Behavioural Aspects of Sport and Exercise

Concentration

"... Person's ability to exert deliberate mental effort on what is most important in any given situation..."

"Self-transition"

"...the course of a person encountering a series of developmental tasks and attempting to become the kind of person he/she wants to be..."

Imagery

... Actually a form of stimulation. It is similar to a real sensory experience occurs in the mind...

The GROW model of coaching

1. Goal 2. Reality 3. Options 4. Will

Systematic Desensitization

A behavioural technique commonly used to treat fear, anxiety disorders and phobias. using this method, the person is engaged in some type of relaxation exercise and gradually exposed to an anxiety producing stimulus, like an object or place.

Anxiety

A negative emotional state characterised by nervousness, worry, and apprehension and associated with activation or arousal of the body.

Response Propositions

A part of bio-informational theory that describes imager's response to the scenario.

Acquisition Phase

A phase of PST that focuses on strategies and techniques. Tailor training programs to meet individuals needs. provide general information to the group or team, but be specific when developing an individual's PST program. Psychological skills should be learned and practised.

Educational Phase

A phase of PST, in which psychological sills need to be taught and learnt. Participants must recognise how important it is to learn these skills. Participants must recognise how these skills affect performance. increasing awareness of mental sills.

Coping

A process of constantly changing cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage specific external or internal demands or conflicts appraised as taxing or exceed one's resources.

Achievement Goal Theory

According to the achievement goal theory, three factors interact to determine a person's motivation: achievement goals, perceived ability, and achievement behaviour.

State Anxiety

An emotional state characterised by subjective, consciously perceived feelings of apprehension and tension, accompanied by or associated with activation or arousal of the autonomic nervous system.

Bulimia

An episode eating pattern of uncontrollable food binging followed by purging, characterized by an awareness that the pattern is abnormal, fear of being unable to stop eating voluntarily, depressed mood, and self-deprecation.

Professional practise issues of psychological measures of personality

Consent, approval, confidentiality, provide explanation and feedback.

Inverted-U Theory: Problems.

Does not take into account individual differences, demands for different sports, suggests a point of optimal arousal.

Problem-Focused Coping

Efforts to alter or manage the problems that are causing stress (e.g., time management, problem solving).

Extrinsic Motivation

Engage in an activity for an external purpose. E.g reward?

Stage 4: SR

Environmental Management

Stage 3: SR

Execution

Linear Perspective

Forming Storming Norming Performing

Stage Model

Growth Exploration Establishment Maintenence Disengagement

Interactional Approach

Hollander's theory states that behaviour is a combination of both inherent (built-in) personality traits and environmental factors through the equation: B = F (P.E) Behaviour is the Function of Personality and Environment).

Low Athletic Identity

Inconsistent and may contribute to career termination.

Trait/ State Measures

Questionnaires

Factors affecting career transition process

Reason for retirement/ transition Social Support Coping resources Self-identity (athletic identity).

Steiner's Model

Relationship between individual abilities/resources on team and how team member's interact. Actual productivity = potential productivity - losses due to faulty group processes.

Trait Approach

Traits are fundamental units of personality. They are relatively stable and enduring characteristics which could be used to predict our behaviour in a variety of situations.

Verbalised self-reported measures of arousal and anxiety

e.g. "My heart is pumping".

Attention

"...Taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seems several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. Focalisation, concentration of consciousness are the essence. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with pother"

Compulsive Exercise/ Exercise 'addiction'/ Dependence

"A psychological and/or physiological dependence on a regular regimen of exercise that is characterised by withdrawal symptoms after 24-36 hrs without exercise"

Counselling

"Process of assisting and guiding clients, especially by a trained person on a professional basis, to resolve especially personal, social, or psychological problems and difficulties".

Measuring Imagery

Verbalisation Psycho physiological Recording Questionnaires (non-sport and sport) Content analysis/ratings

Social Loafing

When individuals in a team put forth less than 100% effort.

Health Belief Model

Widely recognised and enduring model associated with preventive health behaviours. 1. Perceived susceptibility 2. Perceived severity 3. Perceived benefits

Individualised Zones of Optimal Functioning

Zone of optimal functioning rather a single point. Accounts for individual differences.

Bio informational Theory

image functionally organised set of propositions stored by brain (a "prototype").

Guidelines of Motivation

1. Consider both situations and traits in motivating people. 2. Understand people's multiple motives for involvement. 3. Change the environment to enhance motivation. 4. Influence Motivation. 5. Use behaviour modification to change participants' undesirable motives.

Main objectives of Sport and Exercise Psychology?

1. How psychological factors affect sport/exercise performance. 2. How sport/ exercise participation affects psychological development, health and well-being.

Socio-Ecological Model

1. Individual 2. Interpersonal 3. Organizational 4. Community 5. Public policy

Hypnosis Intervention

1. Induction Phase. 2. Hypnotic Phase. 3. Waking Phase. 4. Posthypnotic Phase.

Pendular Perspective (non-linear)

1. Orientation 2. Differentiation and conflict. 3. Resolution and cohesion. 4. Differentiation and conflict. 5. Termination.

SIT Training

1. Prepare for the stressor. 2. Control and handle the stressor. 3. Cope with feelings of being overwhelmed. 4. Evaluate coping efforts.

5 Phases of Cognitive-Affective Stress Management Training

1. Pretreatment Phase (assess skills and deficits). 2. Treatment Rationale Phase. 3. Skill Acquisition (training in muscular relaxation, cognitive restructuring, and self-instruction). 4. Skill Rehearsal. 5. Post Training Evaluation.

Effective Leadership

1. Situational Factors 2. Followers Qualities 3. Leaders Qualities 4. Leadership Styles

Arousal

A blend of physiological and psychological activity in a person, and it refers to the intensity dimensions of motivation at a particular moment.

Explanatory CT Models

A career transition model that doesn't view retirement as singular event, but rather a process.

Descriptive CT Model

A career transition model that focuses on the stages and transitions across the athletic life span using a holistic development approach.

Autogenic training

A cognitive anxiety reduction strategy that involves a series of exercises to produce sensations. 6 hierarchical stages: 1. Heaviness in the extremities. 2. Warmth in the extremities. 3. Regulation of cardiac activity. 4. Regulation of breathing. 5. Abdominal warmth. 6. Cooling of the forehead. *Usually takes several months of regular practise, 10-40 min/day.

Arousal

A general physiological and psychological activation of the organism that varies on a continuum.

Substance Abuse

A maladaptive pattern of psychoactive substance use indicated by one of two patterns of use: 1. Continued use despite knowledge of having persistent or recurring social, occupational, psychological, or physical problem that are caused by exacerbated by use of the psychoactive substance; or recurrent use in situations in which use is physically hazardous. 2. Some symptoms of disturbance have persisted for at least one month or have occurred repeatedly over longer period.

Stimulus Propositions

A part of bio-informational theory that describes specific features of scenario.

Muscle dysmorphia

A pathological preoccupation with the body as a whole. Profound distress about body being seen in public, impaired social and work functioning, anabolic steroid and work functioning, anabolic steroid and other drug abuse.

Achievement Motivation

A person's efforts to master a task, achieve excellence, overcome obstacles, perform better than others, and take pride in exercising talent.

Practise Phase

A phase of PST in which learning psychological skills should progress from practises and simulations to actual competitions. Focus on automating skills through over learning.

Pathological (compulsive) gambling

A progressive disorder in which an individual has a psychologically unconrollable urge to gamble. This results in excessive gambling, the outcome of which is the loss of time and money. It compromises, disrupts or destroys the gambler's personal, family or vocational life.

Anorexia Nervosa

A psycho biological disease characterised by an intense fear of becoming obese, a disturbed body image, a significant weight loss, the refusal to maintain normal body weight and amenorrhoea.

Negative Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

A psychological barrier whereby that expectation of failure leads to actual failure.

Cognitive Efficacy

A resilient characteristic in a team sport that involves group cohesion, positive communications after failure.

Group Structure

A resilient characteristic in team sport that involves positive group norms and values, clearly defining communication channels.

Mastery Approaches

A resilient characteristic in team sport that is an effective behavioural response that effectively manages change.

Social Capital

A resilient characteristic in team sports that involves social support and strong group identity.

Career

A sequence of positions held during the course of a lifetime, some of them simultaneously.

Vicarious Learning

A strategy to cope with emotions in which modelling appropriate behaviours make it more likely that behaviour will be produced.

Self-Statement Modification

A strategy to cope with emotions that changes negative to positive statements.

Storytelling, metaphors, and poetry

A strategy to cope with emotions that encourage athletes to consider alternative ways of viewing and dealing with the situation.

Goal Setting

A strategy to cope with emotions that focuses on achieving a specific outcome.

Self-Analysis

A strategy to cope with emotions that monitor emotions in sport and thus increase self-awareness.

Corrective Experiences

A strategy to cope with emotions where an athlete makes a conscious decision to engage in the behaviour that is of concern, which can reduce anxiety and correct past mistakes.

Reframing

A strategy to cope with emotions where perspective taking involves viewing important competition as just another game.

Awareness Context

A thanatological Model: 1. Closed 2. Suspicion 3. Mutual Pretence 4. Open

Reversal Theory

A theory of personality, motivation, and emotion in field of psychology. Meta motivational states organised into pairs: - Telic - Paratelic Effect of arousal on performance determined by individual's interpretation of arousal level.

Exchange Theory

A type of social gerontology, where successful ageing can be achieved through rearrangement of social networks and activities.

Social Breakdown Theory

A type of social gerontology, where with any role loss, individuals become suspectable to external labelling and if this is unfavorable then will tend to withdraw.

Problem gambling

All patterns of gambling behaviour that compromise, disrupt, or damage personal, family or vocational pursuits.

Hypnosis

An altered state of consciousness that can be induced by a procedure in which a person is in an unusually relaxed state and responds to suggestions for making alterations in perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or actions.

Career Transitions

An event/non-event resulting in a change in assumptions about oneself and the world, thus requiring a change in one's behaviour and relationships.

Stress Inoculation Training

An individual is exposed to and learns to cope with stress in an increasing amounts, thereby enhancing his or her immunity to stress.

Need Achievement Theory

An interaction view that considers both personal and situational factors as important predictors of behaviour. 1. Personality factors. 2. Situational factors. 3. Resultant tendency. 4. Emotional reactions. 5. Achievement behaviour.

Physical Activity

Any body movement produced by skeletal muscles and resulting in an increase to energy expenditure.

Inverted-U Theory

Arousal facilitates performance to a point, further increases in arousal finds a decrease in performance.

Catastrophe Theory

Arousal related to performance similar to inverted U theory, ONLY when athlete has low cognitive state anxiety. If cognitive state anxiety is high, there is threshold point at which "catastrophe" occurs.

Democratic Leadership

Athlete-centred, task orientated, flexible, cooperative, relationship oriented.

Why regulate arousal?

Athletes who don't effectively cope with stress may have decreases in performance as well as mental and physical distress. Athletes need to be able to regulate arousal to stay focuses and in control. Need self-awareness of your psychological states before you can control your thoughts and feelings.

Attribution Theory

Attribution theory focuses on how people explain their successes and failures. How performers explain or attribute their performance affects their expectations and emotional reactions, which in turn influence future achievement motivation.

Transformational

Builds trust, inspires others, encourages innovation, acts with integrity. 1. Collective sense of identity. 2. Distinctive roles. 3. Structured modes of communication. 4. Norms (social rules that guide members on what to do/not do).

Overconfidence (false confidence)

Causes you to prepare less than you need in order to perform

Overconfidence (False Confidence)

Causes you to prepare less than you need to in order to perform.

Stages of Dying

Certain reactions used by terminal patients to deal with impending death. Denial - Anger - Bargaining - Depression - Acceptance.

Mental Skills Family

Choose and maintain a positive attitude. Maintain a high level of self-motivation. Set high, realistic goals. Deal effectively with people. Use positive self-talk. Use positive mental imagery. Manage anxiety effectively. Manage their emotions effectively. Maintain concentration.

Clinical Sport Psychology

Clinical sport and exercise psychologists treat athletes and exercisers who have severe emotional disorders.

Mental Practice

Cognitive rehearsal of a physical skill in the absence of overt movement. MP techniques include visualisation, mental rehearsal, symbolic rehearsal, covert practise, visual motor behaviour rehearsal, modelling.

Tertiary Treatment Distress

Cognitive restructuring, emotion expression, account making/confiding , vocational/financial guidance.

Team Skills

Collective qualities of the team that are instrumental to an effective team climate and overall team success.

Stage 2: SR

Commitment

High Athletic Identity

Consistent with pursing sporting career.

Optimal Confidence

Convinced that you will achieve your goals that you strive hard to do so.

Lack of Confidence (Self-Doubt)

Creates anxiety, breaks concentration, and causes indecisiveness.

Lack of Confidence (self-confidence)

Creates anxiety, breaks concentration, and causes indecisiveness.

Periodised Training

Deliberate strategy of exposing athletes to high-volume and high-intensity training loads, followed by lower load.

Life Cycle

Development of groups is similar to the life cycle. Emphasis is on the terminal phase of the group's existence. As the group develops, it psychologically prepares for its own breakup.

Educational Sport Psychology

Educational sport psychology specialists are mental coaches who educate athletes and exercisers about psychological skills and their development. they are not trained to work with individuals who have severe emotional disorders.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Expecting something to happen actually helps cause it to happen.

Stage 5: SR

Generalisation

Physiological measures of arousal and anxiety

Heart Rate EMG GSR

Sport

Highly competitive, structured environment, emphasis on physical skill and winning.

Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Imagery

Imagery ability Skill level of performer Nature of task Imagery perspective Correctiveness of Imagery Amount of MP/ Imagery.

Psycho neuromuscular Theory

Imagery facilitates activity patterns similar to actual performance (strengths neural pathways).

Symbolic Learning Theory

Imagery may function as a coding system to help people understand and acquire movement patterns. One way individuals learn skills is by becoming familiar with what needs to be done to successfully perform them.

Polysensory (multisensory) Imagery

Imagery that involves more than one sense modality (visual, auditory, kinaesthetic).

Educational Imagery

Imagery that is multi sensory and also includes emotional involvement.

Cognitive-Mediational Model

Incorporated a situational approach, but emphasises relationships between situational, cognitive, behavioural and individual difference variables.

Arousal Affects and Performance

Increased muscular tension Altered attention, concentration and visual search.

How arousal affects performance

Increased muscular tension, altered attention, concentration and visual search.

Ringleman effect

Individual performance decreases as number of people in group increases due to a decrease in motivation rather than coordination.

Interactional View

Interactionists contend that motivation results neither solely from participant factors nor solely from situational factors; rather the best way to understand motivation is to examine how these two sets of factors interact.

Foundational Skills

Intra personal resources that are the basic mental skills necessary for achieving success.

Athletic Career

Multiyear competitive-sport involvement of individuals aimed at achieved individual peak athletic performance in one or several sport events.

Autocratic

Outcome orientated, often confrontational, very structured, inflexible, often feared by athletes.

Intrinsic Motivation

Performing an action or behaviour because you enjoy the activity itself.

Psycho dynamic Theory

Personality characterised by unconscious determinants of behaviour and conflicts with other more conscious aspects of personality.

Situational Approach

Personality is built up out of our experiences of the social world (Bandura, 1977). We learn through two different types of experiences modelling and reinforcement.

Personality

Personality is the underlying relatively stable psychological structures and processes that organise human experiences and shape a person's actions and reactions to the environment.

Exercise

Planned, structured, repetitive from of PA undertaken with a specific objective such as improvement of fitness, health, or physical performance.

Transtheoretical Model

Pre-contemplation: not considering change Contemplation: thinking about change. Preparation: getting ready to make change. Actions: making the change. Maintenance: sustaining behaviour change until integrated into lifestyle.

Trait Anxiety

Predisposes an individual to perceive as threatening a wide range of circumstances that objectively may not actually be physically or psychologically dangerous.

Primary Prevention Model

Preventing problems before they occur, encouraging more holistic approach and prevention orientated programs.

Stage 1: SR

Problem identification

Multidimensional Model

Processes where three sets of factors interact: 1. Characteristics of individual. 2. Individual's perception of transition. 3. Characteristics of pre-transition and post-transition environments.

Somatic Anxiety Reduction

Progressive muscle relaxation Breath Control Biofeedback

Disordered Eating

Refers to spectrum of exaggerated eating patterns involving increased health risks. Often these are not severe enough to meet the diagnostic criteria of the DSM.

Emotion-Focus Coping

Regulating the emotional responses to the problem that causes the stress (e.g., through relaxation, meditation).

Drive Theory

Relationship between arousal and performance is direct and linear.

Typical Responses

The second component of Hollander's structure of personality. This is the usual way an individual responds to the their environment. The responses may indicate the nature of an individuals core.

Psychological Skills Training (PST)

The systematic and consistent practise of mental or psychological skills for the purpose of enhancing performance, increasing enjoyment, or achieving greater sport and physical activity satisfaction.

Role-Related Behaviour

The third concept of Hollander's structure of personality. This is determined by our perception of the environment. Action may not be a typical response but uncharacteristic action. It is the most changeable aspect of personality.

Cognitive Anxiety

Thought component of Anxiety.

Transactional

Trading rewards and/or punishments for athlete behaviours/ performance.

Team

Two or more people who interact, and exert mutual influence on each other.

Triple Code Model

Understanding three effects that are essential parts of imagery; the effects are referred to as ISM. 1. The image 2. Somatic responses 3. Meaning

Purpose of psychological measures of personality

Use to gather information from people that you want to assist. Don't use to predict performance or team/squad selection. Don't use to describe or categorise. Use intra-individual approach.

Unstructured Projective Procedures

Used to identify motives or deeper aspects of personality. It is closely associated with psychoanalytic approach.

Motivation

Motivation is the direction and intensity of effort.

Resiliency

The ability to bounce back from adversity.

Situation-Centred View

Motivation level is determined primarily by situation.

Coping Strategies Frequently Used by Athletes

- Task focus - Rational Thinking and self talk. - Positive focus and orientation. - Social support. - Mental preparation and anxiety. management. - Time management. - Training hard and smart.

Common problems implementing PST programs.

Lack of Conviction Lack of Time Lack of Follow up

Contingency Theory

Leadership effectiveness is situation specific - effectiveness of group is contingent on relationship between leadership style and degree to which situation enables leader to exert influence.

Performance Skills

Mental abilities critical to the execution of sills during performance.

Self-Regulation

Mental rehearsal Arousal regulation Attention control Ideal performance state Self-efficacy

Personal Development Skills

Mental skills that represent significant maturational makers of personal development allowing for high-level psychological functioning through clarity of self-concept, feelings of well-being, and a sense of relatedness to others.

Multidimensional Anxiety Theory.

Model can be extended to include other positive and negative emotions that influence performance.

Trait-Centred View (participant -centred view)

Motivated behaviour is primarily a function of individual characteristics. That is, the personality, needs and goals of an individual.

Biochemical measures of arousal and anxiety

Salivary Cortisol

Self-confidence

Self-confidence is the belief that you can successfully perform a desired behaviour.

Bias in Attribution

Self-serving bias Self-handicapping

Over training

Short cycle of training when athletes expose themselves to excessive training loads near to maximum capacity.

Body dysmorphic disorder

Somatoform disorder marked by preoccupation with an imagined or trivial defect in appearance that causes clinically distress or impairment in social, occupational or other areas of functioning.

Attribution Categories

Stability Locus of causality Locus of control

Limitations of Psychological Measures

Tests are imperfect, e.g. measurement error, validity of instrument, reliability. Some tests require specialist training/accreditation.

Self-regulation

The ability to manage disruptive emotions and impulses, and to think before you react. The ability to work towards goals effectively monitoring and managing one's thoughts, feelings and behaviours.

Applied Sport Psychology

The application of psychological principles to individuals and groups.

Leadership

The behavioural process influencing individuals and groups towards set goals. The process whereby an individual influences a group to achieve a common goal.

State Self-Confidence

The belief of certainty that individuals have at a particular moment about their ability to succeed.

Self-Confidence

The belief that you can successfully perform a desired behaviour.

The Psychological Core

The central component of Hollander's structure of personality. It involves the 'real you' that is relatively permanent and unlikely to change.

Competence Motivation Theory

The competence motivation theory holds that people are motivated to feel worthy or competent and, moreover, that such feelings are the primary determinants of motivation.

Dispositional Self-Confidence

The degree of certainty individuals usually have about their ability to succeed.

Somatic Anxiety

The degree of physical activation perceived.

Somatic State Anxiety

The moment-to-moment changes in perceived physiological activation.

self-efficacy

The perception of ones ability to perform a task successfully.

Negative Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

The psychological barrier whereby the expectation of failure leads to actual failure.

Sport and Exercise Psychology

The scientific study of people and their behaviour in sport and exercise contexts.