Archaeology quiz 4

Collective Memory

•The past is socially constructed in the present so as to fit the needs of the present. Collective memory is an invention of the present •Discontinuity between past and present. Challenges the assertion that there is an objective past •Opposed to approaches that suggest that there is continuation or continuity between past and present

The Meaning of the Past: The Archaeology of Identity

•Use of archaeological imagery can also lead to conflict. •The legacy of the past goes beyond sentiments of nationalism and ethnicity. Sectarian sentiments often find expression in major monuments. •Religious extremism is responsible for many acts of destruction.

Salvage Archaeology

excavation of sites being destroyed either by vandalism or for the sake of new construction

Fraud in Archaeology

•Between 1911 and 1915, fossils were discovered in Piltdown England •The fossils showed a creature with a large brain, but very ape-like jaw. The teeth were apelike by smaller, and the bones were quite old. • Piltdown was part of a nationalistic surge to prove the origins of mankind in Europe. This after some of the first Neanderthals were found in Germany. •Piltdown was discovered to have been a hoax in '53. •Set back human origins enormously because other fossils such as A. africanus, discovered by dart in '24 were ignored because they had small brain cases. It • also hurt credibility of scientists. However, it is a good example that science ultimately righted itself!

Legal Basis

under Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act, archaeological investigation is often carried out in advance of projects on federal land, using federal funds, or requiring a federal permit. The assessment of historic places stipulated in Section 106 follows three phases; identification, evaluation, and, if measures cannot be taken to avoid damage, data recovery.

Popular Archaeology vs Pseudoarchaeology

•Archaeology is not just for archaeologists. For that reason it is crucially important that we communicate effectively with the wider public. But there are several ways in which this important mission can be subverted. •The development of pseudoarchaeology, often for commercial purposes—that is to say the formulation of extravagant but ill-founded stories about the past.

The underlying message is that ethics are involved in every aspect of archaeology:

•Care with which we ask questions •Use(s) to which we put results •Availability of our material for others to use •In how we communicate finds to interested public(s) •Stewardship of sites, objects •Fostering appreciation for remains of human past in future generations

The Meaning of the Past: The Archaeology of Identity

•Collectively our cultural inheritance is rooted in a deeper past. •Archaeology plays an important role in the definition of national identity. •National emblems and imagery, especially among newly formed nations, sometimes depict archaeological materials. Ex. Zimbabwe, Iraq

Ethics in Archaeology

•Ethics is the science of morals—i.e. what it is right or wrong—and increasingly most branches of archaeology are seen to have an ethical dimension, precisely because archaeology relates to identity and to the existence of communities, nations, and indeed humankind itself. •The entire field of human experience should be our study. •This encourages the study of fossil hominins, for instance. •This must be balanced with respect for the earthly remains of our own relatives and ancestors. •This principle has led to the reburial (and consequent destruction) of ancient human remains whose further study could have been of benefit to science. •The right to property is another important principle. But the legitimate rights of the individual property owner (including the collector) can come into conflict with the very evident rights of wider communities. •Similar difficulties arise when the purchasing power of the private collector of antiquities leads to the destruction of archaeological sites through illicit excavation (looting).

Society for American Archaeology, Principles of Archaeological Ethics

•In situ arch. material at sites, collections, records, and reports, all irreplaceable •Must all work for long-term conservation and protection of arch. record. •Stewards are caretakers of, advocates for arch. record for benefit of all, and should use specialized knowledge to promote public understanding and support for long-term preservation. Records and preservation: curation prioritized.

The Responsibility of Collectors and Museums

•It has become clear in recent years that private collectors and even public museums, for centuries regarded as guardians and conservators of the past, have become (in some cases) major causative agents of destruction. •The market in illegal antiquities—excavated illegally and clandestinely with no published record—has become a major incentive for the looting of archaeological sites. •The looting is funded, whether directly or indirectly, by unscrupulous private collectors and by unethical museums. •There are signs that things may be improving, however. The Dealing in Cultural Objects (Offences) Act was approved by the United Kingdom Parliament in 2003. For the first time it is now a criminal offence in the UK knowingly to deal in illicitly excavated antiquities, whether from the UK or overseas. ex. Elgin Marbles in the British museum when they belong to Greece

Kennewick Man

•Kennewick Man: Found in Washington State on the bank of the Columbia River •Radiocarbon dated to 9300 BP. •Remains claimed by local tribe, but also significant to understanding debates on the peopling of the Americas •Bones subsequently studied, and finally reburied in 2017

Looter (Latin America)

Huaqueros (want gold)

Phase 2

"Evaluation" is needed when a historic structure, feature, or archaeological sitterm-22e needs to be assessed to determine whether it is eligible for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places. Often this process is called a Determination of Eligibility (DOE).

Phase 1

"Identify" all structures or features that may be historic and could be placed onto the National Register of Historic Places.

Characteristics of a psuedoarchaeological explanation of an ancient civilization.

1 They celebrate a remarkable lost world, the people of which possessed many skills surpassing those of the present. 2 They account for most of the early accomplishments of prehistoric and early state societies with a single explanation: all were the work of the skilled inhabitants of that lost world. 3 That world vanished in a catastrophe of cosmic proportions. 4 Nothing of that original homeland is available for scientific examination, nor are any artifacts surviving.

Cahokia, Ch. 3 •How far out did extensive farming begin outside of Cahokia? •How might one have characterized the organization of Cahokia as a settlement and what does that tell us?

1) 30 miles outside the city 2) a rigidly organized. A cluster of houses in rows surrounding a modest open plaza, centered on a large temple on a 10 foot high platform. The platform is surounded by 8/9 mounds with telephone pole sized wooden obelisks on top. Including residential as well as larger buildings. they also have marked footpaths. On the hills surrounding one can find temples/ charnel houses, burial mounds, marker posts, and mortuary scaffolds as well as sleep huts and tool sheds. In Cahokia packed earth pyramids, houses and open plazas replace fields, rotundas and sweat lodges are apparent. Monks mound is in the center. This indicates the settlement is a well structured and highly developed.

Cahokia ch.10 •What is the relationship between Cahokia and Mesoamerica and what is the evidence? -Pyramid mounds? -Ceremonial evidence? -Daggers and other materials? The "long-nosed god?"

1) Cahokia and Mesoamerica have many things in common but nothing is certain -Corn agriculture -Pyramids -Ramey Daggers -myths (twins/gods) -attribution of celestial importance -goggle eyes, zigzag noses -Long-Nosed God ear ornament (maskettes) -timing -belief systems

Cahokia, Ch.1 •When was it settled/built? •How big was it—geographically and in terms of population? •What model was it built on? What cultural traditions does it appear to draw from? -What Evidence is there for this? •What does Pauketat mean by the "Big Bang?" and what astronomical event might it be related to? •We have discussed coercive (Marxist) versus adaptationist views on the development of complex societies. Where does Pauketat fall in this area?

1) Cahokia was settled around 1050 AD in the Mississippi river valley 2) 3200 acres approximately 10,000 people and 30,000 including the outlying towns 3) it is believed that Cahokia draws from Mesoamerican traditions. 4) human sacrifice, importance of astronomy and an understanding of the cosmos. obelisk like posts incorporated in worship, use of flint daggers, stories of superhuman beings wearing distinctive garments and ear ornaments, belief in ancestors, maize agriculture seen in rock art, excaveted art objects and gaming stones, and legends 5)It means political and social changed occurred quickly, it is a case study of in how people can combine to create great historical change. Probably due to the supernova 6) Pauketat is an adaptionist because he believes large societies can only be built on consensus

Cahokia, Ch.4 •Why is Chunkey so important to Pauketat's argument? What does it supposedly help him figure out? •How did the game work? What was its function? •What did it symbolize? •What does the location of Chunkey stones tell us about the "control" of the artifacts?

1) Chunkey is a game that played a major role in organizing political and social life in Cahokia. Its continued playing in future tribes is indicative of its influence over American tribes. 2) A rock would be rolled onto the chunkey field and the players would attempt to hit it by throwing a stick. It had something to do with politics maybe warfare, social aspects, and economics (gambling) 3)creation and rebirth, the cosmos, and the relationship between man and woman. 4)The stones being found around important buildings and courtyards as well as in mound 72 it seems to be of communal importance. Maybe control of government/ the community

Cahokia ch.11 •What is the significance of the Thebes Gap Rock art panel? •Why are there no tales of a "founding city" associated with Cahokia?

1) Discovery of one of the only few cartographic depictions from pre-columbian North America. Indicative of a sense of territoriality, political identity, or at least cultural heritage. It could also indicate social complexity born out of complex political history. 2) It is speculative of a overarching movement to forget, but in all reality they seem to be missing, there are vague origin stories but no oral histories, songs, or tales of its founding. Possibly people want to forget old Cahokia

Cahokia ch.2 •How does stratification develop in the Mississippi Valley and what is the evidence for it? (economic, subsistence, social?) •What is "Old Cahokia?" •what astronomical event might the Cahokian "Big Bang" be related to?

1) It seems that agriculture was a start to stratification as those with greater stores and larger homes held greater power. It also may have been social as some families were more influential than others especially those in the larger villages. Some may have gained influence through intergroup marriages. Determined through migration patterns, pottery carvings, and mounds 2) Old Cahokia was the largest village on the in the stretch of riverine heartland at the center of ancient America's corn belt. It had a population of approximately 1000 people and attracted people from smaller less successful villages. unknown governemnt, probably had a common language and central rituals/customs 3) The supernova

Cahokia ch.7 •In light of Mound 72, what does the rock art on the Red Horn panel tell us about Cahokian society and its reach? •What is the significance of twins in Cahokian mythology? •What does the widespread nature of twin stories tell us about the significance of Cahokia for Native American groups?

1) It shows that its reach is far spread and that it is a very ritualistic people that believes in tales of deities and gods. 2)Twins show the duality of the world ex. good vs. bad 3)They were very influential

Cahokia ch.12 •What evidence is there for social change at the end of Cahokia? -What is meant by the "Pax Cahokiana?" •What is stickball and what is its significance at the decline of Cahokia as a regional state?

1) There was a shift from groups working together in consensus to working under threat of military action. The Cahokians changed into a state that dealt with diplomacy and warfare. Without the cahokian peace keepers village based tensions and ethnic-level struggles reamerged resulting warring villages. 2)Pax Chokiana is the establishment of Chokian power. 3) stickball was a very violent game known as "the little brother of war." This was significant in showing how culture became more violent and that can be reflected in the shift from "peaceful" chunkey to "violent" stickball.

Cahokia ch.6 •What does ritual sacrifice seen in Mound 72 tell us about social complexity within Cahokia? •What does its alignment tell us about the city and its inhabitants? •What was the "beaded burial" and why is it significant? •Are there differences in the way that individuals were treated in the mound? What does that tell us? •Is there significance in the numbers of the interred?

1) This is indicative of social inequality and the importance of status and ritual. 2)Mound 72 was aligned with the summer and winter solstice, also its ridge top makes it seem that the ritual killing was public it is indicative of how the people felt a connection to the cosmos 3)the beaded burial was the burial of two men probably rulers of Cahokia surrounded by a multitude of grave goods and bodies, it shows how status is important and the importance of ritual killing to the society 4)yes, it shows social inequality and status and the importance of ritual killing to the people 5) Posssibly may attribute to the stars or mythology

Cahokia ch.9 •What is the significance of the Halliday site and other upland sites for understanding social organization and subsistence strategies within Cahokia? •What specific material evidence contributes to this understanding? •What does the story of their de-population tell us? •What is the relationship between the "Big Bang" and subsistence strategies in the Cahokian system? •What does bioarchaeology from mortuary remains tell us about subsistence, diet, and social inequality?

1) these sites were indicative of migrants that moved to the outskirts of Cahokia. Peasant farmers that ate meager amounts of protein and majority corn. 2) This was finally deduced by Varney Red Filmed pots associated with people in southeast Missouri (200 miles away) 3) The rise or fall of Mississippian societies depended on what the farmers did. as the farmers left Cahokia fell but Bootheel towns grew as they gained more farmers. 4) The big bang increased the population of Cahokia that soon began to rely on agriculture which was able to feed mass populations. 5) determined that many sacraficed were not from the city, either tribute or captured from the hinterland farmers. high social inequality seen through poor high carbohydrate diet, hyperostosis (iron deficiency) more cavaties, lower periostitis (inflamed soft tissue of the lower legs). Most likely due to maize being the staple crop

Cahokia, Ch. 5 •What is "Woodhenge?" What was it used for? What is its significance in terms of understanding Cahokia? •What is the significance of Mound 72 and the Junkyard Mound for evolving views on the meaning of Cahokia? •What does the bioarchaeology of these deposits tell us about kinship in Cahokian society?

1) woodhenge was a circle of upright wooden posts that was a calendar device tracking the movement of the sun. It is significant in knowing how advanced this society was with an understanding of geometry, astronomy, and calendrics as well as a large population and the inclination of a possible city. 2) The discoveries at the junkyard Mound and Mound 72 indicated that their were burial practices, ritual killing, as well as conflict. This was also indicative of inequality, power struggles, and social complexity. 3) by determing the sex of skeletons they determined status and rights were attributed to the woman and that it was a matrilineal society in which kinship was determined by the mother. They aslo determined all found in the junkyard mound were related through the mothers.

Cahokia ch.8 •What are ridgetop Mounds? What is their significance and how did they function? - were they used for and what is the evidence for this? •What material evidence links them together and why is this significant to understanding the importance of "twin stories?" •Why are they a challenge to identify? •How does the development of archaeological theory intersect with studies at Cahokia? •What does the constant re-furbishing and rebuilding in Cahokia tell us about social organization? •What is the Evidence for feasting and what is its significance? •What is Pauketat's interpretation for how society was organized at Cahokia and what were its integrative mechanisms? •What is the evidence for what Pauketat calls a "feminine narrative" at Cahokia?

1)oddly shaped tumuli with ridges running along the long axes with dark clay ridges to indicate they were used to bury the esteemed dead 2) meant for spectators, mass interments, highly regarded people in probably all of them,all artifacts similar to those in mound 72, and reference to hero twins in some manner. This helps indicate the dualism of these burials as well as the importance of those stories to burial practice as well as the reincarnation aspect. 3) destruction from farming practices such as plowing makes the mounds difficult to determine 4) development of archaeological theory allows archaeologists to piece together Cahokian history they may have not been considered prior 5) it shows that their was a surplus a builders indicating a large working class population 6) mass amounts of food and cooking tools found in sub-mound 51 7) There was a ruling state government that superseded kinship ties (probably secured power during the supernova event) 8) BBB-motor carvings and the sponemann-site, as well as statuettes of a goddess

Ethics can be seen to extend in two major directions:

1. How sites, artifacts, and human remains are treated by archaeologists and others 2. What needs to be done with information, and to whom are archaeologists responsible?

Ben-Yahuda's "Masada Myth" ch.1

About: how biased/ deceptive claims have resulted in important sociological interpretations for belief systems and its ramifications. ex. Masada Myth Personal Angle -David Rapoport: compared Thugs in India, Islamic assasins, and the Jewish "zealot Sicarii." Sicarii:Freedom fighters or bunch of assasins Determined Rapoport was correct after reading two versions of expert Josephus Flavius's book - blow to israel/ jewish identity Professional Angle: Interest Feelings of anger to those the myth held importance to their belief system Construction of the past is very influential on the present and future Myth: Used in two ways, one in which myth is considered a deviation from reality/ truth and myth is taken as a guiding light like a self fulfilling prophecy Josephus Flavius and the Masada Mythical Narrative: Great revolt to Doomed revolt zealots and Sicarii were separate groups and the Sicarii were in fact assassins that evaded battle for almost 3 years until a single battle and the mass suicide - their heroism was a fabrication The Masada Mythical Narrative: Yardin's interpretation: Amazing fortress that housed formidable warriors that held off roman forces for about 2 years... once the battle ended 960 people committed suicide because death was a better end than losing their freedom Fantasy is reiterated in many books and even in a government pamphlet The myth is constructed through simple generalizations, omissions of counterfactual material and addition of information that express the heroic theme of the narrative Recent Social Science Explanations: Political myth used to create cohesion and social integration Maybe formed through collective memory or zoinist mentality looking for symbols of heroism legitimization of uses of force. Methodology focus on one myth no survey Look at historically at how the social construction of the Masada mythical narrative took place and where looked at texts, interviewed, and listened to tour guides Q: what is known? how we know it? Results: Answered Framework: need a solid analytical frame work, general theoretical framework and the 2 questions: how and why do we interpret the creation of the masada myth? How was the myth created? General Theoretical Framing: Objective vs constructionist (subjective) views Constructionism - Strict constructionist: scientific claims are also socially constructed just as all others - Contextual constructionist: has objective dimensions in which claims are made. (Masada Myth) must be faithful to the natural process of events, use natural history The Role of Collective Memory: 1st approach rooted in social constructionism in which the past is socially costructed by the need of the present ( no objective history) 2nd approach asserts the present as a continuation of the past (objective history) Used as an identity builder and as a claim to legitimacy Allport and Postman: 3 occurrences during the transmission of information- Leveling (simplifying), Sharpening(Content became sharper as the info simplifies), assimilation (subtraction/ addition of info to make the info coherent/and conform to the theme) Myth construction was developed through both social and literary means

Accountability

Acknowledgement of public accountability Commitment to make every reasonable effort in good faith, consult actively with affected groups, build working relationships Public reporting and publication

Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA)

An act enacted in 1990 that return artifacts to tribes that have "cultural affiliation." in 2010 this extended to artifacts found on tribal lands even if not culturally affiliated

Looter (Greece)

Archaiokapiloi

Cultural Resource Management (CRM) or Applied Archaeology

Complex of laws, regulations, and professional practice designed to manage historic buildings and sites, cultural landscapes, and other cultural and historic places. Accounts for more than 90 percent of the field archaeology carried out in the USA today.

Human agencies of destruction

Construction, agriculture, tourism, conflict, and looting

Funding

Generally speaking, the proponent of the construction or land-use project pays for the work, whether that party is a federal, state, or local agency, or a private developer.

Phase 3

If avoidance is not possible or feasible, "data recovery," is required.

The UCL Aramaic Incantation Bowls.

In 2005 University College London established a committee of inquiry into the provenience of 654 Aramaic incantation bowls (dating to the sixth to seventh centuries ce, and believed to come from Iraq) that had been lent for purposes of study by a prominent Norwegian collector, Martin Schøyen. It did so following claims that the bowls had been illegally exported from their country of origin. UCL received the report of the committee in July 2006, but subsequently returned the bowls to Schøyen, with whom it had concluded a confidential out-of-court settlement preventing publication of the report, and agreeing to pay an undisclosed sum to Schøyen. This episode highlights the need for "due diligence" when antiquities are accepted, on loan as well as through gift or purchase, by public institutions. The full story of the UCL Aramaic incantation bowls remains to be told.

Portable Infrared Mineral Analyzer (PIMA)

Measures mineralogy of a specimen

The Medici Conspiracy

Outlined the surprising events that led the Italian government to bring criminal charges against the former curator of antiquities at the Getty, and to recover from the Metropolitan Museum of Art one of their most celebrated antiquities, the "Euphronios Krater," for which they had in 1972 paid a million dollars, but without obtaining secure evidence of its provenience.

Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act

Requires federal agencies to identify historic places of all kinds This identification and evaluation is organized into three phases.

Response to Human destruction

Survey, conservation, mitigation, preservation laws,

The Getty Affair.

The J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles found itself in the spotlight of publicity in 2005 when its Curator of Antiquities, Marion True (subsequently fired), went on trial in Italy on charges relating to the purchase by the Getty of antiquities allegedly illegally excavated in Italy. The trial ran out of time, without verdict, but the Getty Museum meanwhile by agreement returned many looted antiquities to Italy. The Getty Museum has also now adopted a strict acquisition policy fully in line with the 1970 UNESCO Convention against the illicit trade in artifacts.

American Antiquities Act

The act set out three provisions: that the damage, destruction, or excavation of historic or prehistoric ruins or monuments on federal land without permission would be prohibited; that the president would have the authority to establish national landmarks and associated reserves on federal land; and that permits could be granted for the excavation or collection of archaeological materials on federal land to qualified institutions that pursued such excavations for the purpose of increasing knowledge of the past and preserving the materials.

Contract Archaeology

The application of archaeology to assess and mitigate the potential impact of construction on archaeological sites.

Outcome

The fieldwork typically results in at least a report filed with the SHPO and data entered in government and other databases. Many CRM projects also result in published journal articles, monographs, and books.

Looter (Italy)

Tombaroli (Luigi Perticarari)

The Sevso Treasure.

Treasure. A splendid late Roman assemblage of silver vessels was acquired as an investment by the Marquess of Northampton, but was subsequently claimed in a New York court action by Hungary, Croatia, and Lebanon. Possession was awarded to the marquess, who then found the treasure unsalable and sued his former legal advisors in London for their poor advice at the time of purchase; an out-of-court settlement, reportedly in excess of £15 million, was agreed on confidential terms in 1999. Hungary is now seeking to obtain this material, and perhaps Lord Northampton will sell his treasure after all. It was exhibited at a private viewing at Bonham's, the London auctioneers, in 2006, and nothing has been heard of it since.

The "Weary Herakles."

Two parts of a Roman marble statue of the second century ce are now separate. The lower part was excavated at Perge in Turkey in 1980 and is in the Antalya Museum, while the joining upper part was purchased by the late Leon Levy and was for some years exhibited at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, to which Levy gave a half share. The museum and Levy's widow Shelby White initially resisted Turkish claims to the piece, but it has now been returned to Turkey.

UNESCO

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization : Enacts global measures for conservation and mitigation - fighting trafficking of illicit antiquities and protecting cultural heritage in times of war.

Mound 72 (Cahokia)

an Early Mississippian period burial mound at Cahokia ex. Beaded Burials child bearing age women

Compliance

project proponents fund legally required compliance work that includes inventory (survey), evaluation of a resource's importance, assessment of impacts to important resources, and mitigation (which may include avoidance, excavation, and conservation).

Public Archaeology

the acceptance that the public and therefore both national and regional governments have a responsibility to avoid unnecessary destruction of that heritage.

Pseudoarchaeology

the formulation of extravagant but ill-founded stories about the past often times for commercial purposes.

•Forces threatening archaeological site

•Natural: erosion chief among them •Cultural: land modification, development, looting •1970s and '80s, legal recognition of problem

Masada

•S. End of the Dead Sea •Fortress of Herod the Great built in 30s BCE •Excavated between 1963 and 1965 by Yigael Yadin

Who owns the past?

•Stonehenge has generated innumerable theories about its origins and meaning. Several groups, including Druids and New Agers, claim it as a monument central to their beliefs. This raises questions about the balance of meaning of archaeological sites between the public at large and modern groups for whom remains have important meaning •For some Native Americans in North America, archaeology has become a focal point for grievances •In other contexts archaeology has contributed to the legal recognition of tribes •As in Australia, there is no single, unified indigenous tradition. Native Americans have wide-ranging attitudes toward the dead and the soul. Nonetheless demands for reburial of ancestral remains are common

The "Weary Herakles", Excavated in Turkey

•The "Weary Herakles": the lower part, excavated in Turkey in 1980, and the upper part, which was exhibited in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, are now reunited in Turkey. •Returned to Turkey in 2011

The Temple of Bel, Palmyra, Syria

•The Temple of Bel at Palmyra, Syria, before and after being blown up by ISIS forces. This substantial building, completed in 32 CE, was almost entirely destroyed—only its entrance arch remains. Syrian forces retook Palmyra in March 2017, and while there are various plans to restore the site, clearly much has been lost forever.

Before and After: Colossaal Buddhas of Bamiyan

•The larger of the colossal Buddhas of Bamiyan carved from the cliff face in perhaps the third century CE (left), and now destroyed (right).