Art History Flash Cards

Seated scribe Saqqara, Egypt. Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. c. 2620-2500 B.C.E. Painted limestone.

FORM: painted limestone; naturalistic; detailed eyes; meant to be viewed from the front FUNCTION: unknown; representational - naturalistic and found in a tomb CONTENT: subject is middle-aged - fat and lack of muscle indicate high social status and limited/no physical labor; figure important enough to be depicted but not enough to be stylized as kings and gods were CONTEXT: eyes act as a motif in Egyptian art (eyes detailed in this piece)

School of Athens Raphael c. 1509-1511 C.E. Fresco.

FORM: fresco FUNCTION: decoration for papal library CONTENT: Plato and Aristotle in conversation, surrounded by other ancient thinkers and some contemporary artists; perspective emphasizes Plato and Aristotle; division down the center representing different ideals - Plato points up (forms and perfect ideals that cannot be seen - people on left think similarly), Aristotle points down (focus on the earthly - people on right think similarly) CONTEXT: Pope Julius II commissioned this for the Papal Library while also commissioning Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel

Sistine Chapel ceiling and altar wall frescoes Michelangelo Vatican City, Italy. Ceiling frescoes: c. 1508-1512 C.E.; altar frescoes: c. 1536-1541 C.E. Fresco.

FORM: fresco FUNCTION: depict scenes of the bible CONTENT: Biblical scenes, famous creation of Adam, tall ceilings; ceiling frescos read from left to right, the nine scenes of the ceiling tell of the Old Testament, the creation of the world, the creation of man and his subsequent fall, and then the Great Flood; geometric forms; narrow windows - medieval, light brought in CONTEXT: commissioned by Pope Julius II

Tutankhamun's tomb, innermost coffin New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty. c. 1323 B.C.E. Gold with inlay of enamel and semiprecious stones.

FORM: gold with inlay of enamel and semiprecious stones FUNCTION: preserve the body of and commemorate the life of pharaoh Tutankhamen CONTENT: body represents divine body of the pharaoh as a god; crook and flail - divine control and power CONTEXT: Tutankhamen was probably the son on Akhenaten; he restored polytheistic religion of Egypt; produced no heirs and died of some bunt trauma

Frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza Viceroyalty of New Spain. c. 1541-1542 C.E. Ink and color on paper.

FORM: ink and color on paper FUNCTION: commemorate some of the history of the Aztecs CONTENT: depicts Tenochtitlan, divided into four parts by canals; eagle in the center represents the myth go the founding of Tenochtitlan; depictions of a priest and military defeats also present CONTEXT: a codex was commissioned with recorded info about the Aztecs, but on its way to Spain it was accepted by the French

Pyxis of al-Mughira Umayyad. c. 968 C.E. Ivory.

FORM: ivory, carved FUNCTION: to hold perfumes or cosmetics CONTENT: lute player framed by two figures, one of whom carries the specter and flask of the Umayyads; adorned with royal iconography - animal figures could express political authority and legitimacy of Umayyad caliphs CONTEXT: given to eighteen-year-old al-Maghira (son of a caliph) perhaps as a coming of age present; ivory objects bestowed upon members of the royal family

7. Jade cong Liangzhu, China. c. 3,300 - 2,200 B.C.E. Carved jade.

FORM: jade; carved with sand; stacked on top of each other; geometric shapes FUNCTION: ceremonial - found in tombs of socially influential people; stacking may have indicated greatness of the deceased's social status CONTENT: square form believed to represent the earth, while the circular form indicates the heavens; circles are thought to be anthropomorphic - representing humans CONTEXT: around Neolithic Revolution (movement towards agriculture and stability)

Winged Victory of Samothrace Hellenistic Greek. c. 190 B.C.E. Marble.

FORM: marble, very stylized clothing as well as wings, with extreme amount of detail in the folds and wings FUNCTION: used to respect Nike and show victory in a sea battle CONTENT: wings and drapery contribute to a sense of liveliness and motion CONTEXT: the statue was usually placed on the front of the ship to provide hope for the people on it and instill fear on those who attacked it; overlooked the Aegean Sea within a temple

1. Animal Facing Left (Apollo II Stones) Namibia. c. 25,500 - 25,300 B.C.E. Charcoal on stone. CONTENT AREA I: Global Prehistory

FORM: ochre (earth pigments) on stone; mobility art; petrogram; charcoal FUNCTION: unkown, possibly spiritual - animal is a blend of creatures (therianthrope) CONTENT: blend of animals, spiritual (?) in pomposity pose; possible a crude depiction of a single, distinct animal; limited sense of movement CONTEXT: unknown but therianthrope depiction suggests a complex belief system

Portrait of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz Miguel Cabrera c. 1750 CE. Oil on canvas.

FORM: oil on canvas FUNCTION: Cabrera was not commissioned to paint this, he did so because he admired her CONTENT: she is sitting in a style in which intellectuals/philosophers were represented (in library, reading or writing); her gaze is assertive and direct - not typical of female subjects in art; red symbolizes her high elite status; rosary and broach/badge (that indicates her status as a nun) that are signs of her religious life juxtaposed with signs of her intellectual life CONTEXT: colonial empire of Mexico - new influences; Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz was considered on of the first feminists of the Americas - child prodigy, became a nun to pursue and develop her intellect (she wouldn't have been able to pass on her knowledge because she was a woman)

Henri IV Receives the Portrait of Marie de' Medici, from the Marie de' Medici Cycle. Peter Paul Rubens c. 1621-1625 C.E. Oil on canvas.

FORM: oil on canvas FUNCTION: glorify the life of Marie de'Medici CONTENT: Zeus and Hera watch from above as Henry is taken with love for Marie's portrait; cupids watch and judge; personification of France behind Henry seems to suggest that Henry is leaving behind war for love - France (personification) wills it so CONTEXT: Marie commissioned a series of paintings from Baroque painter Rubens - elevated her life; she served as queen regent after Henry was killed, then was exiled

Las Meninas Diego Velázquez c. 1656 C.E. Oil on canvas.

FORM: oil on canvas FUNCTION: portrait of Infanta Margarita CONTENT: maids, chaperone, bodyguard, female midget, and dog present; the infanta is the only one who is fully illuminated - connect to viewer's emotions CONTEXT: painters didn't usually have high status - Velázquez was trying to elevate art; Infanta Margarita was the daughter of King Philip IV of Spain; "Las Meninas" translates to maid of honor

Hunters in the Snow Pieter Bruegel the Elder c. 1565 C.E. Oil on wood.

FORM: oil on wood FUNCTION: decoration, commemorate winter season CONTENT: melancholy hunters in foreground returning from an unsuccessful hunt; as eye moves down the painting there's a sense of playfulness and a narrative - winter activities and children playing; balance between left (harness of winter months - hunters) and the right (play and joy) CONTEXT: Northern Renaissance painters were giving meaning to moments by the human activities inside them rather than trying to capture perfect moments like the Italian Renaissance painters

Fruit and Insects Rachel Ruysch c. 1711 C.E. Oil on wood.

FORM: oil on wood FUNCTION: unknown, decoration CONTENT: fruits and insects against a black background - creating a world of their own; beetles could represent flawed/decaying beauty of nature; wheat and grapes are a reminder of the Eucharist - image of faith in an otherwise science-based painting CONTEXT: Ruysch's father was a botanist and anatomist and scientist - he influenced her attention to detail when painting nature subjects

Entombment of Christ Jacopo da Pontormo c. 1525-1528 C.E. Oil on wood.

FORM: oil on wood; Mannerist FUNCTION: decorate a church CONTENT: mannerist style, focused on the figures and depicted in a highly spiritual manner; angels holding up Christ are standing on their toes - unrealistic for carrying a man; Mary looks as if she's about to faint - more symbolically emotional then emotional in herself CONTEXT: Catholic church attempting to respond to Reformation with Counterreformation, which emphasized spirituality

Madonna and Child with Two Angels Fra Filippo Lippi c. 1465 C.E. Tempera on wood.

FORM: tempera on wood FUNCTION: worship probably CONTENT: landscape in back with arial/atmospheric perspective - gives figures a space, you know where they are, in a specific time rather than in another world; figures coming out of pictorial frame - can't be contained by earthly restrictions, creates depth; more naturalistic; no balance of composition (more busy on the right); angels holding up Christ; different points of gaze - angel engages the viewer by looking out at us CONTEXT: 1465 CE; early Renaissance

Sarcophagus of the Spouses Etruscan. c. 520 B.C.E. Terra cotta.

FORM: terra cotta; human figures stylized and act as a lid FUNCTION: commemorate the dead or hold ashes of the deceased - found in a tomb CONTENT: two figures banqueting; stylized representations of a couple not from exact models; sense of intimacy between figures, relaxed CONTEXT: relative equality of women - she is in front and similar height; Etruscan

Tomb of the Triclinium Tarquinia, Italy. Etruscan. c. 480-470 B.C.E. Tufa and fresco.

FORM: tufa and fresco; painted on walls of grave chamber in Italy FUNCTION: commemorate the dead CONTENT: several dancer and diners; scene in convivial and social - may show Etruscan funerary games as well as an elaborate banquet; men's skin darker than women's - men working outside, women in the home CONTEXT: Etruscans did not view funerals as a somber occasion

Alhambra Granada, Spain. Nasrid Dynasty. 1354-1391 C.E. Whitewashed adobe stucco, wood, tile, paint, and gilding.

FORM: whitewashed adobe, stucco, wood, tile, paint, and gilding FUNCTION: residence for courtiers and royals of the Nasrid dynasty CONTENT: gardens/fountains/water play an integral role here - bring movement and tranquil sounds into a space that, while open, may feel oppressively silent and dead otherwise; halls decorated to accept dignitaries and painted with scenes of court life; light and geometry emphasized; appearance of traditional star associated with mosques CONTEXT: Nasrid dynasty was the last Muslim dynasty to rule Spain

Standard of Ur from the Royal Tombs at Ur (modern Tell el-Muqayyar, Iraq). Sumerian. c. 2600-2400 B.C.E. Wood inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone.

FORM: wood inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone; detail on both sides; small and chest-like FUNCTION: unknown; possibly as a standard or music box CONTENT: one side depicts a scene of war, the other a scene of peace; on both the pates (priest king) is depicted larger than life, breaking the pictorial frame; people of greater importance are larger and seated; the peace scene celebrates and responds to the war side CONTEXT: Sumerian; found by Leonard Wooley in a royal tomb

Temple of Minerva (Veii, near Rome, Italy) and sculpture of Apollo Master sculptor Vulca c. 510-500 B.C.E. Original temple of wood, mud brick, or tufa (volcanic rock); terra cotta sculpture.

FORM: wood, mud brick, or tufa (volcanic rock); terra cotta sculpture; Corinthian order, various geometric shapes such as triangles and rectangles, various columns FUNCTION: served as a place to worship - priesthood of Minerva would worship here CONTENT: various statues located on the roof; tall columns, elevated; triple cella to worship divine triad CONTEXT: Greek culture often built various temples and statues for their gods; Etruscans had worshipped in open air prior to Greek influence

Allegory of Law and Grace Lucas Cranach the Elder c. 1530 C.E. Woodcut and letterpress.

FORM: woodcut and letterpress FUNCTION: teach Lutheran belief of salvation through faith alone CONTENT: law alone without Gospel will not lead to salvation - on left prophets point to tablets of laws as skeletons and demons drive the man into hell; on the Gospel side John the Baptist points toward the crucified and resurrected Christ and a nude man stands in submission to God's mercy; in the back, Adam and Eve eat fruit from the tree of Knowledge and fall from grace; a lot of Biblical stories/references in one CONTEXT: Luther condoned moral art that taught the proper lessons of faith

Hagia Sophia Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus. Constantinople (Istanbul). 532-537 C.E. Brick and ceramic elements with stone and mosaic veneer.

FORM: brick and ceramic elements with stone and mosaic veneer FUNCTION: worship (first as a Christian church and then as a mosque); Roman emperors crowned here - reinforces the building's power CONTENT: deep carving; windows give appearance of the heavens; columns from Roman temples - spolia CONTEXT: physical structure changed when Constantinople was taken by the Ottoman Turks (mihrab added, Christian mosaics removes or frescoed on top of)

Forum of Trajan Apollodorus of Damascus Rome, Italy. Forum and markets: 106-112 C.E.; column completed 113 C.E. Brick and concrete (architecture); marble (column).

FORM: brick and concrete architecture; marble column FUNCTION: open Roman civic space (shopping, religious, and political purposes); commemorates Trajan's victories in Dacia CONTENT: sculptures to commemorate victory; libraries, several temples, and the column CONTEXT: Trajan was a leader of Rome

Doryphoros (Spear Bearer) Polykleitos Original 450-440 B.C.E. Roman copy (marble) of Greek original (bronze).

FORM: Roman copy - marble, original - bronze; figure in contrapposto FUNCTION: meant to serve as a canon, a set of the ideal human body's proportions to each other; glorifies body and beauty of man and his potential CONTENT: several lines and gentle S-curve, body parts arranged to suggest motion; thought to have a bronze spear; leaning back and stepping forward - Greek attention to mechanical motion (i.e. walking) CONTEXT: Greeks believed beauty depended on mathematical precision - attempted to understand perfect ratio of body parts to each other

Lamassu from the citadel of Sargon II, Dur Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad, Iraq). Neo-Assyrian. c. 720-705 B.C.E. Alabaster.

FORM: alabaster; monolithic; naturalistic representation of imaginary creatures FUNCTION: guardians and gatekeepers of the citadel CONTENT: therianthropes; four legs from the side suggest motion, two from the front show a situated-ness CONTEXT: civilizations of Mesopotamia constantly conquering each other

The Code of Hammurabi Babylon (modern Iran). Susian. c. 1792-1750 B.C.E. Basalt.

FORM: basalt; stele in high relief; top is an image of Hammurabi and the sun god (Shamash), bottom is the code FUNCTION: written record of laws and the Code of Hammurabi CONTENT: top is a relief scene showing Hammurabi receiving the right to rule and enforce the law from Shamash (this is indicated by the passing of rod and rope) CONTEXT: no equality; different punishments based on class

Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel, including Lamentation Padua, Italy. Unknown architect; Giotto di Bondone (artist). Chapel: c. 1303 C.E.; Fresco: c. 1305. Brick (architecture) and fresco.

FORM: brick (architecture) and fresco FUNCTION: Scrovegni family chapel - commissioned to do good in the hopes of getting into heaven CONTENT: interior frescos separated into three registers; light comes from the paint (lighter, brighter colors); heavy emphasis on salvation and honoring the Virgin Mary and Christ; architecture offers more intimacy - suggests a more personal relationship with God and religion CONTEXT: the head of the Scrovegni family commissioned this chapel to be built in the hopes that by doing this good he and his family would be allowed passage into heaven

Mosque of Selim II Sinan (architect) Edirne, Turkey. c. 1568-1575 C.E. Brick and stone.

FORM: brick and stone FUNCTION: house of worship CONTENT: modeled after Hagia Sophia; landlocked; focus on dome; dome supported by muqarna'd squinches supported by piers; quibla wall holding mihrab protrude out; interior decorated with saz leaves; Arabic epigrams focus on Allah's indivisibility and Muhammad's role as his messenger; also contains aresta (row of shops similar to the Greek stoa) CONTEXT: built by Selim II to impress upon visitors the grandeur and power of Ottoman Empire

Santa Sabina Rome, Italy. Late Antique Europe. c. 422-432 C.E. Brick and stone, wooden roof.

FORM: brick and stone; wooden roof; longitudinal axis plan;; windows made of gypsum; mosaics on apse FUNCTION: Christian worship CONTENT: capitals of the columns feature the wine chalice and eucharist plate; door features the earliest known depiction of the crucifixion and other scenes from the bible; shows how seriously they were taking the new Christian faith CONTEXT: Christian faith was new; Late Antique Europe

San Vitale Ravenna, Italy. Early Byzantine Europe. c. 526-547 C.E. Brick, marble, and stone veneer; mosaic.

FORM: brick, marble, and stone veneer; mosaic; octagonal plan; central plan (focus at center) FUNCTION: Christian worship CONTENT: mosaics of Justinian and Theodora stand out - Theodora bears a chalice and Justinian the plate of the eucharist; Justinian and Theodora are the same height, showing Theodora's high status and near-equality; Justinian's halo shows his divinity CONTEXT: Early Byzantine

Il Gesù, including Triumph of the Name of Jesus ceiling fresco Giacomo da Vignola, plan (architect); Giacomo della Porta, facade (architect); Giovanni Battista Gaulli, ceiling fresco (artist). Rome, Italy. Church: 16th century C.E.; facade: 1568-1584 C.E.; fresco and stucco figures: 1676-1679 C.E. Brick, marble, fresco, and stucco.

FORM: brick, marble, stucco, and fresco FUNCTION: house of worship CONTENT: fresco creeps out of ceiling and into the vaulting; illusion of shadow created with a wash of darker paint; new ambiguity that reflects the drama of the religious wars; one side is the blessed, other side is the damned who are falling out of the picture CONTEXT: religious wars of Europe demanded certitude in faith

David Donatello c. 1440-1460 C.E. Bronze.

FORM: bronze FUNCTION: commissioned by Medici family - represent their power and subsequent civic humanism as well as Florentine victory CONTENT: first freestanding nude since Classical antiquity - return to Greco-Roman respect/love for the body; sense of sensuality/eroticism; represented the Florentine Republic (David is victorious over Goliath as Florentine is victorious over the Duke of Milan) - David's rock vs Goliath's sword could parallel the culture of Florence vs the violence of Milan CONTEXT: Florence, Italy; Florentine victory over the Duke of Milan; Medici family very wealthy and very influential

Seated boxer Hellenistic Greek. c. 100 B.C.E. Bronze.

FORM: bronze, lost wax cast FUNCTION: art for art's sake; may represent a real boxer CONTENT: seated position and look of defeat on the upturned face create a sense of the pathetic and of humility; copper inlaid in wounds defined on the face, the broken nose, the distorted ear, to create a sense of bleeding and of loss CONTEXT: in Hellenistic period, Greeks were attempting to move beyond heroic figures they had depicted in earlier art and were exploring a wider range of subjects

3. Camelid sacrum in the shape of a canine Tequixquiac, central Mexico. c. 14,000 - 7,000 B.C.E. Bone.

FORM: carved from bone; smooth and shiny; petroglyph FUNCTION: possibly as a mask; symbol of fertility in ceremonial practices CONTENT: symmetry in the carving; mask could be associated with power and survival because of the dog's capacity for survival and role in hunting; appreciation for resources of the natural world CONTEXT: animals as the source of livelihood - no waste of animal products; the sacrum has fertility associations

10. Tlatilco female figurine Central Mexico, site of Tlatilco. c. 1,200 - 900 B.C.E. Ceramic.

FORM: ceramic, different colors FUNCTION: unknown; symbolic - symbol of women's duality or fertility; may also represent ideal facial features or a depiction of human deformity CONTENT: two headed woman with narrow waist and large hips/legs; three-eyed CONTEXT: Central Mexico

Niobides Krater Anonymous vase painter of Classical Greece known as the Niobid Painter c. 460-450 B.C.E. Clay, red-figure technique (white highlights).

FORM: clay, red figure technique, calyx krater (in shape of the calyx of a flower) FUNCTION: mixing water and wine to cool and dilute wine CONTENT: two myths depicted - on one side is the slaughter of Niobe's children by Apollo and Artemis, on the other side is an unknown myth depicting Athena and Heracles; figures mimic Greek wall painting with different ground levels and an attempt at creating depth CONTEXT: Classical Greek; done in severe style

Pantheon Imperial Roman. 118-125 C.E. Concrete with stone facing.

FORM: concrete with stone facing FUNCTION: worship the gods CONTENT: ceiling opens with an oculus - allows light which served as a reflection of the movement of the heavens; oculus provides space for man to rise to divinity CONTEXT: Emperor Hadrian built it as evidence of his service to the people of Rome; later converted into a Christian church

Great Pyramids (Menkaura, Khafre, Khufu) and Great Sphinx Giza, Egypt. Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. c. 2550-2490 B.C.E. Cut limestone.

FORM: cut limestone; square pyramids; topstone was smoother and more polished; aligned with compass FUNCTION: tombs; sacred resting places for the pharaohs, their wives, and their possessions for the afterlife CONTENT: first (largest) built by Khufu, followed by Khafre, and then Menkaura's which is incomplete; pyramids representational of power; wives buried in mastabas next to pyramids; connected to waterway which sphinx overlooks; height and upward motion - sense of being closer to heaven and the gods CONTEXT: people learning to react to and manipulate the natural world; massive amounts of slave labor involved in construction

Temple of Amun-Re and Hypostyle Hall. Karnak, near Luxor, Egypt. New Kingdom, 18th and 19th Dynasties. Temple: c. 1550 B.C.E.; hall: c. 1250 B.C.E. Cut sandstone and mud brick.

FORM: cut sandstone and mud brick FUNCTION: rest stop for the Amun-Re icon during parades and to worship the god Amun-Re CONTENT: increasingly dark and claustrophobic - represents primordial stages of life according to Egyptian belief system; numerous columns resembling plant based forms; name of pharaoh who commissioned the temple is abound CONTEXT: New Kingdom Egypt

House of the Vettii Pompeii, Italy. Imperial Roman. c. second century B.C.E.; rebuilt c. 62-79 C.E. Cut stone and fresco.

FORM: cut stone and fresco FUNCTION: housing for Vettii brothers who were winemakers CONTENT: open floor plan; frescoes depict aggressive sexual imagery, vulgar, interests of the Roman people; compluvium (opening in ceiling that allows for light and collection of rain) and impluvium CONTEXT: built by prosperous winemaking brothers who were also freed slaves

Screen with the Siege of Belgrade and hunting scene Circle of the Gonzalez Family. c. 1697-1701 CE. Oil and resin on wood, shell inlay.

FORM: design influence from Japan, Japanese landscape elements; biombo: folding screen; hunting side also has influences from a tapestry from France FUNCTION: made for New Spain in Mexico City - battle scene establishes the viceroy's authority & validates him and the Hapsburg dynasty CONTENT: shell inlay provided the highlights; battle scene painted w/ a thin paintbrush to resemble a drawing; hunting side: looser brushstrokes, more delicate, highly decorative, floral aspects - meant to be viewed by women CONTEXT: trade coming through from Japan and the Philippines - luxury items traded through the Philippines, Mexico was a center for trade, which allows exposure to many cultures

Bayeux Tapestry Romanesque Europe (English or Norman). c. 1066-1080 C.E. Embroidery on linen.

FORM: embroidery on linen; three delineations of space FUNCTION: tels the story of William the Conqueror's conquest of England (Battle of Hastings); commissioned to celebrate his conquest CONTENT: art to enhance political favor; William's conquest of England as a positive thing - restores peace and prosperity CONTEXT: created closely after the battle; commissioned by Bishop Odo (William's half brother); William led the Normans, King Harold led the Saxons

Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George Early Byzantine Europe. Sixth or early seventh century C.E. Encaustic on wood.

FORM: encaustic (wax painting) on wood FUNCTION: icon for worship CONTENT: breakdown of hierarchy in space of spiritual importance that moves vertically (George and Theodore on lowest level, Mary, Jesus, angels, and hand of God follow in that order); development of depth through drapery; no specific background - denotes idea of them being a part of another world CONTEXT: originally in a monastery

The Virgin of Guadalupe Miguel Gonzalez c. 1698 CE. Based on original Virgin of Guadalupe. Basilica of Guadalupe, Mexico City. 16th century CE. Oil on canvas on wood, inlaid with mother-of-pearl.

FORM: enconchado - mother of pearl shell inlaid into wood FUNCTION: used by the Spaniards to convert the native people to Christianity CONTENT: becomes a major symbol of Mexican identity; virgin has ashen skin - "Dark Virgin" from the old testament song of songs "I am black and beautiful" but especially significant in Mexico - becomes indigenous advocation of the virgin Mary; reflective surface of the shell suggests the heavenly and divine CONTEXT: Spanish colonies in Mexico; Virgin of Guadalupe appears to Juan Diego, tells him to go to the bishop and build a shrine to her honor at this hill; as proof this image of her appears on a cloth - it's a miracle!!!; Spanish missionaries at the time were intensely converting the native peoples to Christianity

Adam and Eve Albrecht Dürer c. 1504 C.E. Engraving.

FORM: engraving FUNCTION: teach story of Adam and Eve CONTENT: Classical reference - Apollo-esque bodies; setting of a dark forest distinctly German; animals lurk - representing the four medieval humors: choler, sanguine, melancholia, phlegm - reference to the belief that the Fall of Man threw these humors out of balance; figures in Classical contrapposto CONTEXT: Durer was an artist transitioning between Gothic and Renaissance

Self-Portrait with Saskia Rembrandt van Rijn c. 1636 C.E. Etching.

FORM: etching; acid bit Rembrandt's portrait more, causing deeper, darker ink impressions FUNCTION: could commemorate marriage CONTENT: we sense that we are intruding into a private, more personal space between Saskia and her husband; Rembrandt depicted while drawing - this piece depicts what is important to him - his wife and his work CONTEXT: Rembrandt was more experimental than most etching artists, and often worked in stages

Catacomb of Priscilla Rome, Italy. Late Antique Europe. c. 200-400 C.E. Excavated tufa and fresco.

FORM: excavated tufa and fresco; five miles of burials; elaborate narrow passageways FUNCTION: burial - originally just for Priscilla's family but was opened up for people of the Christian faith CONTENT: earliest Christian art, earliest representation of the Madonna and child; fish symbols referencing Jesus; chapel inside contains Greek and Latin with Roman first style wall painting CONTEXT: Christian faith was new

Palette of King Narmer Predynastic Egypt. c. 3000-2920 B.C.E. Greywacke.

FORM: greywacke FUNCTION: used for applying makeup; detail suggests ceremonial use CONTENT: depicts battle to unify Egypt; king shown with captured enemy, wears crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt on respective sides of the palette; relative scale of the king shows his importance CONTEXT: Predynastic Egypt

King Menkaura and queen Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. c. 2490-2472 B.C.E. Greywacke.

FORM: greywacke slate; stylized; figures on block with a shared supporting column FUNCTION: unknown; possibly for worship (makeup found on faces) CONTENT: both figures of similar heights - shows woman is of great power; left foot forward pose indicates power; woman holds him protectively and affectionately; both bodies idealistically proportioned; woman's stomach protrudes - she has given birth or is acting as a symbol of fertility CONTEXT: Old Kingdom Egypt

Statues of votive figures from the Square Temple at Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar, Iraq). Sumerian. c. 2700 B.C.E. Gypsum inlaid with shell and black limestone.

FORM: gypsum inlaid with shell and black limestone; stylized and symbolic not naturalistic representations FUNCTION: representative of whoever commissioned the piece before the gods when that person was not present CONTENT: large eyes emphasize attentiveness; position of worship; cuneiform inscriptions give information about the god the votive was dedicated to and who the purchaser was; figures shown offering libations CONTEXT: cities beginning to develop; statues purchased by people of high class, how much money went into the statues indicated how much value the gods were given by a person or family

Dedication Page with Blanche of Castile and King Louis IX of France, Scenes from the Apocalypse from Bibles moralisées Gothic Europe. c. 1225-1245 C.E. Illuminated manuscript (ink, tempera, and gold leaf on vellum).

FORM: illuminated manuscript FUNCTION: abbreviated passages from the Bible, illustrated lavishly, were meant to convey morals; made for the French royal families CONTENT: the queen, crowned with a fleur-de-lis to symbolize the French religious, political, dynastic right to rule, gestures to her young king-son, as if dedicating the morals to him; she wears lavish clothing, (an ermine cape, a widow's white wimple); the son bears a staff (also topped with a fleur-de-lis) and a small gold coin - a reference to his coronation most likely; positioning of the queen and her son-king is familiar as the positioning of Mary and Christ - symbolizing the divine right of rule; priest is in the bottom left, sleeveless as befits his education, seems to be dictating to the artist in the neighboring panel; artist is carefully at work, with pen and stylus in hand; these Bibles were as much teaching tools as works of art - meant to offer enlightening morals to young rulers as they matured into the positions of power that awaited them CONTEXT: Blanche of Castile had to rule over France after King Louis VIII died of dysentery in 1226; her son eventually took over when he came of age in 1234

Lindisfarne Gospels: St. Matthew, cross-carpet page; St. Luke portrait page; St. Luke incipit page Early medieval (Hiberno Saxon) Europe. c. 700 C.E. Illuminated manuscript (ink, pigments, and gold on vellum).

FORM: illuminated manuscript (ink, pigments, and gold on vellum - vellum is paper made from calf skin) FUNCTION: religious text with enhanced meaning CONTENT: animal symbolism, merging words with animals - words/letters as art; most pages very ornate (except the portrait of St. Luke); incorporation of the cross in the cross-carpet pages CONTEXT: early medieval (Hiberno Saxon) - insular art (isolated); produced by monks in the Lindisfarne priory

Golden Haggadah (The Plagues of Egypt, Scenes of Liberation, and Preparation for Passover) Late medieval Spain. c. 1320 C.E. Illuminated manuscript (pigments and gold leaf on vellum).

FORM: illuminated manuscript (pigments on vellum) FUNCTION: educate youth on Jewish past; used by a wealthy family (would have cost a lot); ceremonial purposes - accompany Passover CONTENT: sense of space; Hebrew prayers and readings; influenced by Gothic style; the Plagues of Egypt, Scenes of Liberation, and Preparation for Passover; figures are caricatured and have exaggerated facial expressions CONTEXT: Late Medieval Spain

Rebecca and Eliezer at the Well and Jacob Wrestling the Angel, from the Vienna Genesis Early Byzantine Europe. Early sixth century C.E. Illuminated manuscript (tempera, gold, and silver on purple vellum).

FORM: illuminated manuscript (tempera, gold, and silver on purple vellum) FUNCTION: worship by a wealthy family CONTENT: reclining nude shows Greco-Roman influence but Rebecca's draped and fully covered body is typical of early Christian art; unnatural purple background and silver ink of the text remove the scene from the natural world; each page must be read/viewed entirely to be understood (no captions or inscriptions); continuous narrative CONTEXT: Early Byzantine Europe

11.Terra cotta fragment Lapita. Solomon Islands, Reef Islands. c. 1,000 B.C.E. Terra cotta (incised).

FORM: incised terra cotta; part of a larger vessel FUNCTION: probably used to carry food or materials as the people moved from island to island CONTENT: patter, repetition, and geometric shapes common among Polynesian art CONTEXT: Polynesians were a traveling people

Chartres Cathedral Chartres, France. Gothic Europe. Original construction c.1145-1155 C.E.; reconstructed c. 1194-1220 C.E. Limestone, stained glass.

FORM: limestone, stained glass, pointed arches - distributes weight to make ceiling lighter, ribbed vaults - made ceiling higher, flying buttresses - allows for larger windows (ceiling less heavy) FUNCTION: worship, pilgrimage - contained relic (tunic of the Virgin Mary) CONTENT: jamb figures on columns around doorways - elongated, stylized, represent spiritual people; interior architecture guides up - closer to God; focus on light - light as a symbol of divinity CONTEXT: built on the site of an earlier church that burned down

Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and three daughters New Kingdom (Amarna), 18th Dynasty. c. 1353-1335 B.C.E. Limestone.

FORM: limestone, sunken relief; scene surrounded by writing; stylized figures with elongated limbs and sort of composite pose; mobility petroglyph FUNCTION: unknown; likely meant to show admiration for the royal family as part of an altar board CONTENT: symbols of Upper and Lower Egypt under Nefertiti's seat, represents unity of the kingdoms; sun god Aten at center giving life to the king and queen CONTEXT: Akhenaten shifted religion to monotheism worshipping Aten, moved the capital as well

Audience Hall (apadana) of Darius and Xerxes Persepolis, Iran. Persian. c. 520-465 B.C.E. Limestone.

FORM: limestone; stylized human figures, many different depictions of people bringing tribute, large stairways, many pillars FUNCTION: used for receptions by the kings, ceremonies, festivities, gatherings CONTENT: people bringing tribute/paying respects; representation of wealth/power CONTEXT: representation of many different people that were under Persian rule, likely in a higher class city based on complexity and scale

The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa Gian Lorenzo Bernini Cornaro Chapel, Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria. Rome, Italy. c. 1647-1652 CE. Marble (sculpture); stucco and gilt bronze (chapel).

FORM: marble - different colors, stucco, and gilt bronze; fresco on roof; hidden window to allow for light FUNCTION: spiritual significance CONTENT: depicts a spiritual awakening; gilding and hidden light give the piece an ethereal quality, hidden light also serves to force emphasis; feeling of motion, delicate light quality despite being marble; the piece was very controversial - images of Christianity presented in a crude manner; on either side are reliefs of people in theater boxes - theatrical aspect, an intimate image to be viewed by spectators (contributes to its controversial nature) CONTEXT: Bernini did not only make Christian art, he was also involved in theater and set design

Grave stele of Hegeso Attributed to Kallimachos c. 410 B.C.E. Marble and paint.

FORM: marble and paint FUNCTION: like a gravestone - mark the life of Hegeso, an ancient Roman woman CONTENT: Hegeso is larger and seated - suggests her power, no part of her body is touching the ground; she stares at a necklace (maybe her dowry but suggests her wealth), her servant is looking at her which suggests devotion to her master CONTEXT: women's lives focused entirely on domestic life, they essentially did not exist outside the context of their male relations

Head of a Roman patrician Republican Roman. c. 75-50 B.C.E. Marble.

FORM: marble bust, naturalistic - verism (realism) FUNCTION: remember an important figure of the Roman senate and of a family CONTENT: bust of a Roman man with wrinkled and realistic features - conveys a sense of identity; wrinkles show wisdom CONTEXT: evolved from Italian funerary masks

Great Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon Asia Minor (present-day Turkey). Hellenistic Greek. c. 175 B.C.E. Marble (architecture and sculpture).

FORM: marble temple in Pergamon with frieze FUNCTION: commemorates the Giantomachy and symbolically, the Greek triumph over chaos CONTENT: relief sculptures create a sense of drama - intrude into viewer's space; Giantomachy is the symbolic and mythological victory for the Greeks; glorifies violence CONTEXT: Alexander the Great spread Greek culture deep into Eurasia; one of the four commanders who took over after his death founded a stronghold in Pergamon, the people of which built this

Anavysos Kouros Archaic Greek. c. 530 B.C.E. Marble with remnants of paint.

FORM: marble with remnants of paint, naturalistic FUNCTION: decorative and commemorative - mark graves CONTENT: muscles show idealized male form; stiffness in characteristic form of Archaic era of Greek art; "Archaic smile" CONTEXT: Archaic Greek

Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus Late Imperial Roman. c. 250 C.E. Marble.

FORM: marble, extremely high relief FUNCTION: contain the remnants of a deceased Roman or represent that Roman CONTENT: scene displays tumult, multiple layers within the same plane, Roman look calm and confident but the barbarians look rougher and display more emotion, figures get smaller as they approach the bottom - possibly closer to death CONTEXT: Rome was chaotic and less stable - this reflects pull away from past traditions

Peplos Kore from the Acropolis. Archaic Greek. c. 530 B.C.E. Marble, painted details.

FORM: marble, painted details; female form FUNCTION: offering to goddess Athena; perhaps a representation of the goddess herself CONTENT: Archaic style - Archaic smile (symbolized well-being); holes in head and hand suggest a crown and something else were once a part of the figure CONTEXT: Archaic Greek

Acropolis Iktinos and Kallikrates. Athens, Greece. c. 447-410 B.C.E. Marble.

FORM: marble; created illusion of perfect proportion to correct for human's flawed perception and create a sense of the organic FUNCTION: treasury possibly; religious significance (big statue of Athena); commemorate victory of Athens over the Persians; a symbol of democracy CONTENT: primarily doric with ionic elements; frieze on all four sides depicting Panatheniac procession, metopes depict battle, pediments depict birth of Athena CONTEXT: in the period following the Persian destruction of the old temple, the Athenians embezzled money from the Delian League (which paid taxes to keep safe the Greek city-states) to build the Parthenon and the massive statue of Athena within

Augustus of Prima Porta Imperial Roman. Early first century C.E. Marble.

FORM: marble; idealistic, Polykleitos canon, contrapposto, orator pose, back is uncarved FUNCTION: political propaganda to show Augustus's power and divinity; commemorative monument CONTENT: Augustus is standing in orator pose barefoot (because holy ground), with cupid and dolphin riding next to him, wearing cuirass (suggests Roman victory over Parthians) CONTEXT: Emperors were believed to be divine, which is why Augustus portrayed himself god like

The Palace at Versailles Louis Le Vau and Jules Hardouin-Mansart (architects) Versailles, France. Begun 1669 CE. Masonry, stone, wood, iron, and gold leaf (architecture); marble and bronze (sculpture); gardens.

FORM: masonry, stone, wood, iron; highly ornate; gilding, mirrors, and windows FUNCTION: living place for the royal family, center of government, showcase power of the king CONTENT: interior covered in many enormous wall-sized paintings; the sheer size emphasizes wealth and power; light and gold in Hall of Mirrors creates an ethereal feeling; gardens showcase ability to manipulate/control nature; theme of rulers associated w/ gods - gold as connection to Louis's view of himself as a sun god CONTEXT: Louis XIV moved the government away from Paris and to Versailles

Pazzi Chapel Filippo Brunelleschi (architect) Basilica di Santa Croce. Florence, Italy. c. 1429-1461 C.E. Masonry.

FORM: masonry; inspired by Pantheon FUNCTION: meeting place for monks CONTENT: use of pietra siena (grayish green stone that articulates walls and space by composing the fluted pilasters and borders on the walls); space is nearly centrally planned; hemispherical nature of dome, oculus at center, windows line clerestory; pendentives decorated with roundels; space involves geometries and Classical influences - corinthian columns and ribbed dome - Early Renaissance style CONTEXT: commissioned by Pazzi - family that killed Lorenzo de Medici

Alexander Mosaic from the House of Faun, Pompeii. Republican Roman. c. 100 B.C.E. Mosaic.

FORM: mosaic FUNCTION: ornamental; a show of wealth and power in a Roman home to show off an exquisite piece of Greek art CONTENT: depicts turning point of a battle between Alexander and the Persians, led by Darius; spear creates sense of motion towards Greeks, but frenetic nature of Persians' retreat from battle creates drama and motion; includes a light source CONTEXT: Republican Roman, found in the house of Faun

White Temple and its ziggurat Uruk (modern Warka, Iraq). Sumerian. c. 3500-3000 B.C.E. Mud brick. CONTENT AREA II:

FORM: mud brick; bent axis plan; cella at top FUNCTION: place of worship CONTENT: slopes suggest directionality, movement upwards towards the gods; statue of god in cella CONTEXT: communal labor; statue in cella believed to contain the god itself

The Tête à Tête, from Marriage à la Mode William Hogarth c. 1743 C.E. Oil on canvas.

FORM: oil on canvas FUNCTION: satire of the aristocracy, commentary on modern marriage - that marriage was for money and not love is immoral and doomed to fail CONTENT: unfaithful couple - cheating on each other; images of saints in back is Hogarth commenting on the couple's immorality; gaudy trinkets contrast the aristocratic aesthetic; painting of Cupid on ruins - symbolizes that love in this home has become a disaster CONTEXT: beginning of Industrial Revolution - middle class ******, more poor, bought more art; art as a commodity

Calling of Saint Matthew Caravaggio c. 1597-1601 C.E. Oil on canvas.

FORM: oil on canvas FUNCTION; shows Gospel of Matthew, located in church CONTENT: in Baroque style; lines and movement from the play of light and shadow; tax collectors counting money - symbolizing greed; only Christ's face and hands visible - hand looks like Adam's from the Sistine Chapel - could symbolize that while Adam was the ruin of man, Christ was the redemption; more naturalistic and not idealized (dirty bar setting); even the greediest can find salvation through the teachings of Christ CONTEXT: Caravaggio led the Roman naturalism movement

Angel with Arquebus, Asiel Timor Dei Master of Calamarca (La Paz School) c. 17th century C.E. Oil on canvas.

FORM: oil on canvas will gilding; angel's face peaceful but gun is violent - creating balance FUNCTION: indigenous people saw guns as supernatural and Spaniards used this by equating the gun and the spiritual - used to show Spaniards' superiority; church used it to promote people to be soldiers of the church CONTENT: androgynous angel holding gun, wearing clothes of Inca royalty (excess of material) shows high status; inscription on left says "angel fears god;" gold and silver - soldier (only military members allowed to wear gold and silver) CONTEXT: angels with guns were popular images in the 17th and 19th centuries; militant Catholicism and Counter Reformation

A Philosopher Giving a Lecture at the Orrery Joseph Wright of Derby c. 1763-1765 CE. Oil on Canvas

FORM: oil on canvas, Baroque style - chiaroscuro (contrast between light and dark) FUNCTION: depict the new awareness and drive for knowledge brought forth by the Enlightenment CONTENT: figures are being enlightened by the light source (because the light source is a model of the solar system) - conceptual and physical enlightenment (figures also being physically illuminated by the light source; everyone has an action/role, everyone is reacting to what is happening in the center - each person given a personality CONTEXT: Age of Enlightenment - science and reason could yield understanding not just religion

Venus of Urbino Titian c. 1538 C.E. Oil on canvas.

FORM: oil on canvas, glazing (thin layers of paint) to create brilliant glow FUNCTION: gift from Duke of Urbino to his wife CONTENT: sensuality; woman's body is a depiction of the beauty of the beauty of the physical, extended torso and small feet, round and voluptuous curves; dog representation of marital fidelity; mother and child in back as presages of the future CONTEXT: trend of painting nude women as non-sinful by naming the subjects Venus - divine nudity more acceptable than mortal nudity

Woman Holding a Balance Johannes Vermeer c. 1664 C.E. Oil on canvas.

FORM: oil on canvas, small painting FUNCTION: decoration CONTENT: empty scales coming into balance; woman looking at jewelry, wearing luxurious but modest clothing; painting of Last Judgement behind her head; mirror and window in front of her - mirror representing vanity possibly; light passing through window only shown through its effects on the woman's face, the walls, and the jewelry CONTEXT: artists selling art to the burgeoning middle class

Spaniard and Indian Produce a Mestizo attributed to Juan Rodriguez Juarez c. 1715 CE. Oil on canvas.

FORM: oil on canvas; casta painting: supposed to capture reality but were often fictitious FUNCTION: represent a social hierarchy and inform about the result of mixing races; "pure blood" Europeans likely commissioned the casta paintings to remind of social anxiety CONTENT: dynamic between characters - gaze: she's looking at him but he is looking away from her (shows his higher status), children closer to the mother - shows her role as a mother (she will always be bound to him - children as a burden to her, she will always be stuck with them); supposed to be a loving depiction of a family - the Spaniard looks at the baby lovingly CONTEXT: social anxieties about interethnic mixing at the time, mixing of races was looked down upon - first real noticing and opinions being formed on this topic

Last Supper Leonardo da Vinci c. 1494-1498 C.E. Oil and tempera.

FORM: oil on canvas; linear perspective FUNCTION: placed above the dining table in a monastery CONTENT: vanishing point at Jesus; window frames Jesus's head and reads as halo; four groups of three divided by their reactions to the statement "one of you will betray me;" Judas depicted in shadow; Jesus reaches for bread and wine (institution of the sacrament); simplified architecture focuses us on the figures and gestures; all apostles on one side of the table - overlapped/crowded - creates a boundary that separates us from the scene CONTEXT: 1494-1498 CE

The Arnolfini Portrait Jan van Eyck c. 1434 C.E. Oil on wood.

FORM: oil on wood FUNCTION: commemorate marriage or pregnancy or memorialize Arnolfini's wife CONTENT: dog is a symbols of fidelity; wealth is shown in the objects, clothes, detail manner; one candle in chandelier - presence of God and divine light; patrons can be sen in the reflection of the mirror and van Eyek himself; inscription above mirror translates to "Johannes was here" - authorship CONTEXT: wealthy merchants in Holland were patrons of the arts, commissioning paintings

Isenheim altarpiece Matthias Grünewald c. 1512-1516 C.E. Oil on wood.

FORM: oil on wood FUNCTION: decorate monastery hospital CONTENT: Christ depicted in hellish nightmare crucifixion scene - skin marked with pox and Mary faints next to him, color is greenish and eerie; when altarpiece is opened scenes of the Virgin and child, the Annunciation, and the Resurrection appear; in fully open position demons torment Saint Anthony CONTEXT: placed in monastery hospital, meant to be miracle - performing as a point of identification for the patients who often suffered from ergotism (St. Anthony's fire)

Annunciation Triptych (Merode Altarpiece) Workshop of Robert Campin. 1427-1432 C.E. Oil on wood.

FORM: oil on wood FUNCTION: decorated home of a citizen, indicated in part by the size CONTENT: depicts annunciation of Mary's pregnancy by Gabriel; multiple viewpoints; leftmost panel - patron and wife; middle - Mary sits reading as Gabriel speaks to her, light beam from window with depiction of Christ; scene takes place in a contemporary city/setting; right panel - Joseph working CONTEXT: mid-1400s attire, home design, and city are featured in this piece

Last judgment of Hu-Nefer, from his tomb (page from the Book of the Dead) New Kingdom, 19th Dynasty. c. 1275 B.C.E. Painted papyrus scroll.

FORM: painted papyrus scroll FUNCTION: affirmation that Hu-Nefer was noteworthy of the afterlife and depict process of entering the afterlife CONTENT: Hu-Nefer led through death, arguing his case for having lived and ethical life, heart being weighed against the feather of truth, and finally greeted by Osiris, Horus, Isis, and Nepthys CONTEXT: New Kingdom Egypt

5. Beaker with ibex motifs Susa, Iran. c. 4,200 - 3,500 B.C.E. Painted terra cotta.

FORM: painted terra cotta; stylized images; frieze(-ish) FUNCTION: practical use - could hold things; may have been ceremonial since it was buried with the dead CONTENT: stylization creates emphasis; sense of motion; depicts animals of everyday life CONTEXT: Neolithic period - more stable lifestyles

Röttgen Pietà Late medieval Europe. c. 1300-1325 C.E. Painted wood.

FORM: painted wood FUNCTION: focal point of prayer CONTENT: shows a single moment (not narrative); emphasizes Mary's humanity rather than her divinity (she shows emotion) - allows for people to feel a connection to her suffering; heads larger - area where we show the most emotion CONTEXT: possibly spoke to troubles in Germany - reminded people of a higher cause

4. Running horned woman Tassili n'Ajjer, Algeria. c. 6,000 - 4,000 B.C.E. Pigment on rock.

FORM: pigment on rock, petrogram, parietal art in composite pose FUNCTION: decorative or spiritual; appears to depict a deity - spiritual use; may also just be depicting or commemorating a story CONTENT: dots hint at the use of tools; woman perhaps wearing ceremonial robes; horns act as a masculine symbol of power, may indicate need for women to be portrayed as men to be powerful; figures all appear to be in motion CONTEXT: unknown culture

2. Great Hall of the Bulls Lascaux, France. Paleolithic Europe. c. 15,000 - 13,000 B.C.E. Rock painting.

FORM: pigment on stone; in a large cave (petrogram) FUNCTION: decorative (seems to be commemorating/relaying some sort of story; immobile) CONTENT: subjects mostly animal forms; feeling of motion; animals in composite pose and more realistic than other paintings of the time CONTEXT: art of convenience (painted where available with what was available); possibly a collaborative effort over time - stability of residence possibly

Birth of Venus Sandro Botticelli c. 1484-1486 C.E. Tempera on canvas.

FORM: tempera on canvas FUNCTION: represent ideal of beauty and the duality of beauty through the physical and the presence of the divine CONTENT: figures "floating" and in the same plane - inspiration from Greek vases; floral elements; Venus with elongated torso and neck - representation of beauty at the time; no figures touching the bottom of the pictorial plane - all gods = higher importance; shadows and light create depth; implication of Eden in background - combining Greek and Christian influences CONTENT: Renaissance Italy

8. Stonehenge Wiltshire, UK. Neolithic Europe. c. 2,500 - 1,600 B.C.E. Sandstone.

FORM: sandstone and bluestone; stones arranged in a lunar semicircle with bluestones and a heal stone FUNCTION: used as a burial site or a temple or a healing site; for pilgrimage CONTENT: stones arranged in a lunar shape CONTEXT: Neolithic Europe

9. The Ambum Stone Ambum Valley, Enga Province, Papua New Guinea. c. 1,500 B.C.E. Greywacke.

FORM: sandstone greywacke; mobility art; younger animal form or therianthrope FUNCTION: sorcery and ceremonies; may have been a fertility idol CONTENT: animalistic form, stylized; stomach and hand placement support interpretation as a fertility icon CONTEXT: society was agricultural

6. Anthropomorphic stele Arabian Peninsula. Fourth millenium B.C.E. Sandstone.

FORM: sandstone, carved away FUNCTION: funerary; most likely honors a deceased person CONTENT: faceless; lines seem to suggest noble garb which suggests the interpretation as a memorial piece CONTEXT: art of availability (sandstone available in area and durable - used as a medium)

Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut Near Luxor, Egypt. New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty. c. 1473-1458 B.C.E. Sandstone, partially carved into a rock cliff, and red granite.

FORM: sandstone, partially carved into rock cliff; red granite FUNCTION: honor Hatshepsut's father and god Amun-Re CONTENT: Hatshepsut depicted with male characteristics to show power as pharaoh; temple in axial design and is symmetric; ascends and grows out of the cliff - sense of power and natural legitimacy for Hatshepsut's rule CONTEXT: Hatshepsut assumed full power (rather than just being the regent for her son until he came of age) when her husband died

Merovingian looped fibulae Early medieval Europe. Mid-sixth century C.E. Silver gilt worked in filigree, with inlays of garnets and other stones.

FORM: silver gilt worked in filigree, with inlays of garnets and other stones; fibula (brooch/clasp) FUNCTION: pin clothes CONTENT: features eagle heads and a fish - shows importance of natural symbols; became more ornamental and showed status CONTEXT: early medieval Europe

Church of Sainte-Foy Conques, France. Romanesque Europe. Church: c. 1050- 1130 C.E.; Reliquary of Saint Foy: ninth century C.E., with later additions. Stone (architecture); stone and paint (tympanum); gold, silver, gemstones, and enamel over wood (reliquary).

FORM: stone (architecture); stone and paint (tympanum); gold, silver, gemstones, and enamel over wood (reliquary) FUNCTION: worship; reliquary to house the saint's remains; tympanum to serve as warning - reminder of the joys of heaven and torments of hell; pilgrimage site CONTENT: tympanum - center is Christ as judge, movement towards Christ, left side is Paradise (order and serenity), right side is hell (chaotic and disorderly), arranged in order to frighten even the illiterate CONTEXT: original site was expanded later

Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater) Rome, Italy. Imperial Roman. 70-80 C.E. Stone and concrete.

FORM: stone and concrete FUNCTION: to host special events - gladiator fights, execution of Christians, etc CONTENT: round shape with many levels for spectators to sit; architectural features for decorative purposes rather than structural support CONTEXT: gladiator fights as entertainment in the time period

San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane Francesco Borromini (architect) Rome, Italy. c. 1638-1646 C.E. Stone and stucco.

FORM: stone and stucco FUNCTION: house of worship CONTENT: wave-like concave and convex shapes line the exterior; interior dominated by both triangles and curves; ceiling and skylight and lantern above are dominated by geometric shapes that resolve; in pendentives cherubims (bodiless angelic creatures) frame other pieces of architectural work with their wings CONTEXT: built by Borromini for the Spanish Trinitarians for free - allowed him more creative freedom than a paid client

Great Mosque Córdoba, Spain. Umayyad. c. 785-786 C.E. Stone masonry.

FORM: stone masonry FUNCTION: worship CONTENT: double arches used to add height; arcade in the interior; stripes on arches; Corinthian columns; repeated geometry; example of Muslim world's ability to develop architectural styles based on pre-existing regional traditions; spolia; mihrab is a horseshoe-shaped arch covered in tesserae that create dazzling bands of calligraphy CONTEXT: was expanded multiple times to accommodate for the expanding population; Cordoba was the new capital city for the exiled/overthrown Umayyad prince Adb al-Rahman

Athenian agora Archaic through Hellenistic Greek. 600 B.C.E.-150 C.E. Plan.

FORM: stone, large central site in Athens FUNCTION: served as a marketplace and center of the democratic government in Athens CONTENT: government buildings and ballot boxes that depict democratic decision-making; stoa was a place for extensive political discussion and civic debate CONTEXT: Athenians had a short-lived democracy that centered around the agora

Palazzo Rucellai Leon Battista Alberti (architect) Florence, Italy. c. 1450 C.E. Stone, masonry.

FORM: stone, masonry FUNCTION: commissioned for Rucellais (wealthy merchant family); first floor - business, second floor - entertaining guests, third floor - living space, fourth floor - servants' quarters (unseen from street) CONTENT: three tiers - decreasing in height from top to bottom; influences form ancient Rome - gives an air of culture to the work; pilasters (flattened engaged columns); benches outside; adjacent loggia (covered colonnaded space where festivities were held) - built for an extravagant wedding; themes of wealth and power CONTEXT: seen as a civic good and shows pride in the city