio to combat the evils of excessive alcohol consumption and with this militant women entered into the prohibition movement, with its leading spirit Frances E. Willard. This organization would go on to embrace a broad reform agenda, including campaigns to abolish prostitution and gain the right to vote for women. In this movement, the white ribbon symbolized purity. A famous member of this group was the muscular and mentally deranged "Kansas Cyclone" Carrie A. Nation, whose first husband had died of alcoholism. Nation would boldly smash saloon bottles and bars with her hatchet.

"Lee's Ragamuffins"

This was name for tattered Southern veterans who wept as they took leave of their beloved General Robert E. Lee after his surrender at the Appomattox Courthouse.

Boston Associates

This was one of the earliest investment capital companies, which was formed by fifteen Boston families. This company eventually dominated the textile, railroad, insurance, and banking business of Massachusetts.

N.P. Gordon

This was the only slave trader to even be executed, despite the supposed death penalty for slavers. His execution took place in New York in 1862.

National Labor Union (1866)

This was one of the earliest national-scale unions to organize in the Americas or Europe and it aimed to unify workers across locales and trades to challenger their ever more powerful bosses. This union would attract the impressive total of some 600,000 members, including the skilled, unskilled, and farmers, though it excluded the Chinese and hardly made effort to include women and blacks. This union agitated for the arbitration of industrial disputes and the eight-hour workday. However, it would dissolve in 1872.

Shakers

This was one of the longest-lived sects and was founded in England in 1747 and brought to America in 1774 by Mother Ann Lee. Lee moved her tiny band of followers to upstate New York-the first score or so of these communities. This group attained membership of about 6,000 in 1840, but since all members were prohibited from marriage and sex, they were extinct by 1940.

Tammany Hall

This was one of the powerful city machines in New York in which the Irish gained control off, which reaped patronage rewards.

Rough Riders

This was part of the American army invading Cuba that included a regiment of volunteers, who were mostly western cowboys and other hardy characters with a sprinkling of ex-polo players and ex-convicts. This Calvary was commanded by Colonel Leonard Wood, but originally organized by Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt would later emphasize his experience with the regiment in subsequent campaigns for Governor of New York and Vice President under McKinley.

General Douglass MacArthur

This was the American general in the Pacific against Japan in WW2 and was responsible for many victories, including Bataan of the Philippines ("I shall return," he said after being ordered to go to Australia) and Leyte Island in the Philippines ("People of the Philippines, I have returned.... rally to me.").

National Security Council Memorandum Number 68 (NSC-68)

This was the National Security Council recommendation to quadruple defense spending and rapidly expand peace-time armed forces to address Cold War tensions. It reflected a new militarization of American foreign policy but the huge costs of rearmament were not expected to interfere with what seemed like the limitless possibilities of postwar prosperity. Originally, it seemed politically impossible until the Korean war.

General George Meade

This was the Union general at the battle of Gettysburg. He was scholarly, unspectacular, and abrupt and was aroused from his sleep at 2 a.m. with the unwelcome news that he would be replacing Joseph Hooker as commander of the Union army.

ABC-1 Agreement

This was the agreement between the British and America developed at a conference in Washington D.C. in 1941, that if the U.S. entered WWII, the two nations and their allies would coordinate their military planing, making a priority of protecting the British. It was an agreement on "getting Germany first" in the Atlantic and Europe; this took manpower away from the front attacking Japan for a while.

George S. ("Blood 'n' Guts") Patton

This was the commander of the American armored divisions during the invasion of D-Day. Probably one of the most famous American generals of WW2.

Pragmatism

This was the concept that the truth of an idea was to be tested, above all, by its practical consequences. This philosophy that emerged in the late 19th century stated that the true value of an idea lay in its ability to solve problems. The people who believed this philosophy thus embraced the provisional, uncertain nature of experimental knowledge. This idea was brought about by mainly William James, who served on the Harvard faculty for thirty five years and whose famous book bears the same name as this concept. He pronounced this concept to be America's greatest contribution to the history of philosophy. Other famous purveyors of this philosophy were John Dewey and Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.

V-J Day (Victory in Japan) (August 15, 1945)

This was the day that Japan officially surrendered after the atomic bombings on two of their cities. It was the final end of World War II.

Popular Sovereignty

This was the doctrine that stated that the people of a territory, under the general principles of the Constitution, should themselves determine the status of slavery. The public liked it because it accorded with the democratic tradition of self-determination, and Politicians liked it became it seemed a comfortable compromise between the keeping slavery and abolishing slavery.

Benito Mussolini

This was the fascist dictator of Italy, seizing power during 1922. He made a pact with the German dictator, one of the first contributors toward WWII. Seeking glory and empire in Africa, he attacked Ethiopia in 1935 with bombers and tanks. (The League could have stopped him by placing an embargo on oil, did it didn't and therefore signed its death warrant).

Francisco Franco

This was the fascistic General of the Spanish rebels in the Spanish Civil War. He was aided by Hitler and Mussolini and sought to overthrow the established Loyalist regime (which was assisted on a smaller scale by the Soviet Union).

Volstead Act (1919)

This was the federal act that enforced the 18th amendment.

Korean War (1950-1953)

This was the first "hot war" of the Cold War. This war began in 1950 when Soviet-backed North Koreans invaded South Korea before meeting a counter-offensive by United Nation Forces, dominated by the United States (led by Douglas MacArthur). It would end in a statemate in 1953.

Jeanette Rankin

This was the first congresswomen ever, and she was one of the few 50 congressmen to vote against war.

Tariff of 1816

This was the first tariff in American history instituted primarily for protection, not revenue. This was made to protect American industry in response to British manufacturers lowering their prices to try and strangle the American factories.

The Big Four (Of 1918-1919)

This was the inner clique in which the Paris Conference of World War I fell into the hands of. It included Woodrow Wilson of the U.S., Vittorio Orlando of Italy, Prime Minister David Lloyd George of Britain, and Georges Clemenceau of France (who was known as the "organizer of victory" and "The Tiger").

General William R. Shafter

This was the leader of the invading force into Cuba after the Spanish ordered a fleet to the territory. His troops were woefully unequipped for war in the tropics, but the Rough Riders also served in this invading force.

Robert E. Lee

This was the leading Confederate general of the Civil War. He was offered a spot in the Union army, but was forced to decline when his home state of Virginia succeeded. Although he was against both slavery and secession, he felt obligated to stand with his state. He would surrender to Grant at Appomattox Courthouse in 1865.

Appomattox Courthouse

This was the location of surrender by General Robert E. Lee in April 1865 in Virginia after about a year of violent fighting in the Wilderness Campaign. This is where the Civil War ended.

Hudson Bay Company

This was the most important colonizing agency for Britain in the Oregon territory; this agency traded profitable with the Indians of the Pacific Northwest for furs.

Federal Reserve Act (1913)

This was the most important piece of economic legislation between the Civil War and the New Deal. This act established 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks and a Federal Reserve Board, appointed by the president, to regulate banking and create stability on a national scale in the volatile banking sector. The board was allowed issue paper money backed by commercial paper, thus allowing the amount of money in circulation to be swiftly increases as needed. This act carried the U.S. through financial crisis during WWI

"Little Englanders"

This was the nickname for British anti-expansionists, who were persuaded that the Columbia River was not after all the Saint Lawrence of the west and that the turbulent Americans might one day seize the Oregon Country.

"Great Marianas Turkey Shoot" (1944)

This was the nickname given by the American pilots during WW2 to the assault on the Marianas that started in June 1944. The U.S. wanted the Marianas because it would provide a base where the American superbombers could carry out round-trip bombing raids on Japan's home islands. The U.S. would win the Marianas after fanatical resistance, including suicides off of the "Suicide Cliff" in Sepain, Japan. *With this victory, round the clock bombing of Japan began.*

"Ohio Gang"

This was the nickname given to the corrupt cabinet of Warren Harding's friends during his presidency. It included some of the "best minds" of Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes, Secretary of Treasury Andrew Mellon, Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover. However, it included two of the "worst minds," Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall and Attorney General Harry Daugherty.

Jacob S. Coxey

This wealthy Ohio quarry owner set out for Washington in 1894 with a few score of supporters and a swarm of newspaper reporters. His platform included a demand that the government relieve unemployment by an inflationary public works program, supported by some $500 million in legal tender notes to be issued by the Treasury (This "general" would even name his infant son Legal Tender.)

James Buchanan

This well-to-do Pennsylvanian lawyer, who had been serving as a minister to London during the recent Bleeding Kansas was selected as the democratic presidential candidate for the election of 1856; he was chosen since he was "Kansas-less" and therefore relatively enemy-less. He was known as "Old Buck" and "Old Fogy." He would win the election, becoming the 15th president. He would support the Lecompton Constitution, losing the support of southern democrats.

Clara Barton

This woman in the Civil War would carry supplies for soldiers, help identify dead bodies, and most significantly founded the Red Cross

Dorthea Dix

This woman was the founder of the Nursing Corps, beginning in the Civil War and was the superintendent fo nurses for the Union army. She helped transform nursing from a lowly service into a respected profession - and in the process opened up another major sphere of employment for women in the postwar era.

Anomalous

This word means that an area is neither a state nor a territory. This word could be used to describe Puerto Rico.

The Age of Reason (1794)

Thomas Paine's widely circulated book which declared all churches were "set up to terrify and enslave mankind, and monopolize power and profit." In this book, Paine proposed a new liberal doctrine of Deism.

William H. Seward

Though Clay, Calhoun, and Webster were the "Old Guard" this person was the leader of the "Young Guard." He was a wiry and husky-throated freshman senator from New York and was the able spokesman for many of the younger northern radicals. He seemed not to realize that compromise kept the Union together and that when the sections could no longer compromise they would have to part company.

Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC)

Threatened with a massive "Negro March on Washington" to demand equal job opportunities in war jobs and in the military, FDR's administration issued an executive order forbidding racial discrimination in all defense plants operating under contract with the federal government. Although blacks were still assigned to mostly service branches rather than combat branches, this still helped to embolden blacks in their struggle for equality.

Arminianism (Named after Jacobus Arminius)

Threatening to Calvinist doctrine; preached that individual free will, not divine decree, determined a person's eternal face, and that all humans, could be saved if they freely accepted God's grace.

Freedmen's Bureau (March 3, 1865)

To cope with the problem of unskilled and uneducated free blacks through the conquered South, Congress created this institution that was headed by Union general Oliver O. Howard and was to provide food, clothing, medical care, and education (Its main concern) to both freedmen and to white refugees.However, its achievements were uneven and depended largely on the quality of local administrators and expired in 1872.

Regulars

Trained professional soldiers, as distinct from militia or conscripts.

Middle Passage

Transatlantic voyage slaves, who had been branded and bounded, endured between Africa and the colonies. Here, death rates ran as high as 20%.

"Blue Light Federalists"

Treacherous New Englanders who supposedly flashed lanterns on the shore so that blockading British cruisers would be alerted to the attempted escape of American ships.

Treaty of Greenville (1795)

Treaty following Miami Indians' defeat in the Battle of Fallen Timbers that ceded Ohio to the United States. The Indians were given 20,000 dollars, the right to hunt the lands they ceded, and what they hoped was recognition of their sovereign status.

Treaty of Fort Stanwix

Treaty signed by the United States and the pro-British Iroquois granting Ohio country to Americans.

Oklahoma City Bombing

Truck-bomb explosion that killed 168 people in a federal office building on April 19, 1995. The attack was perpetrated by right-wing and anti-government militant Timothy McVeigh, later executed by the U.S. government for the crime.

Laird Rams (1863)

Two Confederate warships being constructed in the shipyard of John Laird and Sons in Great Britain. It was designed to destroy the wooden ships of the Union navy with their iron rams and large-caliber guns and were far more dangerous than the swift, lightly armed Alabama. If these ships were sent to the South, they would tear through the blockade and bring Northern cities under their fire, leading to the Union undoubtedly invading Canada. After Union diplomats warning of war with Britain, the Royal Navy purchased these ships instead.

Vicksburg

Two-and-a-half month siege of a Confederate fort on the Mississippi River in Tennessee. The fort finally fell to Grant in July 1863, giving the Union Army control of the Mississippi River, splitting the South into two.

Operation Desert Storm (1991)

U.S.-led multi-country military engagement in January and February of 1991 that drove Saddam Hussein's Iraqi army out of neighboring Kuwait. In addition to presaging the longer and more protracted Iraq War of the 2000s, the 1991 war helped undo what some called the "Vietnam Syndrome," a feeling of military uncertainty that plagued many Americans.

Conscription Law of 1940 (September 6)

Under this law--America's first peacetime draft-- provision was made for training each year 1.2 million troops and 800,000 reserves. This was passed in preparation of World War II after Germany invaded France and the U.S. feared Britain would follow. The act was later adapted to the requirements of the global war.

Peninsula Campaign

Union General McClellan's failed effort to seize Richmond. Had he seized Richmond during these battles, the Confederacy would have lost the war and slavery most likely would have survived in the South for some time. This series of battles contained the battle of Shenandoah Valley and the Seven Days' Battles. Lincoln temporarily abandoned McClellan as commander of the Army of the Potomac due to his failure in these battles.

Salutary neglect

Unofficial policy of relaxed royal control over colonial trade and only weak enforcement of Navigation Laws. This was a result of the Glorious Revolution.

Neutrality Proclamation (1793)

Washington issued this statement of official neutrality, and warned citizens against taking sides, shortly after the outbreak of war between Britain and France.

Stonewall Rebellion

Uprising in support of equal rights for gay people sparked by an assault by off-duty police officers at a gar bar in New York. The rebellion led to a rise in activism and militancy within the gay community and furthered the sexual revolution of the 1960s.

New York Slave Revolt (1712)

Uprising of approximately 2 dozen slaves that resulted in the deaths of 9 whites and the brutal execution of 21 participating blacks.

Admiralty Courts

Used to try offenders for violating the various Navigation Acts passed by the crown after the French and Indian War.

Patroonships

Vast tracts of land along the Hudson River in New Netherlands granted to wealthy promoters in exchange for bringing 50 settlers to the property

Zebulon M. Pike

Ventured into the southern portion of Louisiana Territory, where he sighted the Colorado peak that bears his name. (1805-1807)

John Burgoyne

Wanted to capture the vital Hudson River and cut off the colonies

"Little Turtle"

War chief of the Miamis, defeated Generals Josiah Harmar and Arthur St. Clair's armies

Baron von Stuebon

Washington's main drill sergeant

New England Confederation

Weak union of the colonies in Massachusetts and Connecticut led by Puritans for the purposes of defense and organization, an early attempt at self-government during the benign neglect of the English Civil War

Hepburn Act (1906)

With this act, free passes were severely restricted and the Interstate Commerce Commission was expanded, and its reach was extended to include express companies, sleeping-car companies, and pipelines. For the first time, the Commission was given real power.

Payne-Aldrich Bill

While intended to lower tariff rates, this bill was eventually revised beyond all recognition, retaining high rates on most imports. President Taft angered the progressive wing of his party when he declared it "the best bill that the Republican party ever passed."

Stamp Tax

Widely unpopular tax on an array of paper goods, repealed in 1766 after mass protests erupted across the colonies.

National War Labor Board (1918)

With former president Taft heading it, this agency established during WWI exerted itself to prevent labor disputes that might hamper the war effort by encouraging employers to grant high wages and the 8 hour work day. However, the agency stopped short of supporting labor's most important demand: a government guarantee of the right to organize into unions.

Liberal Protestants

With roots in the Unitarian revolt against orthodox Calvinism, liberal ideas came into the mainstream for these religious Americans in 1875 to 1925, who adapted religious ideas to modern culture, attempting to reconcile Christianity with new scientific and economic desires. These people rejected biblical literacy, urging Christians to view biblical stories as models of Christian behavior, rather than as dogma. Many of these people stressed the ethical teachings of the bible and became active in the "social gospel" and other reform movements of the era

Emancipation Proclamation (January 1, 1863)

With this announcement, the Civil War became more than just preserving the Union: It also became a moral crusade to end slavery. With this document, Lincoln declared that all slaves in the Confederate states were now free. Though it had no effect, as the CSA wasn't his country. It did not free any slaves in the Border States, however, as he worried the much needed states would secede from the Union. This document closed the door on possible compromise with the South and encouraged thousands of Southern slaves to flee to Union lines. It also strengthened the moral cause of the Union at home and abroad.

Camp Followers/Molly Pitchers

Women and children who followed the Continental Army during the American Revolution, providing vital services such as cooking and sewing in return for rations.

Republican Motherhood

Women showed much civic virtue, and were the prime example of republican behavior. *This elevated women to a newly prestigious role as the special keepers of the nations conscience.* Also, because of this, educational opportunities expanded for women.

Jones Act (1916)

Woodrow Wilson joined the anti-imperial song of Bryan and other Democrats when he signed this act which granted to the Philippines a territorial status and promised independence as soon as a "stable government" could be established. Wilson's racial prejudices made it difficult to anticipate anything other than a long political tutelage for the Filipinos.

"Triple Wall of Privilege"

Woodrow Wilson would wage a war on these three things: the tariff, banks, and trusts. He would pass many acts to combat these evils, including the Underwood Tariff, Federal Reserve Act, and the Clayton Anti-Trust Act.

Fourteen Points (January 8, 1918)

Woodrow Wilson's proposal to ensure peace after World War I, calling for an end to secret treaties, freedom of the seas, a removal of economic barriers among nations, widespread arms reduction, national self-determination (adjustment to colonial claims in the interests of native peoples and colonizers), and a new league of nations. This proposal would cause much controversy and political fighting, especially between Henry Lodge and Woodrow Wilson

Treaty of Versailles (June 1919)

World War I concluded with this vengeful document, which secured peace but imposed sharp terms on Germany and created a territorial mandate system to manage former colonies of the world powers. Germany had hoped that it would be granted peace based on the Fourteen points, but to Woodrow Wilson's embarrassment, it incorporated very few of his original Fourteen Points (only 4 of them), although it did include the League of Nations. Isolationists in the United States, deeply opposed to the League, led the opposition to this treaty, which was never ratified by the Senate. This treaty would anger Germany, which would eventually lead to Hitler's rise of power.

Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845)

Written by Frederick Douglass, a former slave who escaped in 1838 at the age of 21 and a great abolitionist speaker, this book depicted his remarkable origins as the son of a black slave woman and a white father, his struggle to learn to read and write, and his eventual escape to the North.

"The Significance of the Frontier in American History" (1893)

Written by Frederick Jackson Turner, this essay is regarded as one of the most influential essays ever written about American history, which was inspired by the "closing" of the frontier (The superintendent of the census at the time announced that a frontier line was no longer discernible for the first time in American history). Frederick J. Turner hailed the pioneers into the frontier as the agents of civilization and democracy in this essay.

Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852)

Written by Harriet Beecher Stowe, this book showed the wickedness of slavery, especially through the separating of families. Millions of copies of this book were sold in both the United States and abroad, and it was one of the most influential pieces of literature in history, as it made slavery appear almost as evil as it really was to millions. It led many Northerners to reject the enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Law. This book was a large contributing factor to starting the Civil War.

Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852)

Written by Harriet Beecher Stowe, this novel showed the horrors of slavery, such as the psychological horror of separating families. Stowe seized upon the emotional power of this theme by putting it in the heart of the plot of this book, which was very influential, especially in the North.

Compromise of 1850

Written by Henry Clay and signed by President Fillmore after Taylor's death, this compromise entered California as a free state, abolished the slave trade (but not slavery) in Washington DC, and also strengthened greatly the fugitive slave law. It also entered Utah and New Mexico under popular sovereignty. The North obviously benefited more than the South.

The Missouri Compromise

Written by Henry Clay in 1820, this compromise entered Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state and also prohibited all slavery above the 36, 30' latitudinal line, excluding Missouri.

The Impending Crisis of the South (1857)

Written by Hinton R. Helper, a nonaristocratic white from North Carolina, this book attempted to prove by an array of statistics that indirectly the nonslaveholding whites were the ones who suffered most from a slave-based economy. This book rose fears among the South's planter elite of the nonslaveholding majority abandoning them, and thus the book was banned in the South.

Berlin Airlift

Year-long mission of the United States that included flying food and supplies to blockaded West Berliners, whom the USSR cut off from access to the West in the first major crisis of the Cold War. It would lead to the Soviets lifting their blockade of Berlin and the official establishment of the governments of East and West Germany.

William Clark

Young army officer who joined Jefferson's personal secretary in exploring the Louisiana Purchase and Oregon country.

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

Youth organization founded by southern black students in 1960 to promote civil rights. Drawing on its members' youthful energies, this organization in its early years coordinated demonstrations, sit-ins, and voter registration drives.

Pontiac

famous chief of the Ottawa who led an unsuccessful rebellion against the British (1715-1769)

Abigail Adams

was the wife of second president John Adams. She attempted to get rights for the "Ladies" from her husband who at the time was on the committee for designing the Declaration of Independence