BACE Review
how many grams are in 4.5 moles of Li2O?
1 mole Li2O = 29.90 g Li2O (4.500 mol Li2O)(29.90 g Li2O/1 mol Li2O) = 134.6 g Li2O
DNA isolation (bacterial plasmid)
1. NAOH and sarkosyl (lipids, proteins, cell wall, plasma membrane, genomic DNA) 2. neutral lysis (proteins) 3. alcohol wash/precipitation
PCR reagents
-reaction buffer -forward (beginning) primers -reverse (end) primers -Taq polymerase -nucleotides (dNTPs) -MgCl2
prokaryotic gene regulation (POST)
1. Promoter region begins when RNA polymerase binds to it 2. Operator can turn off gene regulation if a signal molecule binds to it 3. Structural genes follow 4. Terminator ends transcription
eukaryotic gene regulation
1. RNA binds to a promoter 2. Transcription factors bind to enhancer/silencer regions to amplify or mute DNA 3. structural genes follow 4. terminator ends transcription
transcription
1. RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region 2. RNA polymerase reads genes and builds nucleic acid chains (mRNA) 3. excision of introns (interrupting) from exons (expressed)
Produce rInsulin
1. cut out the gene carrying insulin 2. open plasmid vector with the same r.e. 3. paste into plasmid 4. place vector in e. coli cells 5. e. coli produces insulin
Steps of Transformation
1. grow host cells in broth culture 2. make them competent with CaCl2 or MgCl2 and ice 3. add rDNA plasmids 4. heat shock/cold shock 5. nutrient broth for cell recovery 6. plate cells on selection media
Strategies for Value Clarification
1. identify issue 2. list all solutions 3. list pros and cons 4. rank solutions 5. decide if to take a stance
Genetic Engineering
1. isolate gene of interest 2. transfer it to a host cell and confirm transformation 3. small scale production 4. isolate the product and analyze it for activity
The difference in hydrogen ion concentration between a solution of pH 4.00 and a solution of pH 6.00 is:
100-fold (100 times as much)
Milli-
10^-3 Ex. 1 molar (M) = 1000 mM
Milli-
10^-3 Ex. 1 molar (M) = 1000 mM
Micro-
10^-6 Ex. 1 gram (g) = 1,000,000 micrograms (ug)
Micro-
10^-6 Ex. 1 gram (g) = 1,000,000 micrograms (ug)
Kilo-
10^3 Ex. 1 kiloliter (kL) = 1000 liters (L)
How many amino acids are there?
20
Endoplasmic Reticulum
A network of membranous tubules within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell, continuous with the nuclear membrane. It usually has ribosomes attached and is involved in protein and lipid synthesis.
Restriction Enzymes
A restriction enzyme or restriction endonuclease is an enzyme that cuts DNA at or near specific recognition nucleotide sequences known as restriction sites.
Aseptic Technique
A sanitation practice performed with a goal of minimizing contamination by pathogens.
Experiment
A scientific procedure undertaken to make a discovery, test a hypothesis, or demonstrate a known fact.
Primers
A short strand of RNA or DNA (generally about 18-22 bases) that serves as a starting point for DNA synthesis.
Amino Acids
A simple organic compound containing both a carboxyl (—COOH) and an amino (—NH2) group; the building block, or monomer, of proteins.
Solute
A substance that is dissolved in a solution.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
A technique used in molecular biology to amplify a single copy or a few copies of a segment of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence.
Meiosis
A type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number (haploid) of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores.
Mitosis
A type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number (diploid) and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth.
Enzyme
A type of protein produced by a living organism that acts as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction; only work in specific temperature and pH ranges.
In glycolysis, the activation of glucose is accomplished by ______.
ATP
In glycolysis, the activation of glucose is accomplished by..
ATP
As protons flow through the ______ , energy is released and exploited to combine ADP and inorganic phosphate to form ATP.
ATP Synthase
An aqueous solution and yields a hydrogen ion when ionized (Definition)
Acid
What is an aqueous solution that yields hydrogen ion when ionized?
Acid.
Two structures that are used for MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Actin and myosin
Rules over cell functions which include cell division, morphing of the shape of the cells, cell mobility and other contractile properties/Helps in muscle contraction
Actin/Myosin
- Molecule in cell that allows quick and easy access to energy when needed by a cell's organelles. -Type of chemical energy -Releases energy when bonds are broken
Activation energy
What are the tests that show if a specific enzyme or drug is present and conducting the expected reaction called?
Activity assay.
Cellular energy with oxygen
Aerobic respiration
Alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome.
Alleles
DIFFERENT VERSIONS OF A GENE
Alleles
Molecular Weight Standard
Also referred to as a protein ladder, DNA ladder, or RNA ladder, is a set of standards that are used to identify the approximate size of a molecule run on a gel during electrophoresis.
Restriction Enzyme (Restriction Endonuclease)
An enzyme produced chiefly by certain bacteria, having the property of cleaving/cutting/digesting DNA molecules at or near a specific sequence of bases.
RNA Polymerase
An enzyme that binds to DNA during transcription and separates or unwinds the DNA strands.
RNA Polymerase
An enzyme that binds to DNA during transcription to create an mRNA strand.
Primase
An enzyme that synthesizes short RNA sequences called primers.
Cellulose
An insoluble substance that is the main constituent of plant cell walls and of vegetable fibers; example of a carbohydrate.
Beaker
An open cylindrical container with a pouring lip; used for mixing larger amounts of substances.
Bacteria cell DNA is divided into operons. Describe an operon using the terms promoter, operator, and structural gene.
An operon consists of a group of structural genes that code for enzymes involved in a metabolic pathway. They are under control of a promoter (a short segment of DNA to which the RNA polymerase binds to initiate transcription) and regulated by an operator.
Lysosome
An organelle in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells containing degradative enzymes enclosed in a membrane.
- Making energy without oxygen. Also known as fermentation. -Pyruvate to Lactate -Makes 2 ATP -UTILIZES GLUCOSE
Anaerobic cellular respiration
Analyze and report data
Answer questions based on data collected during a valid experiment
Scientific question
Ask a testable question
Where does translation occur in prokaryotes?
At the ribosomes.
What is plasmid?
Autonomously replicating small circles of DNA present in some bacteria.
Which of the following is not a document used in the manufacture of a biopharmaceutical product?
Batch Recipe
A document used in Biomanufacturing with step-by-step instructions of the production process, and spaces to record information during the production process
Batch Record
Homozygous Recessive
Carries two copies of the same allele which is only expressed phenotypically because a dominant allele is not present.
Cell and tissue culture
Cell culture (sometimes referred to as "Tissue Culture") is a vital part of life science research. Although the culture conditions for most cell lines are well established, it can take some optimization to get even the hardiest of cells to grow in your lab. Depending on your experimental needs you may have to play around with a number of different factors including: the appropriate media conditions (everything from the pH of the media to the serum type (and amount) you're adding to the additional supplements that may (or may not be) needed), how long to wait before splitting the cells, how the cells are disassociated, etc.;
What are phospholipids found in?
Cell membranes and endoplasmic reticulums
Ribosome
Cell organelle in which protein synthesis takes place; located in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Converts energy into ATP; take place in mitochondria
Cellular respiration
Most ATP produced in aerobic respiration occurs in the process of ____.
Chemiosmosis
What affects rate of chemical reaction?
Concentration of reactants, heat, the presence of a catalyst
Electrophoresis Power Supply
Connects to an electrophoresis tank setting up an electric field between the two electrodes.
Media Bottle
Container used to store agar, broth, chemicals, etc.
Diploid
Containing two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent (2n).
Process in aerobic cellular respiration in which... - 2 pyruvate gets converted to 2 acetyl-coA -NADH and Co2 is produced -Happens in mitochondria
Conversion
A restriction enzyme digestion reaction contains which of the following ingredients?
DNA, Water, Buffer, Restriction Enzyme
DNA Indicators
DPA (diphenylamine)-blue EtBr (ethidium bromide)-orange under UV methylene blue-blue SYBR-green under UV light
What is the purpose for SDS during electrophoresis?
Denature the proteins and give them a negative charge.
Spectrophotometer (A280)
Determining the amount of a protein present
Enzyme activity
Determining the protein's activity
Match the following steps in polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) with the correct purpose of that step: Adding a molecular weight (MW) standard to an empty well
Determining the relative sizes of the samples run during PAGE
SDS PAGE
Determining the size and purity of a specific protein
Stability
Determining the time period protein remains active
Stir Plate
Device used with a magnetic stir bar to provide stirring action in a liquid.
Lysosomes
Digestive compartments that: -Break down nutrients for the cell to use (hydrolizes macromolecules) Clean up the cell: -Damaged organelles -Break down bacteria engulfed by WBC
Are humans diploid or haploid?
Diploid
Name the SI units for distance, mass, and temperature.
Distance = Meter (M) Mass = Kilogram (Kg) Temperature = Kelivn (K)
Safety Data Sheet (SDS)
Document that provides comprehensive information about a substance or mixture for use in workplace chemical management.
A highly specific test to determine protein concentration based on a particular antigen-antibody interaction
ELISA
Female gamete 1N
Egg
Process in cellular respiration in which... - ATP and water are made - 34 in total (or 38 depending on method) - Happens in mitochondria
Electron Transport Chain
Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE)
Electrophoresis used to separate individuals proteins in a mixture of proteins.
Theory
In science, a well-sustained explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate facts, laws, inferences, and tested hypotheses
Microcentrifuge Tube
Includes a snap cap, and holds small volumes of liquid.
Temperature's Affect on Reaction Rate
Increasing heat energy causes the particles of the reactants to move faster, collide more frequently, and therefore react more frequently with one another speeding up the reaction.
Transfection
Insertion of recombinant DNA into animal cells.
Which stage of aerobic respiration produces ATP and NADH and releases CO2?
Krebs cycle
Blot types
Northern-RNA Southern-DNA Western-proteins
Conduct experiment
Perform experimental plan and repeat trials
Chloroplasts
Photosynthetic disks; converts energy of sunlight to chemical energy stored in sugar molecules
A document listing the detailed steps of key processes to help ensure consistent and high-quality output
Process Document
Photosynthesis
Process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and water; in plants generally involves the green pigment chlorophyll and generates oxygen as a byproduct.
The deliberate linkage of DNA from different sources into one molecule
Recombinant DNA
What is the combination of DNA from different sources in one molecule?
Recombinant DNA.
Trials
Repetitions of the same experimental procedure.
Semi-Conservative Replication
Replication of a nucleic acid in which one complete strand of each double helix is directly derived from the parent molecule.
Which department in a biopharmaceutical company is responsible for identifying future products?
Research and Development
Clinical Trials
Research study that prospectively assigns human participants or groups of humans to one or more health-related interventions to evaluate the effects on health outcomes.
An enzyme that causes the cutting of DNA at restriction sites producing small fragments used for gene splicing in recombinant DNA technology and for chromosome mapping.
Restriction Enzyme
Horizontal gel electrophoresis box goes with what assay
Running DNA gels
What assay do you run when looking for the identity and purity of a specific protein?
SDS Page
a document listing this detailed steps of key processes to help ensure consistent and high-quality output
SOP
A document listing the detailed steps of key processes to help ensure consistent and high quality output
SOP (Standard Operating Procedure)
Scientific notation
Scientific notation is the way that scientists easily handle very large numbers or very small numbers. For example, instead of writing 0.0000000056, we write 5.6 x 10-9.
The replication of DNA, in which each original strand of DNA serves as a template for a new strand, is called
Semi-Conservative
Quantitative measurement of absorbance based on visible light, near-ultraviolet, and near-infrared light sources passing through a solution
Spectophotometry
Measuring protein or DNA concentration goes with what assay
Spectrophotometer
What looks for presence of total protein?
Spectrophotometer
What is the quantitative study of electromagnetic spectra deals with visible light, near- ultraviolet, and near-infrared light sources?
Spectrophotometry
Male gamete (1N)
Sperm
A type of graph used as a quantitative research technique.
Standard Curve
Experimental plan
Step-by-step instructions of how to test a scientific question
Serial Dilution
Stepwise dilution of a substance in solution.
What are polysaccharide useful for?
Store the energy we gain from consuming food
Lipids provide which of the following functions for cells?
Stored energy
Central vacuole
Stores water; breakdown of waste products; hydrolysis of macromolecules
Genomics
Study of whole genomes, including genes and their functions.
True or False: DNA polymerases are the enzymes that create DNA molecules by assembling nucleotides.
TRUE
Genetic Engineering
The alteration of an organism's genetic, or hereditary, material and Used to produce recombinant proteins for therapeutic use
Absorbance
The capacity of a substance to absorb electromagnetic waves (as light).
Low Power Objective
The objective on the microscope used for initial focusing before switching to a higher power; usually 10X.
Scanning Objective
The objective on the microscope used to locate the specimen on the slide; usually 4X.
Secondary (2⁰) structure
Three-dimensional polypeptide with alpha-helices and beta-sheets due to hydrogen bonding
What is the process of making RNA from DNA?
Transcription.
The process by which RNA is decoded and polypeptides are formed
Translation
Genes encode for proteins. During translation, MRna encodes a blueprint to make the proteins. In transcription, DNA makes complimentary RNA.
Translation and Transcription
pH Meter
Used to measure acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
Serological Pipette
Used to measure and deliver large volumes of liquids.
Analytical Balance
Used to measure mass.
Shaking Incubator
Used to mix cultures at a constant temperature.
Scoopula/Spatula
Used to transfer small amounts of solid chemicals.
The single cell formed by egg and sperm (2N)
Zygote
type of test that demonstrates whether or not a specific enzyme or drug is having the desired effect for which it was designed
activity assays
Rapidly multiplying cells that develop during the second stage of prenatal development. (2N)
Embryo
Quality Assurance (QA) responsibility
Ensure that all products meet standards of quality in manufacturing process.
Enzymes and Reactions
Enzymes allow many chemical reactions to occur within the homeostasis constraints of a living system. Enzymes function as organic catalysts. A catalyst is a chemical involved in, but not changed by, a chemical reaction. Many enzymes function by lowering the activation energy of reactions.
Organism containing a nucleus and other organelles enclosed within membranes
Eukaryote
What kind of cell is this? - Has one or more chromosomes - Contains membrane-bound organelles (i.e. nucleus, lysome) - Could use sugar in an oxygen-deprived environment to produce energy - Has plasma membrane - Phospholipid outer membrane
Eukaryote
Organism containing a nucleus and other organelles enclosed within membranes
Eukaryotes
What kind of cell DNA is this? -Contained in a nucleus -Linear, very long pieces of DNA with many thousands of genes
Eukaryotic DNA
Carbohydrates
Example: Cellulose. Functions: Energy storage, receptors, structure of plant cell wall.
Proteins
Example: Enzymes. Functions: structure, receptors, transport.
Lipids
Example: Hormones. Functions: Membrane structure, energy storage, insulation.
Nucleic acids
Example: RNA. Functions: Information storage and transfer.
Experimental Design
Experimental design is the process of planning a study to meet specified objectives. Planning an experiment properly is very important in order to ensure that the right type of data and a sufficient sample size and power are available to answer the research questions of interest as clearly and efficiently as possible.
(T/F) Cells produced by mitosis are haploid
False
(T/F) DNA is replicated on the leading and the lagging strands in exactly the same way
False
(T/F) DNA replication occurs 3' to 5'.
False
What are modifications of DNA in an organism called?
Genetic engineering.
Haploid
Having a single set of unpaired chromosomes (n).
Why does increasing the temperature of the reactants increase the rate of a chemical reaction?
Heat energy causes the particles of the reactants to move faster, and therefore react with each other more frequently
Volumetric Flask
Holds chemicals during mixing and storage; used for accurate measurement of a specific volume.
Complimentary base pairing holding two DNA strands together is due to:
Hydrogen bonding
What is secondary protein structure held together by?
Hydrogen bonds
Are lipids hydrophilic or hydrophobic?
Hydrophobic
color range chart (plain)
IR- 700+ R-650 O-600 Y-570 G-550 B-450 I-400 V-350 UV- 100-350
How do vaccines work?
Imitating an infection to produce T cells and antibodies to produce memory t cells so the body knows how to fight back when actually threatened by this.
DNA Ligase
In DNA replication DNA ligase is an enzyme that forms a bond between the newest Okazaki DNA fragments that were formed/copied after the DNA pol 1 replaced the RNA primers with DNA
examples of Prokaryotic cells
bacteria (like e. coli)
a document used in biomanufacturing with step by step instructions of the production process, and spaces to record information during the production process
batch record
the use of living systems or organisms to develop or make useful products
biotechnology
what needs to occur to manufacture a biopharmaceutical drug?
clinical trials, manufacturing, research and development, FDA review
what is the purpose of SDS when used in SDS page electrophoresis?
denature the proteins and give them a negative charge
Restriction enzyme
enzyme that cut DNA and a certain identifiable site
in a biotechnology lab, tap water is best to use for:
first rinse when washing glassware
the use of an electric field to separate DNA in agarose
gel electrophoresis
haploid
having a single set of unpaired chromosomes.
what makes a good primer sequence for amplifying a specific sequence of DNA?
if the primer sequence is anti-parallel and has no long repeats
viscous buffer used to track DNA or protein during electrophoresis
loading dye
Which organelles are in animal cells but not plant cells?
lysosomes, centrosomes with centrioles, flagella (in some plant sperm)
The order of amino acids on a polypeptide chain is encoded by:
mRNA
What is the order of amino acids on a polypeptide chain encoded by?
mRNA
Plasmid Prep Types
mini <30 micrograms midi 30-500 micrograms maxi >500 micrograms
most ATP in eukaryotic cells is produced in the:
mitochondria
defined as "the moles of solute per liter of solution"
molarity
Nucleolus
nonmembranous structure involved in production of ribosomes; a nucleus has one or more nucleoli
Lipid Indicators
paper towel-transparency Sudan IV-red/orange
Types of Chromatography
paper-solubility and size measured as molecules move based on a solvent over paper thin layer-solubility and size measured as glass and SiO2 separate the mixture column-size, shape, charge, polarity, solubility measured as protein solution slips past beads
Centrosome
region of the EUK cell where the cell's microbes are initiated; contains a pair of centrioles
the site of translation
ribosomes; complex particles that facilitate the orderly linking of amino acids into polypeptide chains
lipids provide which of the following functions for cells?
stored energy
Immunology
the branch of medicine and biology concerned with immunity.
Electrophoresis
the movement of charged particles in a fluid or gel under the influence of an electric field.
Define monosaccharides
the simple form of carbohydrates/ simple sugars. It is a monomer from which more complex carbohydrates can be produced. Glucose is the most common
Cells
the smallest structural and functional unit of an organism, typically microscopic and consisting of cytoplasm and a nucleus enclosed in a membrane. Microscopic organisms typically consist of a single cell, which is either eukaryotic or prokaryotic.
the process of making RNA from DNA
transcription
tRNA
transfer amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosome that is conducting translation. they have 3 letters on their butts called anticodons and they bond to 3 letter on the mRNA called codons to stick and add animo acids to the polypeptide chain
the process by which RNA is decoded and polypeptides are formed
translation
diploid
two copies of each chromosome (humans)
What is semi-conservative replication
type of replication in which, When DNA replicates, each original strand of DNA serves as a template for a new strand
What kind of cell DNA is this? - Composed of four nucleotides monomers with four nitrogenous bases. - Double helix structure of repeating nucleotides
All DNA
Biotechnology
The exploitation of biological processes for industrial and other purposes, especially the genetic manipulation of microorganisms for the production of antibiotics, hormones, etc.
Eyepiece (Ocular Objective)
The eyepiece lens of the microscope that magnifies 10X.
Cytoskeleton
reinforces cell's shape, functions in cell movement, components are made up of protein, includes: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules
after performing the PCR reaction with the primers she designed to amplify lanA, the same technician found her PCR reaction contained two distinct bands, one at the expected size of 1200 kilobase pairs, and another unexpected band at 2000 Kilobase pairs. what is the most likely reason there's an unexpected bands and her PCR reaction?
she used an annealing temperature that was too low
Prokaryotic cells
unicellular organisms that lack organelles or other internal membrane-bound structures. Therefore, they do not have a nucleus, but, instead, generally have a single chromosome: a piece of circular, double-stranded DNA located in an area of the cell called the nucleoid.
What is an assay used for?
used to confirm the presence and performance of a specific protein during the production and final testing of a biopharmaceutical product. examples: ELISA, SDS page, Stability, spectrometer, Enzyme activity
aerobic respiration
used when oxygen is available. used to break down food for energy. Aerobic respiration takes place in the mitochondria and requires oxygen and glucose, and produces carbon dioxide, water, and energy (released). The chemical equation is C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O (glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water).
how are the proteins in fractions collected during column chromatography visualized?
using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS PAGE)
DNA Isolation
DNA isolation is a process of purification of DNA from sample using a combination of physical and chemical methods. The first isolation of DNA was done in 1869 by Friedrich Miescher. Currently it is a routine procedure in molecular biology or forensic analyses.
DNA does not contain base pair
Uracil
The use of living systems or organisms to develop or make useful products
Biotechnology
What does cGMP stand for?
Current good manufacturing practices
Which of the following is a monosaccharide commonly used as an energy source for cells in cell culture media?
Glucose
Western Blots Protocol
1. samples run on a PAGE gel 2. samples transferred to PVDF or nitrocellulose membrane (blotting) 3. ELISA performed to distinguish results
sequence of steps in a PCR cycle
1. the mixture is heated to a high temperature to denature the double stranded DNA 2. the primers hybridize to target the DNA
Probing DNA
1. use restriction enzymes and gel elctrophoresis 2. flush gel with probes 3. view gel under UV light to see results
Kilo-
10^3 Ex. 1 kiloliter (kL) = 1000 liters (L)
How many molecules are in 25 grams of NH3?
1moleNH3 =17.0gNH3 23 1 mole of anything = 6.02 x 10 of anything (25.0 g NH3)( 1 mol NH3/ 17.0 g NH3)( 6.02 x 1023 molecules NH3/1 mol NH3) = 8.85 x 1023 molecules NH3
The net result of the breakdown of glucose in glycolysis and fermentation is the production of _____.
2 ATP.
DNA purity of OD260/OD280 equations
2.0+ rna contamination 1.8 pure DNA 1.5- protein contamination
Microscope
Device that produces magnified images of structures that are too small to see with the unaided eye.
Part of one strand of a DNA molecule has the following code: 5' ATG CCC GTG TTA AAA TGT GGG ATC CCC GGT GTG CCC TTA 3' What is the sequence of the antisense strand (3' to 5')?
3' TAC GGG CAC AAT TTT ACA CCC TAG GGG CCA CAC GGG AAT 5'
part of one strand of a DNA molecule has the following code: 5' ATG CCC GGT GTG CCC TTA 3' what is the sequence of the anti sense strand (3'-5')?
3' TAG GGG CCA CAC GGG AAT 5'
Flagellum
"the tail of the EUK cell" its only on some animal cells, composed of a cluster of microbes within an extension of the plasma membrane
Mass Percentage (w/v) Formula
% = [(mass of solute in grams)/(volume of solution in mL)] x 100
Volume Percentage (v/v) Formula
% = [(volume of solute in mL)/(volume of solution in mL)] x 100
how much glucose is needed to prepare 100 ml of 2% glucose (w/v)?
(0.02)(100 mL) = 2 g glucose
how much CuSO4 is needed to prepare 1 L of 5% CUSO4 (w/v)?
(0.05)(1000 mL) = 5g CuSO4
how much NaCl is needed to prepare 400 mL of 5% NaCl (w/v)?
(0.05)(400 mL) = 20 g of NaCl
how much NaOH is needed to prepare Hotel mL of 10% NaOH (w/v)?
(0.1)(10) = 1.0 g NaOH
how much SDS needed to prepare 350 mL of 10% SDS (w/v)?
(0.1)(350 mL) = 35 g of SDS
In aerobic respiration, the energy in 1 mole of glucose is capable of producing how many ATP molecules?
38 x (6.02 x 1023) molecules of ATP
How many polypeptide chains are found in an antibody?
4
How many polypeptide chains are found in an antibody, and how are they held together in a protein?
4; held together by Peptide bonds
Part of a structural gene has the code 5' TAC CCC ATG GGG TAA GGC GTC 3' What is its mRNA transcript?
5' AUG GGG UAC CCC AUU CCG CAG 3'
part of a structural DNA has the code: 5' TAC CCC ATG GGG TAA GGC GTC 3' what is the m RNA transcript?
5' UAC CCC AUG GG UAA GGC GUC 3'
Peptide Bonds
A covalent chemical bond linking two consecutive amino acid monomers along a peptide or protein chain.
how much tetracycline is needed to prepare a 100 mL of 100 mg /ml tetracycline (w/v)?
(100mL)(100mg/ML) = 10000mg (10g)
how much BSA is needed to prepare 50 mL of 5 mg/ml of BSA (w/v)?
(50 mL)(5 mg,mL) = 250 mg
Nucleus
A dense organelle present in most eukaryotic cells, typically a single rounded structure bounded by a double membrane, containing the genetic material.
Cell wall
(made of cellulose)-outer layer Protection and helps maintain rigid shape
Law
A descriptive generalization about how some aspects of the natural world behaves under stated circumstances
DNA similarities through species
- all bases are A, T, C, G - forms a double stranded helix with H and phosphodiester bonds - #A=#T, #C=#G - strands are antiparallel and run 5' to 3' - evenly stacked (.34nm apart) - undergoes semiconservative replication
DNA differences through species
- number of DNA strands - length of strands in base pairs - number of coding and noncoding regions - shape of DNA
Rough ER
-(ribosomes attached)- assemble proteins; makes membrane -Lipid components of the cell membrane are assembled here
Primer design
-20 to 30 bases long -approximately half CG half AT give or take 15% -avoid long sequences of repeated letters
ribosomes
-Produced in the nucleolus -Small particles of RNA and protein found throughout the cytoplasm -Produce proteins by following coded instructions that come from the nucleus
Endoplasmic Reticulum
-Synthesizes proteins for export from the cell; membrane synthesis -Internal membrane system with extensive network of flattened sacs and tubes
Smooth ER
-regulates and releases calcium ions; processes toxins; synthesises lipids including steroids and phospholipids -Makes lipids (biological molecules that are not soluble in water - "fats") -Stores calcium ions (Used to contract muscle cells) -Destroys toxic substances in liver cells (alcohol, drugs)
Convert 4500 C to Kelvin.
723.150 Kelvin (add 273.15)
how many moles are in 25 grams of water?
1 mole H2O = 18.0 g H2O (25g H2O) (1 mol H2O/18.0 g H2O) = 1.39 moles
How many moles are in 25 grams of water?
1 mole H2O = 18.0 g H2O (25 g H2O) (1 mol H2O/18.0 g H2O) = 1.39 moles
How many grams are in 4.5 moles of Li2O?
1 mole Li2O = 29.90 g Li2O (4.500 mol Li2O)(29.90 g Li2O/ 1 mol Li2O) = 134.6 g Li2O
How many moles are in 3.4 x 1023 molecules of H2SO4?
1 mole of anything = 6.02 x 1023 of anything (3.4 x 1023 molecules H2SO4)(1 mol H2SO4/ 6.02 x 1023 molecules H2SO4) = 0.56 mol H2SO4
How many molecules are in 23 moles of oxygen?
1 mole oxygen molecules = 6.02 x 1023 oxygen molecules (23.0 mol O2)( 6.02 x 1023 O2 molecules/ 1 mol O2) = 1.38 x 1025 O2 molecules
number (1-5) the following parts of the scientific method in the order you would normally perform them:
1) State a testable scientific question or problem based on the information or observation. 2) develop a testable hypothesis 3) plan a valid experiment 4) conduct the outline experiment and collect organize the data into tables, charts, graphs or graphics 5) formulate a conclusion based on experimental data and error analysis
a technician is assigned the task of inserting a gene, LanA, into a plasmid to ultimately be expressed as a therapeutic protein in E coli. label the following steps (1-4) in the correct order the technician must perform them to accomplish her task.
1) design primers to amplify the lanA sequence using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and perform the PCR reaction 2) digest and provide lanA PCR product and the plasmid with appropriate restriction enzymes 3) use ligase to "paste" LanA into a plasmid 4) transform E. coli with plasmid containing LanA
Plasmid Prep Steps
1. Centrifuge 2. cell lysis buffer (SDS, NAOH, potassium acetate) 3. Centrifuge and discard pellet 4. Isopropanol added 5. Centrifuge 6. Alcohol wash 7. RNase (optional) 8. TE buffer to resuspend plasmids 9. Check sample purity
Product Pipeline
1. R&D 2. proof of concept 3. developmental questions 4. clinical development 5. manufacturing 6. clinical trials (3x) 7. FDA approval
ELISA (indirect) protocol
1. Samples collected and lysed. 2. Samples added to the plates (precoated) 3. Wash with buffer to clean out nonbound particles. 4. Wash with blocking solution to reduce nonspecific binding. 5. Wash with buffer. 6. Add enzyme tagged antibodies. 7. Wash with buffer. 8. Add visually tagged substrate to enzyme. 9. Color change indicates protein is present. 10. Acid may be added to prevent further reaction and maintain visible results.
PCR process
1. add reactants to test tube 2. machine heats to 95C for 30-60 sec to denature DNA strands 3. cools to 35C-65C, annealing temp varies 4. heats to 72C for Taq polymerase 5. repeats 2-5
Cell theory
1. all living things are composed of cells 2. the cell is the smallest/most basic unit of life 3. new cells are produced from old cells
Scale Up
1. lag phase-cells adapting to environment 2. exponential growth phase 3. prime transfer point (after exponential growth but before stationary phase) 4. stationary phase-running out of space, O2, or nutrients inhibits growth
DNA isolation (bacterial chromosomal)
1. lysozyme (cell wall) 2. SDS/sarkosyl (lipids and proteins) 3. protease and salts (proteins) 4. RNase (RNA) 5. centrifuge
translation
1. mRNA strand attaches to small ribosomal subunit 2. start with AUG codon 3. tRNA picks up amino acids and brings them to the ribosome, matching the mRNA with its anti-codon 4. peptidyl transferase creates a peptide bond between amino acids 5. translation stops at the UAG, UAA, or UGA codon
Protein structure
1. order of amino acids 2. folding into alpha helices and beta sheets based on H bonds 3. folding based on charges (R groups) and H bonds 4. multiple polypeptides bonding
Scientific Method (simple)
1. question 2. hypothesis 3. plan/research 4. experiment 5. conclusions
Southern Blotting
A Southern blot is a method used in molecular biology for detection of a specific DNA sequence in DNA samples. Southern blotting combines transfer of electrophoresis-separated DNA fragments to a filter membrane and subsequent fragment detection by probe hybridization.
Manufacture of Biopharmaceutical
A biopharmaceutical, also known as a biologic(al) medical product, biological, or biologic, is any pharmaceutical drug product manufactured in, extracted from, or semisynthesized from biological sources.
Why are enzyme solutions always prepared using a buffered solvent at a specific pH?
A buffered solvent is resistant to fluctuations in pH, because it is made with a combination of a weak acid and its conjugate base. Enzymes lose function outside of a narrow pH range.
Polysaccharide
A carbohydrate (e.g., starch, cellulose, or glycogen) whose molecules consist of a number of sugar molecules bonded together.
Vacuole
A cavity within the cytoplasm of a cell, surrounded by a single membrane and containing fluid, food, or metabolic waste.
Acid
A chemical substance that neutralizes alkalis, dissolves some metals, and turns litmus red; typically, a corrosive or sour-tasting liquid of this kind.
Ion Exchange Column Chromatography
A chromatography process that separates ions and polar molecules based on their affinity to the ion exchanger; it works on almost any kind of charged molecule—including large proteins, small nucleotides, and amino acids; the two types of ion chromatography are anion-exchange (negative) and cation-exchange (positive).
Nucleotides
A compound consisting of a nucleoside (sugar and nitrogenous base) linked to a phosphate group; basic structural unit (monomer) of nucleic acids; the order of these differ between organisms of the same species.
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
A compound consisting of an adenosine molecule bonded to three phosphate groups; the breakage of one phosphate linkage (to form adenosine diphosphate, ADP ) provides energy for physiological processes.
Erlenmeyer Flask
A conical, flat-bottomed laboratory flask with a narrow neck.
Bonds
A force of attraction that holds atoms or ions together in a molecule or crystal. Bonds are usually created by a transfer or sharing of one or more electrons. There are single, double, and triple bonds. See also coordinate bond, covalent bond, ionic bond, metallic bond, polar bond
Agar
A gel-like polysaccharide compound used for culturing microbes; extracted from certain red algae.
Placebo
A harmless pill, medicine, or procedure prescribed more for the psychological benefit to the patient than for any physiological effect.
DNA Polymerase
A heat stable enzyme that synthesizes DNA from free deoxyribonucleic acids in DNA replication and PCR reactions.
Solution
A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances; mixture that forms when one substance dissolves another.
Conclusion
A judgment or decision reached by reasoning, based on experimental data/evidence.
Hot Plate
A lab tool used to heat substances.
Micropipette
A laboratory instrument used to measure, dispense, and transfer very small amounts of liquid.
Polypeptide
A linear organic polymer consisting of a large number of amino-acid residues bonded together in a chain, forming part of (or the whole of) a protein molecule.
Solvent
A liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances.
Proteins
A macromolecule composed of one or more long chains of amino acids and are an essential part of all living organisms, especially as structural components of body tissues such as muscle, hair, collagen, etc., and as enzymes and antibodies.
Chemistry molecules and macromolecules
A macromolecule is a very large molecule, such as protein, commonly created by polymerization of smaller subunits (monomers). ... The most common macromolecules in biochemistry are biopolymers (nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates and polyphenols) and large non-polymeric molecules (such as lipids and macrocycles).
Carbohydrates
A macromolecule occurring in foods and living tissues; contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as water (2:1); typically can be broken down to release energy in the animal body. Other functions: receptors, structure of plant cell wall.
Carbohydrates
A macromolecule occurring in foods and living tissues; contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as water (2:1); typically can be broken down to release energy in the animal body. Other functions: receptors, structure of plant cell wall.
Nucleic Acids
A macromolecule present in living cells, especially DNA or RNA, whose molecules consist of many nucleotides linked in a long chain.
Concentration
A measurement of how much solute exists within a certain volume of solvent.
Biopharmaceutical
A medicinal product manufactured in, extracted from, or semi-synthesized from biological sources.
Plasma Membrane
A microscopic membrane of lipids and proteins that forms the external boundary of the cytoplasm of a cell and that regulates the passage of molecules in and out of the cytoplasm (semi-permeable).
Prokaryote
A microscopic single-celled organism that has neither a distinct nucleus with a membrane nor other specialized (membrane-bound) organelles. Prokaryotes include the bacteria (ex. E. coli).
Prokaryote
A microscopic single-celled organism that has neither a distinct nucleus with a membrane nor other specialized organelles. Prokaryotes include the bacteria (ex. E. coli).
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
A nucleic acid present in all living cells; principal role is to act as a messenger carrying instructions from DNA for controlling the synthesis of proteins; some viruses RNA rather than DNA carries the genetic information.
Base Pairs
A pair of complementary bases in a double-stranded nucleic acid molecule, consisting of a purine in one strand linked by hydrogen bonds to a pyrimidine in the other; cytosine always pairs with guanine, and adenine with thymine (in DNA) or uracil (in RNA).
Double Helix
A pair of parallel helices intertwined about a common axis, especially that in the structure of the DNA molecule.
Carrier
A person or other organism that has inherited a recessive allele for a genetic trait or mutation but does not display that trait or show symptoms of the disease.
ELISA (Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay)
A plate-based assay technique designed for detecting and quantifying specific substances such as peptides, proteins, antibodies and hormones.
Agarose
A polysaccharide, generally extracted from certain red seaweed, used to make gels for DNA electrophoresis.
Southern Blotting
A procedure for identifying specific sequences of DNA, in which fragments separated on a gel are transferred directly to a second medium on which detection by hybridization may be carried out.
Translation
A step in protein synthesis wherein the genetic code carried by mRNA is decoded to produce the specific sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain; takes place in cytoplasm (ribosomes) of prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Hormones
A regulatory protein or steroid produced in an organism and transported in tissue fluids such as blood to stimulate specific cells or tissues into action.
Non-Coding Regions of DNA
A section of a nucleic acid molecule not directing the production of a peptide sequence; the number of these differ from species to species.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
A self-replicating material present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes; carrier of genetic information.
Standard Operating Procedure (SOP)
A set of step-by-step instructions compiled by an organization to help workers carry out complex routine operations; aim to achieve efficiency, quality output and uniformity of performance.
Glucose
A simple sugar that is an important energy source in living organisms and is a component of many carbohydrates; formula C6H12O6.
Loading Dye
A solution added to an electrophoresis sample to give it color and density; 1 microliter is added for every 5 milliliters of sample.
Buffer
A solvent that is resistant to fluctuations in pH, because it is made with a combination of weak acid and its conjugate bases.
Hypothesis
A statement that attempts to answer the scientific question being posed
Hypothesis
A statement that attempts to answer the scientific question being posed.
Staining
After the electrophoresis is complete, the molecules in the gel can be stained to make them visible.
Base
A substance capable of reacting with an acid to form a salt and water, or (more broadly) of accepting or neutralizing hydrogen ions.
Current Good Manufacturing Practices (cGMPs)
A system for ensuring that products are consistently produced and controlled according to quality standards.
Quality Control
A system of maintaining standards in manufactured products by testing a sample of the output against the specification.
What is polymerase chain reaction?
A technique used in molecular biology to amplify a single copy or a few copies of a piece of DNA across several orders of magnitude
Hypothesis
A tentative statement about the natural world leading to deductions that can be tested. If the deductions are verified, the hypothesis is provisionally corroborated. If the deductions are incorrect, the original hypothesis is proved false and must be abandoned or modified. Hypotheses can be used to build more complex inferences and explanations.
Graduated Cyclinder
A tool used to measure the volume of a liquid.
Gene
A unit of heredity that is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring; the number of these differ from species to species.
Scientific Notation
A way of expressing numbers that are too big or too small to be conveniently written in decimal form.
Type of test that demonstrates whether or not a specific enzyme or drug is having the desired effect for which it was designed
Activity assays
What is Cell Theory?
All living things are made up of cells, A cell is the smallest unit in a living thing, All cells come from other cells.
Primary (1⁰) structure
Amino acids linked together by peptide bonds
what factors will change the resistance of the electrophoresis unit being run at a constant voltage?
Amount of buffer, thickness of agarose gel, and percentage of agarose in gel
Monoclonal Antibodies
An antibody produced by a single clone of cells or cell line and consisting of identical antibody molecules; can be produced in human cells.
Incubator
An apparatus or chamber that provides favorable environmental conditions (temperature) for the growth of cultures.
Sticky Ends
An end of a DNA double helix at which a few unpaired nucleotides of one strand extend beyond the other.
DNA Ligase
An enzyme that brings about ligation (joining together) of DNA or another substance.
Mitochondria
An organelle found in large numbers in most cells, in which the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production occur.
Eukaryote
An organism consisting of a cell or cells in which the genetic material is DNA in the form of chromosomes contained within a distinct nucleus.
Cellular energy without oxygen
Anaerobic respiration
anaerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration occurs when the amount of oxygen available is too low to support the process of aerobic respiration. There are two main types of anaerobic respiration, alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation. some microorganisms (such as yeast) produces ethanol and carbon dioxide, as opposed to lactic acid. It can be summarised by the following equation: glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide (+ energy released).
Western Blotting
Analytical technique used in molecular biology, immunogenetics and other molecular biology disciplines to detect specific proteins in a sample of tissue homogenate or extract.
Restriction enzymes (example: EcoRI) goes with what assay
Digesting DNA
What is the purpose of lysosomes?
Digestion and waste removal
What are the most common molecules in cells?
Proteins.
Eukaryotic organism that is not an animal, plant or fungus.
Protista
What are the tests for determining the presence or a particular characteristic of a protein of interest?
Assay.
What is the process in which... -Pyruvate is oxidized. - Carbon dioxide, 2 FADH, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH are produced - Happens in mitochondria
Kreb's Cycle
What is an example of a product easily found in nature?
Antibiotic
Identify and neutralize foreign objects such as bacteria and viruses.
Antibody
Disaccharide
Any of a class of sugars whose molecules contain two monosaccharide residues.
Monosaccharide
Any of the class of sugars (e.g., glucose) that cannot be hydrolyzed to give a simpler sugar.
Chromosome
Any of the usually linear bodies in the cell nucleus that contain the genetic material.
Plasmid DNA is purified using anion exchange column chromatography. Why?
Because DNA is negatively charged, binds to the positively charged resin, and is eluted with increasing salt.
-Predicts linear relationship between absorbance of solution and concentration of analyte. -Used along spectrophotometry - Formula: A= (a)(b) c, for a is molar absorptivity, b is cell path and c is concentration - Similar to slope formula
Beer's Law
What is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products?
Biotechnology.
Protein Indicators
Biuret-violet bradford-blue Coomassie-blue Silver stain-brown/black
Phosphate Bonds
Bonds between phosphate groups; location of energy in an ATP molecule.
Hydrogen Bonds
Bonds that hold together the base pairs in nucleic acids; adenine and thymine/uracil contain two hydrogen bonds and cytosine/guanine three.
Transformation and Transfection
Both processes describe the addition of genetic material into cells using various techniques. Transformation is here mostly used for bacterial work (transforming plasmids for example), while transfection is almost exclusively used for eukaryotic cells.
Aerobic (Cellular) Respiration
Breaking down of food molecules (glucose) in the presence of oxygen with the result of generating energy (ATP) in a cell (as well as carbon dioxide and water).
A solution that resists changes in pH
Buffer
What is a solution that resists changes in pH?
Buffer.
What is the formula for Dilution of Stock Solutions?
C1V1=C2V2
Dilution Formula
C1V1=C2V2; 1's represent the stock (initial) solution and 2's represent the dilute (final) solution.
In aerobic respiration carbohydrates are ultimately broken down into what?
CO2
In aerobic respiration, carbs are broken down into...
CO2
In aerobic respiration carbohydrates are ultimately broken down into:
CO2, H20, ATP
in aerobic respiration carbohydrates are ultimately broken down into:
CO2, H2O, ATP
What are the products of the Kreb's cycle?
CO2, NADH, FADH2.
Total Magnification
Calculated by multiplying the eyepiece's magnification by the magnification of the objective lens; 10X x 40X = 400X.
Conical Tube
Capped tube used to hold chemical substances.
Body uses this for energy and proper cell function. Stores and transports energy. EX: CELLULOSE Monomer: Monosaccharide
Carbohydrate
Structural component of plant cell walls, Ex: Cellulose
Carbohydrate
Lipids are composed mostly of what atoms?
Carbon and hydrogen
Biotech Careers
Career 2014 Jobs Microbiologist 20,670 Biomedical Engineer 20,080 Soil and Plant Scientist 15,150 Food Scientist and Technologist 14,170
Homozygous Dominant
Carries two copies of the same allele which is expressed in the phenotype.
Heterozygous Dominant
Carries two different alleles for a gene (one dominant and one recessive); the dominant allele masks the recessive allele phenotypically.
Match the following steps in polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) with the correct purpose of that step: Adding SDS to the sample buffer and the PAGE running buffer
Coating the sample proteins with an negative charge and denaturing them
What is the separation of molecules on or through a stationary phase?
Chromatography
What is CPDP?
Comprehensive Product Development Plan 1. Does the product meet a critical need? 2. Is there a large market to produce sufficient sales? 3. Does preliminary data show the product will work? 4. Can patent protection be secured? 5. Can the company make a profit?
Type of test used to measure the amount of total protein present
Concentration assays
What helps researchers measure the amount of protein present?
Concentration assays.
cGMP is an abbreviation used in the pharmaceutical and biopharmaceutical industry, and stands for:
Current Good Manufacturing Practices
(PCR) requires what enzyme to be thermostable (resistant to high temperatures) in order to "amplify" a sample of DNA?
DNA Polymerase
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) uses which enzyme to "amplify" DNA?
DNA polymerase
Naturally occurring enzymes involved with DNA replication and which are also used as tools in biotechnology
DNA polymerase and DNA ligase
DNA Structure and function
DNA structure. DNA is made up of molecules called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a phosphate group, a sugar group and a nitrogen base. The four types of nitrogen bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C).
What is CDNA?
DNA synthesized using an RNA template
Recombinant DNA/Cloning
DNA that has been formed artificially by combining constituents from different organisms.
Regulatory biotech affairs
Deepen your understanding of current regulations and their practical applications in the development and commercialization of drugs, biologics, and medical device products.
What is the purpose of SDS when used in SDS PAGE electrophoresis?
Denature the proteins and give them a positive charge
Density Formula
Density (D) = Mass (m) / Volume (V)
What is the highly specific test to determine protein concentration based on a particular antigen-antibody interaction?
ELISA
a highly specific test to determine protein concentration based on a particular antigen antibody interaction
ELISA
what assay do you run when looking for the presence and concentration of a specific protein?
ELISA
ELISA
ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) is a plate-based assay technique designed for detecting and quantifying substances such as peptides, proteins, antibodies and hormones. Other names, such as enzyme immunoassay (EIA), are also used to describe the same technology.
Significant Figures
Each of the digits of a number that are used to express it to the required degree of accuracy, starting from the first nonzero digit; all non zero digits are significant; leading zeros (0.002) are not significant; captive zeros (1001) are significant; trailing zeros (100 or 100.0) are only significant if a decimal is present anywhere within the measurement.
Golgi Apparatus
Flattened sacs Not interconnected like ER Receives, Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and other materials from the ER for storage in the cell or secretion outside the cell (Marks and sorts the proteins into different batches for different locations)
What is the use of an electric field to separate DNA in agarose?
Electrophoresis.
Why are enzyme solutions always prepared using a buffered solvent at a specific pH?
Enzymes lose function outside of a narrow pH range
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Equipment worn to minimize exposure to a variety of hazards.
(T/F) Meiosis is a type of cell division which increases the chromosome number by two
False
True or False? DNA replication occurs 3' to 5'
False
In the presence of oxygen, all cells synthesize ATP via the process of glycolysis. Many cells also can metabolize pyruvate, if oxygen is not present, via the process of _____.
Fermentation.
Tertiary Protein Structure
Final three-dimensional protein created through hydrogen bonding, ionic bonding, disulfide bridges, hydrophobic interactions, and Van der Waals forces.
Tertiary (3⁰) structure
Final three-dimensional protein shape
Which governmental agency regulates biopharmaceutical products for human use?
Food & Drug Administration (FDA)
What are the properties of the carbon atom that make the diversity of carbon compounds possible?
Form tetra relevant bonds, highly stable/unstable, able to form short and long chains
Who has final say if a production batch may be released for sale or use?
Function of Quality Assurance (QA) personnel?
The use of an electric field to separate DNA in agarose
Gel electrophoresis
A process of correcting mutations which cause genetic diseases and disorders by delivering therapeutic DNA into a patient's cells
Gene Therapy
What is the process of correcting mutations which cause genetic diseases and disorders by delivering therapeutic DNA into a patient's cells?
Gene therapy.
Genotype
Genetic constitution of an individual organism; combination of genes/alleles.
Parkinson's, diabetes, and cystic fibrosis (CF) are examples of
Genetic disorders
Parkinson's, diabetes, and cystic fibrosis (CF) are examples of _____.
Genetic disorders.
The deliberate modification of the characteristics of an organism by manipulating its genetic material
Genetic engineering
Biotech history
Genetic engineering in biotechnology stimulated hopes for both therapeutic proteins, drugs and biological organisms themselves, such as seeds, pesticides, engineered yeasts, and modified human cells for treating genetic diseases.
Example of Environmental Biotechnology
Genetically altered bacteria that can break down and consume oil.
Example of Biopharmaceutical Biotechnology
Genetically engineered cells that make treatments for disease.
Example of Agricultural Biotechnology
Genetically engineered crops that tolerate environmental stresses, such as extreme temperature.
US Department of Agriculture (USDA)
Government agency responsible for inspecting food to ensure safety; oversees farming industry.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
Government agency that ensures safety, efficacy, and security of human and veterinary drugs, biological products, and medical devices.
Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA)
Government agency that examines workplace conditions to ensure safety.
What is the process in which... -Glucose converted into Pyruvate. - 2 Net ATP, 2 pyruvate and 2 NADH (coenzymes) are produced - Oxygen not required - Takes place in cytoplasm
Glycolysis
Which stage of aerobic respiration requires ATP?
Glycolysis
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Government agency that protects human health and the environment.
What is the form of liquid chromatography used to separate compounds that are dissolved in solution? Instruments consist of a reservoir of mobile phase, a pump, an injector, a separation column, and a detector.
HPLC
Whats difference between diploid/haploid/zygote?
Haploid: One set of chromosomes; gametes Diploid: Two sets of chromosomes; somatic cells Zygote: 2 haploid gametes fuse during fertilization to form a diploid cell (zygote)
In DNA double helix, the two DNA chains are held together by:
Hydrogen bonds between the pair of bases
Example of Genetic Biotechnology
Identification of a DNA sequence unique to a specific virus.
Research and Development company responsibility
Identify candidate biopharmaceutical drugs.
Four Branches of Biotech
Industrial/Environmental, Medical/Pharmaceutical, Agricultural, Diagnostic Research
Macromolecules
Large molecules that are formed by joining smaller organic molecules together; four main classes of large biological molecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids).
How does a buffer resist pH change upon the addition of an acidic or basic components?
It reacts with the excess H+ or OH- ions in the solution
DNA ligase goes with what assay
Joining pieces of DNA
Recombinant DNA Technology
Joining together of DNA molecules from two different species that are inserted into a host organism to produce new genetic combinations that are of value to science, medicine, agriculture, and industry.
To focus a specimen on a microscope, it is best to start with which objective?
Low power
Why does the rate of a chemical reaction increase with increasing temperature?
Leads to increase in high energy collisions.
If you think of recombinant DNA technology as cutting and pasting pieces of DNA, which molecule represents the glue?
Ligase
Eukaryotic DNA
Linear, very ling pieces of DNA with many thousands of genes and contained in a nucleus.
What makes up a eukaryote?
Linear, very long pieces of DNA with many thousands of genes
description of all Eukaryotic DNA
Linear, very long pieces of DNA with many thousands of genes and contained in a nucleus
Structural component of cell membrane, Ex: Phospholipid
Lipid
Repairs and constructs tissues, maintains body temp and carries energy. EX: PHOSPHOLIPID Monomer: Fatty Acid and glycerol
Lipids
Viscous buffer used to track DNA or proteins during electrophoresis
Loading Dye
description of all Prokaryotic DNA
Long, circular DNA with several thousand genes
Prokaryotic DNA
Long, circular DNA with several thousand genes.
description of all DNA
Made of four nitrogenous bases and a double helix structure of repeating nucleotides
All DNA
Made of four nitrogenous bases and a double helix structure of repeating nucleotides.
Which of the following is a critical function of Quality Assurance (QA) personnel?
Maintain and control documentation for regulatory compliance
Quality Assurance
Maintenance of a desired level of quality in a service or product, especially by means of attention to every stage of the process of delivery or production; all products meet quality standards.
Manufacturing
Make (something) on a large scale using machinery; make commercial quantities of a biopharmaceutical drug for example.
Manufacturing company responsibility
Make commercial quantities of a biopharmaceutical drug.
Meiosis
Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in the parent cell by half and produces four gamete cells. This process is required to produce egg and sperm cells for sexual reproduction.
pH Scale
Measures how acidic or basic a substance is; ranges from 0 to 14; logarithmic scale- ex. pH 4 to pH 2.. pH 2 is 100 times more acidic.
Anaerobic Respiration
Method of obtaining energy in microorganisms; occurs without oxygen and produces carbon dioxide as a byproduct; used in the backing and brewing industries.
Anaerobic Respiration (Fermentation)
Method of obtaining energy in microorganisms; occurs without oxygen and produces carbon dioxide as a byproduct; used in the baking and brewing industries.
Streaking for Isolation
Method of streaking bacteria to grow individual colonies.
Microscopy
Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view objects and areas of objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye (objects that are not within the resolution range of the normal eye). There are three well-known branches of microscopy: optical, electron, and scanning probe microscopy
Most ATP in eukaryotic cells is produced in the
Mitochondria
Most ATP in eukaryotic cells is produced in the _____.
Mitochondria.
What do all human males inherit from their mothers?
Mitochondrial DNA and X chromosome
What is mitosis?
Mitosis is a type of cell division in which one cell (the mother) divides to produce two new cells (the daughters) that are genetically identical to itself. In the context of the cell cycle, mitosis is the part of the division process in which the DNA of the cell's nucleus is split into two equal sets of chromosomes.
Transformation
Modification of a cell or bacterium by the uptake and incorporation of exogenous DNA.
Defined as "the moles of solute per liter of solution"
Molarity
What is defined as "the moles of solute per liter of solution"?
Molarity
What should be included on the gel to enable you to determine actual sizes of the DNA fragments?
Molecular weight marker and DNA Ladder
Glucose is a ____.
Monosaccharide.
Polymerase Chain Reaction
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used in molecular biology to amplify a single copy or a few copies of a segment of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence.
Quaternary (4⁰) structure
Multiple polypeptides forming a larger protein complex
Quaternary Protein Structure
Multiple polypeptides forming a larger protein complex.
Point Mutation
Mutation affecting one nucleotide in a gene sequence; nucleotide base substitution.
Frameshift Mutation
Mutation that affects the entire amino acid sequence after and at the mutation site; nucleotide base addition or deletion.
Which of the following stages of aerobic respiration requires CO2? Glycolysis Krebs cycle Electron transport chain Fermentation All of the above None of the above
None of the above.
Store and transfer genetic information in the cell, Ex: RNA
Nucleic Acid
Uses chemical codes to store genetic info for body growth and function EX: DNA Monomer: Nucleotide
Nucleic Acid
Karyotype
Number and visual appearance of the chromosomes in the cell nuclei of an organism or species.
Ploidy
Number of sets of chromosomes in a cell.
The final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration is _____.
O2
A poly______ chain is held together by disulfide linkages (bonds) and noncovalent bonds
Polypeptide
What determines the amount and length of activity for a given enzyme or drug in a test organism?
Potency assay.
Type of test used to measure the amount of active ingredient in a drug
Potency assays
Define the prefix centi.
One hundredth (0.01)
Define the prefix mega.
One million (1,000,000)
Define the prefix deci.
One tenth (0.1)
Define the prefix Kilo.
One thousand (1,000)
Extending
PCR step in which DNA polymerase extends the primers with free nucleotides to make a copy of the target DNA; performed at 70-75 degrees Celsius.
Annealing
PCR step in which primers hybridize (bond) to the target DNA region on each single strand; performed at 40-60 degrees Celsius.
Denaturing
PCR step in which the double stranded DNA is separated into single strands; performed at approximately 95 degrees Celsius.
Enzymes involved with in vivo DNA replication, and which are also used as tools in biotechnology include:
Polymerase and Ligase
Phenotype
Observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.
What is secondary protein structure?
Occurs when amino acid sequence is linked by hydrogen bonds.
Biotech Ethics
On one side, the American Society of Clinical Oncology issued this policy statement in 1999: "Whether privately or publicly funded, researchers should be mindful of the ethical issues that may be raised when research involves embryos, fetal tissue, cloning, or other controversial questions.
The final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration is ...
Oxygen
How can colorless proteins be monitored during electrophoresis?
PAGE loading dye.
Tests used for understanding the relationship between dosage and activity of a given pharmaceutical drug are called what?
PK/PD assays.
A plant form from which others are reproduced. (2N)
Parent plant
The observable traits of an organism are referred to as the:
Phenotype
Form the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane.
Phospholipid
Process in which... - Carbon, water, and light energy are utilized - Oxygen and glucose are products - Takes place in a plant's chloroplast
Photosynthesis
Small rings of DNA with only a few genes and floating in the cytoplasm of a bacterial cell
Plasmid
Autonomously replicating small circles of DNA presenting in some bacteria
Plasmids
What is autonomously replicating small circles of DNA present in some bacteria called?
Plasmids
Heat-stable DNA polymerase goes with what assay
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
The high concentration of protons in the inner mitochondrial space relative to the mitochondrial matrix represents _____.
Potential energy.
Transcription
Process by which the information in a strand of DNA is copied into a new molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA); takes place in the nucleus of eukaryotes and cytoplasm of prokaryotes.
What is meiosis and what happens if it does not happen during sex-cell development in plants?
Process where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells containing half the original amount of genetic information (sex cells). They go through mitosis.
What kind of cell is this? -Organism that does not have nucleus -DNA contained in cytoplasm. -Has plasma membrane - Cell Wall -Phospholipid outer membrane
Prokaryote
Organism that does not have nucleus or membrane bound organelle, so its DNA is contained in the cytoplasm
Prokaryotes
What is an organism that does not have nucleus or membrane bound organelle, so DNA is contained in cytoplasm?
Prokaryotes.
What kind of cell DNA is this? - Long circular DNA with several thousand genes
Prokaryotic DNA
Builds body structure, controls chemical reactions and carries small molecules and ions (forms core of endocrine and immune) EX: ENZYME Monomer: Amino Acid
Protein
Catalyze biochemical reactions, Ex: Enzyme
Protein
Adenine and guanine
Purines
Thymine and cytosine
Pyrimidines
In glycolysis the most reduced compound form is...
Pyruvate
Products of glycolysis include ______.
Pyruvate, ATP, NADH
In glycolysis the most reduced compound formed is _____.
Pyruvate.
Data
Qualitative or quantitative evidence gathered in an experiment.
Which department in a biopharmaceutical company has final say if a production batch may be released for sale or use?
Quality Assurance
Which department in a biopharmaceutical company is responsible for testing a product to ensure it is safe and efficacious?
Quality Control
Which department is in charge of testing a biopharmaceutical product to ensure its safety and potency?
Quality Control (QC)
Which department in a biopharmaceutical company is responsible for testing a product to ensure it is safe and efficacious?
Quality control
List the five steps of scientific process in order
Question, hypothesis, experiment, analysis, conclusion
color range chart (intervals)
R 650 R-O -50 O-Y -30 Y-G -20 G-B -100 B-I -50 I-V -50 V 350
What part of amino acid differs from one another?
R group
What part of an amino acid differs from one to the other?
R group
what part of an amino acid differs from one to the other?
R group
Other Indicators
RNA, DPA-green starch, Lugol's iodine-dark blue monosaccharides, Benedict's-bright red
RNA Polymerase
RNAP pries the two stands of DNA apart and joins the strands back together after it has been replicated.
An enzyme that cuts DNA after recognizing a specific sequence of DNA.
Restriction enzyme
Biotech products
Rice Herbicide tolerance, insect resistance, anti-allergy Soybean Herbicide tolerance, insect resistance, modified product quality, altered growth/yield, abiotic stress tolerance, modified oil/fatty acid Squash Disease resistance Sugar beet Herbicide tolerance
Anti-parallel
Running parallel to each other but with opposite alignments; example= two complementary strands of a DNA double helix, which run in opposite directions alongside each other.
Vertical gel electrophoresis box goes with what assay
Running protein gels (PAGE)
After a mitotic division, how many chromosomes do daughter cells have compared with the parent cell?
Same as parent; 46
The replication of DNA, in which each original strand of DNA serves as a template for a new strand, is called:
Semiconservative replication
Covalent Bonds
Sharing of electrons between two atoms; the type of bond found in the sugar-phosphate backbone of nucleic acids.
After performing the PCR reaction with the primers she designed to amplify lanA, the same technician found that her PCR reaction contained two distinct bands, one at the expected size of 1200 kilobase pairs, and another unexpected band at 2000 kilobase pairs. What is the most likely reason there is an unexpected band in her PCR reaction?
She used an annealing temperature that was too low
What makes up a prokaryote?
Small rings of DNA with only a few genes and floating in the cytoplasm
description of all Plasmid DNA
Small rings of DNA with only a few genes and floating in the cytoplasm
Plasmid DNA
Small rings of DNA with only a few genes and floating in the cytoplasm.
What is agar?
Solid media on which bacteria grow
Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS)
Takes the protein from its native shape, which is basically a big glob, and opens it up into a linear piece for protein gel electrophoresis.
Enzyme Activity Assay
Technique used to determine the activity of a protein.
Stability Assay
Technique used to determine the time a protein remains active.
What contributed to biotechnology in the 1950's?
The 3D structure of DNA is revealed.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations can be found in?
The Code of Federal Regulations
Reaction Rates
The Reaction Rate for a given chemical reaction is the measure of the change in concentration of the reactants or the change in concentration of the products per unit time.
Define disaccharides
double sugars or 2 monosaccharides joined be a covalent bond or a glycosidic linkage
Plasmid DNA Digestion
The cleaving of circular DNA; for example- in plasmid DNA when three cuts are made with a restriction enzyme three fragments result.
Genomic DNA Digestion
The cleaving of linear DNA; for example- in genomic DNA when three cuts are made with a restriction enzyme four fragments result.
Meniscus
The curve at a liquid's surface by which you measure the volume of the liquid.
Genetic Engineering
The deliberate modification of the characteristics of an organism by manipulating its genetic material.
In a biotechnology lab, tap water is best used for:
The first rinse when washing glassware
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
The form of RNA in which genetic information transcribed from DNA as a sequence of bases is transferred to a ribosome.
Protein structure and function
The function of a protein is directly dependent on its threedimensional structure (Figure 3.1). Remarkably, proteins spontaneously fold up into three-dimensional structures that are determined by the sequence of amino acids in the protein polymer. ... Proteins contain a wide range of functional groups.
Control
The group in an experiment or study that does not receive treatment by the researchers and is then used as a benchmark to measure how the other tested subjects do.
What is antiparallel DNA?
The nucleotide strands of DNA are oriented in opposite directions in a structure that is described as
How do DNA molecules vary from one species to another?
The number of genes and non-coding regions
High Power Objective
The objective on the microscope that gives the highest magnification; usually 40X.
Primary Protein Structure
The sequence of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
Reaction Rate
The speed at which a chemical reaction proceeds.
What makes DNA "anti parallel"
The strands of a DNA double helix are said to be "antiparallel" because they have the same chemical structure, but are opposite in direction.
Bioethics
The study of decision making as it applies to moral decisions that must be made due to advances in biology and technology.
ways to increase the rate of a chemical reaction
The temperature is increased. The concentration of a dissolved reactant is increased. The pressure of a reacting gas is increased. Solid reactants are broken into smaller pieces. A catalyst is used.
Scientific Question
The testable question in the process of scientific investigation.
Western Blotting
The western blot (sometimes called the protein immunoblot) is a widely used analytical technique used in molecular biology, immunogenetics and other molecular biology disciplines to detect specific proteins in a sample of tissue homogenate or extract.
Cell Theory
Theory that states all life forms are made from one or more cells, that cells only arise from pre-existing cells, and that the cell is the smallest form of life.
Secondary Protein Structure
Three-dimensional polypeptide with alpha-helices and beta-sheets due to hydrogen bonding.
Define stability.
Time period protein remains active
The process of making RNA from DNA
Transcription
Transcription
Transcription is the first step of gene expression, in which a particular segment of DNA is copied into RNA (especially mRNA) by the enzyme RNA polymerase. Both DNA and RNA are nucleic acids, which use base pairs of nucleotides as a complementary language.
Which of the following is an mRNA codon?
UAU
Which of the following is an mRNA codon? a. ATA b. UAU c. Tyrosine d. All of the above
UAU
which of the following is an mRNA codon?
UAU
A polypeptide is an ___ chain of amino acids
Unbranched
Translation (Gene expression)
Translation is the process of translating the sequence of a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule to a sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis. The genetic code describes the relationship between the sequence of base pairs in a gene and the corresponding amino acid sequence that it encodes.
What is the process by which RNA is decoded and polypeptides are formed?
Translation.
Weigh Boat
Tray used to weigh or transfer chemicals (usually dry).
(T/F) DNA polymerases are the enzymes that create DNA molecules by assembling nucleotides
True
(T/F) DNA polymerases from thermophiles (heat-loving bacteria) are used in polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
True
(T/F) During meiosis, chromosomes may "cross-over" and shuffle their genetic information
True
(T/F) Germinating or sprouting plants are actively undergoing mitosis.
True
(T/F) Meiosis occurs in all sexually reproducing eukaryotes
True
(T/F) Plant breeders can take advantage of meiosis by selective breeding: pollen from plants with desired traits are purposely crossed with other plants exhibiting desired traits.
True
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires biopharmaceutical companies to follow current good manufacturing practices (cGMPs) (True or False)
True
The study of decision-making as it applies to moral decisions regarding advances in biotechnology is called bioethics (True or False)
True
True/False- A polypeptide is an unbranched chain of amino acids.
True
organism containing a nucleus and other organelles closed with membranes
eukaryote
if you have DNA fragments that are very close in size, Which of the following will increase the chances for good separation on an agarose gel, so that you may visualize both bands on the gel?
Use a higher percentage of agarose (1.5 % or higher) when making the gel
Thermal Cycler (Thermocycler)
Used to amplify DNA by heating and cooling.
Spectrophotometry
Used to determine the amount, or concentration, of a protein (or other substance) present in a sample by measuring how much it absorbs light as it passes through the sample solution.
Waterbath
Used to incubate samples in water at a constant temperature over a long period of time.
Spectrophotometer
Used to measure protein or DNA concentration; an apparatus for measuring the intensity of light in a part of the spectrum, especially as transmitted or emitted by particular substances.
Vortexer
Used to mix small volumes of solution.
Horizontal Gel Electrophoresis Box
Used to run DNA agarose gels.
Vertical Gel Electrophoresis Box
Used to run protein gels (PAGE or polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis).
Centrifuge
Used to separate substances based on density.
Autoclave
Used to sterilize media, trash, and supplies by reaching the correct temperature and pressure.
How are the proteins in fractions collected during column chromatography visualized?
Using microscopy
How are the proteins in fractions collected during column chromatography visualized?
Using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS PAGE)
What is the most likely reason there is an unexpected band in a PCR reaction?
Using too low temp.
Independent Variable
Variable that represents inputs or causes and is controlled by the experimenter.
Dependent Variable
Variable that represents the output or outcome whose variation is being studied; measurement.
Cells to know
Vero-african green monkey kidney epithelial HeLa-human epithelial Aspergillus-fungi
Match the following steps in polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) with the correct purpose of that step: Staining with Coomassie Blue
Visualizing proteins after PAGE
Match the following steps in polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) with the correct purpose of that step: Adding loading dye to protein samples
Visualizing samples for loading into wells, and monitoring sample migration during PAGE
In a biotechnology lab, what is tap water is best used for?
Washing glassware.
Denature proteins and give them negative charge
What is the purpose of SDS when used in SDS electrophoresis?
What is MRNA?
What the order of amino acids on a polypeptide chain is encoded by
Research & Development
Work directed toward the innovation, introduction, and improvement of products and processes; identifying candidate biopharmeceutical drugs for example.
chemosynthesis
a chemical reaction that doesn't use sunlight energy but chemicals (usually methane) to conduct oxidation of inorganic chemicals, such as sulfur released from deep hydrothermal vents in the sea or methane, to produce their food.
Scientific Method
a method of procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.
Define monomer
a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer (this process is polymerization). smallest unit of macromolecules
ATP
a molecule that releases energy when it reacts with water for the cell to use (a phosphate breaks off of the triphosphate) made up off 3 phosphates, ribose, and adenine
mRNA
a specific type of RNA that is produced during transcription that is a transcript of the gene's protein-building instructions. It carries the genetic message from DNA to protein-building machinery in the cell.
Define polymer
a substance that has a molecular structure consisting chiefly or entirely of a large number of similar units bonded together, macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits
how much tween 20 is needed to prepare 250 ml of the following Solutions? a) 10% tween 20 (v/v)? b) 25% tween 20(v/v)?
a) (250 mL)(0.1) = 25 ml tween 20 b) (250 mL)(0.25) = 62.5 ml tween 20
an aqueous solution and yields a hydrogen ion when ionized
acid
What are a few different types of assays?
activity-reaction expected concentration-amount present pKpD-chemical effects/metabolization in body potency-relative strength for dosage toxicology-determines toxicity point stability-determines conditions for shelf life
To understand the structure and function of proteins, you must know:
amino acid sequence, 3D structure using xray crystallography, charge, size using PAGE
Examples of Eukaryotas
animals and plants
Monoclonal Antibodies
antibodies are proteins that are used to bind to antigens or foreign bodies to neutralize them. Specifically monoclonal antibodies are made in a lab and is tailored to only bind to one substance. Monoclonal antibodies are being used to treat some types of cancer. They can be used alone or to carry drugs, toxins, or radioactive substances directly to cancer cells.
Eukaryote
any cell or organism that possesses a clearly defined nucleus. The eukaryotic cell has a nuclear membrane that surrounds the nucleus, in which the well-defined chromosomes (bodies containing the hereditary material) are located. Eukaryotic cells also contain organelles, including mitochondria (cellular energy exchangers), a Golgi apparatus (secretory device), an endoplasmic reticulum (a canal-like system of membranes within the cell), and lysosomes (digestive apparatus within many cell types).
where does translation occur in prokaryotes?
at the ribosomes
Bacteria to know
b. subtilis-produces amylase b. thuringiensis-protects against insect damage in crops e. coli-common host cell a. tumefaciens-used as a carrier for transgenic plants
Biotech workplaces
biotech workplaces themselves are changing under technology's influence. Scientists are spending less time in the lab due to increased automation of tasks and the ability to gather data remotely over the internet. As always, biotech companies' offices must change as their phase of drug development evolves, from lab-heavy research and development to hosting a sales team when new medications hit the market.
a solution that resists changes in PH
buffer
What is in plant cells but not in animal cells?
chloroplasts, central vacuole, cell wall, plasmodesmata
type of test to measure the amount of total protein present
concentration assays
Nuclear envelope
double membrane enclosing the nucleus; perforated by pores; continuous with ER
Significant figures
each of the digits of a number that are used to express it to the required degree of accuracy, starting from the first nonzero digit.
percentage solution and mass/volume: the concentrations of some solutes (e.g., glucose or sucrose) are expressed as a percentage of 100 ml of solution. The concentration of solutes specified as the percentage weight per unit volume (w/v) or percentage of volume per unit volume (v/v) depending on the nature of the solute.
for the next 8 problems
Types of Column Chromatography
gel filtration-size affinity-shape ion exchange-charge hydrophobic interaction-water solubility FPCC-pump forces liquid through beads faster HPCC-smallest of proteins, metallic tubes used due to extreme pressure
a process of correcting mutations which cause genetic diseases and disorders by delivering therapeutic DNA into a patient's cell
gene therapy
Parkinson's, diabetes, and cystic fibrosis are examples of this
genetic disorders
the deliberate modification of the characteristics of an organism by manipulating its genetic material
genetic engineering
which of the following is a monosaccharide commonly used as an energy source for cells in cell culture media?
glucose
properties of life
grow, reproduce, respond to stimuli, metabolize, excrete
Nucleus
head of the cell, contains DNA, directs protein synthesis, synthesizes RNA
plasma membrane
membrane enclosing the cell,
Cell Respiration
is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.
What is meiosis?
it adds new cells during development and replaces old and worn-out cells throughout your life. The goal of mitosis is to produce daughter cells that are genetically identical to their mothers, with not a single chromosome more or less. Meiosis, on the other hand, is used for just one purpose in the human body: the production of gametes—sex cells, or sperm and eggs. Its goal is to make daughter cells with exactly half as many chromosomes as the starting cell.
the order of amino acids on a polypeptide chain is encoded by:
mRNA
Define polysaccharides
macromolecules, polymers with a few hundred or thousand monosaccharides join by glycosidic linkages (covalent bonds). function: sometimes storage material, can be hydrolyzed to provide sugar for the cell, building material for structures to protect the cell/whole organism ex: starch, glycogen, (these 2 are short term energy storages for plants and animals) and cellulose
Chromatin
material consisting of DNA and proteins; visible in a dividing cell when chromatin coils up and forms chromosomes
what could be the reason of having a really fat band in a lane in your gel
more DNA in that lane or the two bands have not completely seperated
transcription and translation in PRO cells
no nucleus so DNA is just floats around in this clump called the nucleiod which has no structure just floats in the cytoplasm. mRNA is by transcription and is simotaneously used to translate into proteins. Translation occurs in the ribosomes.
What is unique about eukaryotes?
nucleus and lysosomes
What is photosynthesis?
organisms use solar energy to turn carbon dioxide and water into sugar and oxygen. There is only one photosynthetic formula: CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2.
A measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ion in a sample
pH
What is the measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ion in a sample?
pH
the measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ion in a sample
pH
pH
pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration; a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Aqueous solutions at 25°C with a pH less than seven are acidic, while those with a pH greater than seven are basic or alkaline.
What are pI and pKa buffers?
pI-where the compound has an overall neutral charge and will not move in an electric field (Isoelectric point) pKa-when half of a buffering molecule is ionized to a weak acid and its conjugate base (there is an equal number of ionized and neutral units)
where is ATP energy located
phosphate bonds
What do eukaryotes and prokaryotes have in common?
plasma membranes, phospholipids, one or more chromosones
autonomously replicating small circles of DNA present and some bacteria
plasmids
type of test used to measure the amount of active ingredient in a drug
potency assays
organism that does not have a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles, so its DNA is contained in the cytoplasm
prokaryotes
which department is in charge of testing biopharmaceutical products to ensure its safety and potency?
quality control (QC)
the deliberate linkage of DNA from different sources into one molecule
recombinant DNA
what is agar?
solid media on which bacteria grows
quantitative measurement of absorbance based on the visible light, near ultraviolet, and near-infrared light sources passing through a solution
spectrophotometry
Primase
starts off the DNA replication process by joining RNA nucleotides on the parental/template DNA to create and RNA primer
Genomics
the branch of molecular biology concerned with the structure, function, evolution, and mapping of genomes
how do DNA molecules vary from one species to another?
the number of genes and non-coding regions
Ploidy
the number of sets of chromosomes in a cell, or in the cells of an organism.
mitochondria
the powerhouse of the cell, where cellular respiration occurs and most ATP is generated
Photosynthesis
the process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthesis in plants generally involves the green pigment chlorophyll and generates oxygen as a byproduct.
Translation
the synthesis of polypeptide using the information from mRNA. Called translation because there is a change in language, the cell must translate the nucleotide sequence into an amino acid sequence.
transcription and translation in EUK cells
transcription occurs in the nucleus, primary transcript is further processed into final mRNA, and mRNA is then transported to the cytoplasm, where translation occurs.
Mitosis and Chromosomes
•Interphase: The DNA in the cell is copied in preparation for cell division, this results in two identical full sets of chromosomes?. ... •Prophase: The chromosomes condense into X-shaped structures that can be easily seen under a microscope. ... •Metaphase: ... •Anaphase: ... •Telophase:
