Beliefs in Society

Religious Organisations: Sects

- A sect is an organisation whose members join of their own free-will. - It may be lead by a charismatic leader and sect members tends to believe in the superiority of their group. - They are the chosen ones who are to be 'saved', 'enlightened' or have experienced the 'truth'. - Sect beliefs tend to conflict with those of society. - Sects are generally insular and make strong claims on the loyalty of their members. - Sects often attempt to repress individuality- in some, new members are encouraged to take on a new name and contact with family and friends is restricted. - Personal responsibility may be surrendered and little opportunity given for freedom of thought.

Religious Fundamentalism: Features of fundamentalism

- According to Giddens, fundamentalists are: 1) Traditionalists who seek to return to the basics or fundamentals of their faith. 2) They believe unquestioningly in the literal and infallible truth of scripture. 3) Fundamentalists believe theirs is the only true view of the world. They are intolerant and refuse to engage in dialogue with others. 4) Fundamentalists tends to avoid contact with others who think differently. They rely upon guardians of tradition, such as the clergy, to interpret sacred text and lay down rules that determine their lifestyle.

Religion as a Conservative Force (barrier to change): Functionalism: Parsons

- According to Parsons the role of religion is to provide and underpin the core values of any culture, and the social norms which regulate peoples behaviour. - The set of moral beliefs and values in religion may become so deeply ingrained through socialisation that it may affect everyday behaviour. - However, many sociologists argue that western societies are becoming more secular and as such it is unlikely that religion still acts as an agent of social control as it may well have done in the past. - In today's society, people are more lily to be dissuaded from committing deviant acts by either the media or heavy use of surveillance technology in many towns as cities.

Why are sects thought to be short lived? The problem of maintain commitment and fervour.

- Barker suggest that in world-rejecting NRMs, the commitment required is hard to maintain. - Niebuhr though the enthusiastic fervour and commitment of sect members is far to sustain after the first generation. either the sect will then gradually wither away, to it will need to become less of a protest movement and modify its beliefs and practices to accommodate mainstream society, thus meaning the sect becomes more denomination like as it settles down. - Becker identified this process when he described a denomination a 'sect that has cooled down' as it loses some of its initial fervour, and becomes more world-accommodating and 'respectable'. - However, Aldridge suggests that many sects have existed a long time while still retaining feature as sects e.g. Jehovah's Witnesses.

Religious Fundamentalism: Responses to postmodernity

- Bauman sees fundamentalism as a response to living in postmodernity. - Postmodern society brings freedom of choice, uncertainty and a heightened awareness of risk, undermining the old certainties about how to live that were grounded in tradition. - In this situation, while some embrace the new freedom, other are attracted to fundamentalism by its claims of absolute truth and certainty. - Castells distinguishes between two responses to postmodernity: 1) Resistant Identity- a defensive reaction of the who feel threatened and retreat into fundamentalist communities. 2) Project Identity- the response of those who are forward looking and engage with social movements such as feminism and environmentalism.

Religious Fundamentalism Evaluation

- Bedeford criticises Giddens, Bauman and Castells on several grounds: 1) They distinguish too sharply between cosmopolitanism and fundamentalism, ignoring 'hybrid' movements. 2) The are 'fixated on fundamentalism', ignoring other important developments including how globalisations also affecting non-fundamentalist religions such as Catholicism. - Giddens lumps all types of fundamentalism together, ignoring important differences between them. - Giddens' description of fundamentalism as a defensive reaction to modernity ignores the fact that reinventing tradition is also a modern, 'reflexive' action. - Haynes argues that we should not focus narrowly on the idea that Islamic fundamentalism is a reaction against globalisation. - Bruce argues that different fundamentalists movements have different origins. - In the west fundamentalism is often a reaction to change taking place within society, especially trends toward diversity and choice. - In the third world, fundamentalism is usually a reaction to changes being thrust upon them, such as 'western' values through capitalism, this can be shown in the Islamic revolution of Iran.

Religion and Economic Development: Pentecostalism in South America

- Berger argues that pentecostalism in Latin America acts as a 'functional equivalent' to Weber's Protestant Ethic. This is because it encourages the development of capitalism today in the same way Calvinism did in the 16th/17th Century. - Latin American pentecostalists embrace a work ethic and lifestyle similar to that of Calvinists. Berger concludes that pentecostalism has a string affinity with modern capitalism. - However, Berger underlines Weber's point that religious ideas alone are not enough to produce economic development- natural resources are also needed.

Religion as a Cultural Defence

- Bruce argues that one function religion has in today's world is being a cultural defence. - This is where religion serves to unite a community against an external threat. In such situations, religion has special significance for its followers because it symbolises the groups or society's collective identity. - Defending the community against a threat often gives religions a prominent role in politics. - For example, in Iran, Islam became the focus for opposition to a corrupt, brutal and western backed regime lead by the Shah. - Eventually, in 1979, an Islamic inspired revolution removed the Shah from power and led to the creation on an Islamic republic. the revolution as led by religious leaders such as Ayatollah Khomeini, he enforced an Islamic regime which followed strict Sharia law. - In this context you can see how religion can act as a cultural defence, especially in a transnational dimension, such as Western cultures being enforced through capitalism onto Eastern, Islamic cultures.

Evidence Supporting Secularisation: Secularisation from Within

- Bruce argues that the American religion has adjusted to a modern world amounts to secularisation from within. - The emphasis on traditional christian beliefs has declined and American religion has been 'psychologised' or turned into a type of therapy. In other words, American religion has become less religious in order to remain popular. - However, Roof and McKinney argue that Bruce has ignored the growth of conservative protestant religions, which seem to combine a serious commitment to religious teachings, a strong element of theological doctrine and a refusal to compromise religious beliefs.

Religion as a force for social change: The US Civil Right Movement

- Bruce argues that the black clergy in the US in the early 1960s were the backbone of the civil rights movement. - In this context he sees religion as an 'ideological resource' for the civil rights movement because they provided beliefs and practises that believers could draw upon for motivation and support. - For example, the churches were able to channel dissent towards the racial segregation policies of the time and were a vehicle for mobilising both black and white public opinion in favour of civil rights for blacks.

Evidence Supporting Secularisation: Technological/Scientific World View

- Bruce argues that the growth of a technological world view has largely replaced religions or supernatural explanations of why things happen. For example, plane crashes are now a result of technology, not because it's in God's plan. - Bruce concludes that although scientific explanations do not challenge religion directly, they have greatly reduced the scope for religious explanations. - However, religious explanations survive in areas where technological and scientific explanations are less effective e.g. praying through hard times.

Postmodernist Explanations of the New Age Evaluation

- Bruce argues that the growth of the New Age is a feature of the latest phase of modern society, and not postmodernity. Modern society values individualism, which is also a key principle in New Age beliefs. It is also a particularly important value among those in the 'expressive professions' concerned with human potential. - Bruce notes that New Age beliefs are often softer versions of much more demanding and self-disciplined traditional Eastern religions such as Buddhism that have been 'watered down' to make them palatable to self-centred westerners. - This explain why New Age activities are often audience or client cults, since these make few demands of their followers. - Bruce sees the New Age eclecticism or pick 'n' mix spiritual shopping as typical of religion in late modern society, reflecting the consumerist this of capitalist society.

Arguments Against Secularisation: Cultural Defence and Transition

- Bruce identifies 2 counter-trends that seem to go against secularisation theory" 1) Cultural Defence is where religion provides a focal point for the defence of national, ethnic, local or group identity in a struggle against an external force such as hostile foreign power. 2) Cultural Transition is where religion provides support and a sense of community for ethnic groups such as migrants to a different country and culture. - However, Bruce argues that religion survives in such situations only because it is a focus for group identity.

Age and Religion: Younger People and Religion: Declining religious education

- Bruce points out the Church of England is increasingly unable to recruit young people by socialising them into religious thinking through such things as church Sunday schools or religious education. - In 2000 the amount of children going to Sunday school was 1 in 25, but a century and a half before that all children attended Sunday school.

What is a New Age Religion?

- Bruce suggests New Age religion consists os 5 main features: 1) The emphasis on the self, and freeing the 'self within', which is seen as essentially good and divine. 2) Everything is connected. This involves a holistic approach, with the mind, body and spirit all connected, and individuals connected to the environment and supernatural. 3) The self is the final authority. There is no authority higher than the individual, and no single truth: the truth is what the individual believes and what works for them- personal experience is the only test that matters. 4) The global cafeteria. There is a vast range of beliefs, therapies and techniques drawn from across the globe, and people can mix these as they choose. 5) Therapy. New age ideas are designed to be therapeutic to make you more successful, healthier and happier.

Gender and Religious Beliefs: Explanations: Nurturing

- Bruce suggests women's socialisation into the nurturing aspects related to traditional femininity together with their child bearing and rearing experiences make them less confrontational, and more cooperative/caring. - This would explain their greater involvement not just in mainstream denominations, but also in sects and NAMs.

Secularisation Evaluation: Definitions of religion

- Conclusion about the secularisation debate are only possible if there is agreement over the nature of religion and what we should include within this definition. - However, more inclusive definitions of religion are likely to question the secularisation thesis because they can include ideas about belief in some form of 'spirit' or 'life force' in their definitions of religious beliefs.

Secularisation Evaluation:Variations between and within societies

- Conclusions about secularisation will also influenced by where sociologists are looking at it. Lots of the evidence in the UK and Western Europe might be seen as supporting the secularisation thesis, but evidence is much less clear in the USA and religion can be seen as dominating society. - What is clear is that secularisation is not a universal process but, on the other hand, few supporters of the secularisation thesis would argue that it is. - It can therefore be argued that the national, regional, ethnic and social class differences in the role of religion make it necessary to relate to debate about secularisation to specific contexts.

Religious Organisations: Cults

- Cults share many of the characteristics of sects. However, cults are different in that people normally join to achieve some practical ends. - Cults do not usually challenge social norms and usually appeal to the socially privileged. - Stark and Bainbridge distinguish between: > 'audience cults' which tend to be unorganised e.g. astrology. > 'client cults' which are organised to provide a service e.g. Spiritualism. > 'cultic movements' which offer spiritual and material support to their members.

Gender and Religious Beliefs: Explanations: Visions of God

- Dabue suggests that women associate God with love and comfort, which are linked to traditional femininity and family roles. - In contrast, men associate God with power and might. - The fact that women associate God with a people orientated approach may explain there greater involvement in religion.

Religion as a Conservative Force (barrier to change): Functionalism: Durkheim: Civil Religion

- Durkheim believed that the supernatural dimensions of religion would eventually disappear, and that other 'civil religions' might take on this role in people's lives. - Civil religion suggests that scared qualities are attached to aspects of society itself, with non-religious rituals performing similar functions as religion, although having no link to the supernatural. - However, once we abandon the link between religion and some form of belief in supernatural forces, then it is questionable whether we are still really talking about religion at all.

Ethnicity and Religious Beliefs: Reasons for High Levels of Religious Commitment: Family Structures

- Family structures are much higher in Asian communities, with strong extended families. - This combined with generally close-knit communities, Amy result in the pressure to conform to religious values and behaviour.

Ethnicity and Religious Beliefs: Reasons for High Levels of Religious Commitment: Community Cohesion and Identity

- Functionalist writers, such as Durkheim, emphasise the rile of religion in social integration, in building groups solidarity, shared values and identity. - Davie suggests that higher levels of religiosity help to maintain tradition, groups cohesion and community solidarity. For example, Mosques and Sikh Temples are community centres as well as places of worship and provide a focus for social life as well as a means of protecting.promoting cultural values/traditions. - Modood found religion was important in the lives of minty ethnic groups as a source of socialisation, and as a means of maintaining traditional morality. It also helped to cope with the worries and and pressures in life, perhaps arising from the hostility and discrimination of racism.

Religious Fundamentalism: The growth of fundamentalism

- Giddens sees the growth of fundamentalism as a product of and reaction to globalisation, which undermines traditional social norms concerning the nuclear family, gender and sexuality. - In today's 'late modern' society, individuals are constantly faced with choice, uncertainty and risk. - The attraction of fundamentalism and its rigid, dogmatic beliefs is the certainty that it promises in an uncertain world. - However, while fundamentalists detest modernity, they use modern methods to express and spread their beliefs. Giddens identifies fundamentalist versions of several major religions, including christianity, Islam and Hinduism.

Religion and Economic Development: God and globalisation in India

- Globalisation has brought rapid economic growth and has seen India become a more important player in world politics. - It has also brought prosperity to India's MC. - Meera Nandas' book, God and Globalisation, examines the role of Hinduism, the religion of 85% of the population, in legitimating both the rise of a new Hindu 'ultra-nationalism' and the prosperity of the MC.

Religion and Economic Development: Hinduism and the rise of the MC in India

- Globalisation has created a huge and prosperous MC in India working in IT, pharmaceuticals, and biotechnology sectors closely tied to the global economy. - However, as Nanda observes a vast majority of this class continue to believe in the supernatural. A Survey by the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (2007) found that Indians are becoming more religious. - Another feature of this MC religiosity is that they look to what are considered low-status village Gods and Goddess worshipped by the poor, this is because they are believed to be more responsive to people's needs. - Nanda argues that their increasing religiosity is the result of their uncertainty about their new found wealth. This stems from a tension between the traditional Hindu belief in renunciation of materialism and worldly desires, and the new prosperity of the MC. - However, this is resolved by the tele-gurus they turn to who preach that it is ok, as it is motivated by a manifestation of divinity. - This modern Hinduism legitimates the position of the MC.

Gender and Religious Beliefs: Explanations: Life, Death and Changes in life

- Greeley suggests that caring tends to be associated with a more religious outlook. - Walter and Davie see women as more exposed than men to the ups and downs and changes to life, this is because of their biological involvement through childbirth. - Davie suggests that these factors give women a closer association with birth and death than men, and these are also central issues fro religion. - They make women more aware of the vulnerability of human life, and more attuned to the spiritual dimensions of human existence.

Arguments Against Secularisation: Resacrilisation

- Heelas argued that data from his Kendal research found that although there might be a secularisation in terms of traditional religions, there has also been a process of resacrilisation- a renewal and continuing variety of religious beliefs. - This suggests that religious belief is not disappearing, but its simply being reorientated- taking a new form in which people 'pick n mix' their spirituality. - However, Glendinning and Bruce point out that Heelas' work showed that fewer than 1 in 50 people in and around Kendal were engaged in 'New Age' activities in a typical week, and fewer than half saw them as spiritual activities.

The Appeal of NAMs and NRMs: The Key to Success

- Heelas suggest that world affirming NRMs and NAMs appeal to more affluent, uni-educated, socially integrated and generally successful MC groups whose members nonetheless find something missing in their lives. - Wallis argues that world-affirming movements like scientology are likely to appeal to such groups for various reasons: They claim to offer knowledge, techniques and therapies that enable people to unlock spiritual powers within themselves, helping to reduce stress and anxiety in work and their personal lives.

Religion as a force for social change: The Iranian Revolution

- In 1979, the Shah of Iran was deposed by a revolutionary Islamic group led by the Ayatollah Khomeini who opposed the westernisation of Iran. - Khomeini was quick to set up a model Islamic state based on ancient Sharia laws as laid down by the Koran. - The revolution was lead by Islamic religious leaders thus showing how religion can act as a force for social change.

Religion and Economic Development: Capitalism in the East

- In recent decades, the so-called East-Asain tiger economies' such as South Korea, Singapore and Taiwan, have successfully industrialised and become significant players int he global economy. China has also become a major global industrial power. - The success of capitalism in East Asia has led some sociologists to argue that religion has played a role similar to the one that Calvinism played in the development of capitalism in 16th/17th century Europe.

Religion and the 'clash of civilisations' Criticisms

- Jackson sees Huntington's work as an example of orientalism- a western ideology that stereotypes Eastern nations and people as untrustworthy, inferior or fanatical 'others' and serves to justify exploitation and human rights abuses by the west. - Casanova argues that Huntington ignores important religious divisions within within the 'civilisations' he identifies e.g. between Sunni and Shi'a Islam. -Horrie and Chippindale see the 'clash of civilisations' as a grossly misleading neoconservative ideology that portrays the whole is Islam as an enemy. In reality, only a tiny minority of the worlds 1.5 billion muslims are remotely interested in a holy war against the west. - Armstrong argues that hostility towards the west does not stem from fundamentalist Islam, but it is a reaction to western foreign policy in the Middle East. The west has propped up oppressive regimes and continues to support Israel despite its aggressive treatment of Palestinians.

Religion as a Conservative Force: Feminism: Evaluation

- Karen Armstrong argues that early religions often placed women at the centre. For example, Mother Earth goddesses. - While religion may be used to oppress women, Nawal El Saadawi argues that it is not the direct cause of their subordination. Rather this is the result of patriarchal forms of society coming into existence in the last few thousand years. However, once in existence, patriarchy began too influence and reshape religion. - Like Armstrong, El Saadawi sees the rise of monotheism as legitimating the power of men over women.

Age and Religion: Younger People and Religion: Pragmatic reasons

- Leisure has become a much bigger part of life, and shops, clubs and pubs all open for very long hours, including Sundays. - Young people also have more demands for their time, and they simply may have more interesting and enjoyable things to do. - Generally, it is seen as very 'uncool' to be religious in many young peer groups, which exerts social pressure not to be religious.

Religion as a Conservative Force: Feminism: Criticisms

- Linda Woodhead criticises feminist explanations that simply equate religion with patriarchy and the oppression of women. She argues that there are 'religious forms of feminism'- ways in which women use religion to gain greater freedom and respect. -For example, Western women tend to see the hijab worn by many Muslim women as a symbol of oppression, but to the wearer it may symbolise resistance to oppression. This is because it allows them to leave the home and enter education/work. - Watson argues that the veiling of Islamic women can be interpreted as beneficial to Muslim women. She argues that the veiling is often a reaction against the increasingly pervasive western culture. This can be seen as an attempt to assert independence, a separate identity, and a rejection of western cultural imperialism.

Age and Religion: Younger People and Religion: Secular spirituality and the sacred

- Lynch suggests that even though people may not follow conventional religions, they may have religious beliefs inspired by what are generally regarded as non-religious or secular life. - Lynch. suggests that young people may not have lost all religosity, but that it is simply finding new forms, many of which are associated more with the secular non-religious world than with religion as it is presently understood by most people.

Age and Religion: Younger People and Religion: The expanding spiritual marketplace

- Lynch suggests that young people may be turning away from conventional ideas of religion as there is new what roof called an 'expanded spiritual marketplace'. - This involves growing exposure and accessibility to a wide diversity of religious and spiritual ideas, which has opened up new avenues for exploring religion and spirituality. - Lynch suggests that these have meant there are now more sources for young people to draw on to build religious and spiritual beliefs, identities and lifestyles, and these may be finding expression outside traditional religions and religious organisations.

Evidence Supporting Secularisation: Disneyfication

- Lyon suggests the idea of disneyfication to support secularisation. It is the process that diminishes human life by trivialising it or making taking part in it appear to be little more than a joke. - In post-modern societies, religion is forced to market and package itself in many different guises, for example, the 'electronic church' on the internet and televangelism on TV, in order to compete with a whole host of other leisure products. - Lyon suggests that religion has been disneyfied and packaged as a commodity. - However, postmodernists claim that the growth of religious media and the electric church is evidence against secularisation as religion is just adapting to fit the time. - Bruce argues that the consumerist religion Lyon describes is weak, this is because it has little effect on the lives of its followers. As such, he sees it as evidence of secularisation.

Are all sects short lived? Aldridge: They myth of death or denomination

- Many believe that sects either die or become denominational. - However, Aldridge argues that the suggestion that sects must over time either disappear or turn into denomination is false. - He points out: > Many sects have existed as long time while still retaining their features as sects, such as Jehovah's Witnesses. > Not all sects depend on charismatic leadership. > Many sects have been successful in socialising their children into acceptance of the sects beliefs and practises, while also converting adults. > Sects can maintain strict standards of conduct, including expelling those who fail to conform to these standards, over long periods of time.

Religion as a Conservative Force: Feminism

- Many feminists regard religion as a patriarchal institution that reflects and perpetuates this inequality. - Religious beliefs function as a patriarchal ideology that legitimates female subordination. - Like Marxists, feminists offer a much more negative view of a religion suggesting that it inhibiting social change that would actually be beneficial for society.

Religion as a Conservative Force: Marxism

- Marx saw religion as part of the dominant ideology, and believed that it reproduced and reinforced the false class consciousness. - Althusser saw religion as an ideological state apparatus- an institution spreading the dominant ideology and manufacturing what Gramsci called hegemony. - Marx though religion did 2 main interrelated things: 1) It acted as the 'opium of the people', cushioning the pain of oppression and exploitation sin unequal societies. 2) It legitimised and maintained the power of the ruling class.

Evidence Supporting Secularisation: The Decline of Religious Practise

- Most evidence for secularisation comes from church attendance stats e.g. in 1851 40% of the population went to church (consensus), in 2005 this had dropped to 6.3% (English church consensus) - Wilson, like the New Right, sees the decline in church marriages, the rising divorce rates and the increase in cohabitation and number of children born outside of marriage as evidence that religion and its moral value system exerts little influence today. - However, interpretivist sociologists suggest these statistics should have be treated with caution for the following reasons: stats relating to previous centuries are probably unreliable because sophisticated data-collection practise were not in place. - Contemporary stats may also be unreliable because religious organisations employ different counting methods.

Secularisation Evaluation: Religious decline or change?

- Most sociologists would agree that the evidence suggests that traditional religious thinking and beliefs, practise and institutions are dealing, at least in the UK and much of Europe. - However, the key disagreements are over whether this represents a decline in the importance of religion or simply change in its nature.

The Appeal of NAMs and NRMs: Relative Deprivation

- NRMs and NAMs also attract members of the MC. Glock and Stark use relative deprivation to explain this- some members of the MC may feel relatively deprived compared with other groups. - Glock and Stark identify 4 different types of relative deprivation: 1) Social Deprivation may stem from lack of power, prestige and status e.g. this lacking job satisfaction may find alternative sources of satisfaction in the evangelical goals set by conversions sects such as Mormons. 2) Organismic Deprivation is experienced by this who suffer physical and mental problems e.g. may turn to sects in the hope of being healed. 3) Ethical Deprivation is the result of people perceiving the world to be in moral decline and therefore retreating into an introversions sect e.g. Jim Jones' People's Temple. 4) Physic Deprivation refers to those searching for more than the dominant value system offers. They may wish for inner spiritual fulfilment rather than the consumerist goals on offer in capitalist societies.

Arguments Against Secularisation: Existential Security Theory

- Norris and Inglehart argue the demand for religion varies both within and between societies. Demand is greatest from low-income groups and societies because they feel less secure and are more at risk from life-threatenings events such as famine. - This explains why third world countries remain religious whilst more prosperous western countries have become more secular. - However, Vasquez argues that Norris and Inglehart use only quantitative data about income levels- they don't examine people's own definitions pf 'existential security'. - Furthermore, they view religion as a negative response to deprivation. They ignore the positive reasons people have for religious participation.

Religion as a force for social change: Afghanistan and the Taliban

- Not all social change is progressive. - The Taliban regime in Afghanistan during the 1990s set up possibly the most extreme form of religious regime ever witnessed, based on an extremely harsh interpretation of the Koran. - Women were forced to wear traditional dress, men were forced to grow beards, they were not allowed any pictorial representation of any living being, music was also banned. - Harsh punishments were handed out for the most simplest crimes. - Girls were forbidden from receiving any education after the age of eight, and all women were excluded from employment.

Secularisation Evaluation: Definitions of secularisation

- One of the most fundamental difficulties for reaching conclusions on the secularisation debate is agreeing what secularisation means. - The definition varies depending on whether sociologists are looking at decline of religious belief and practise, declining influence of religion in other sphere of life or secularisation with religious institutions themselves.

Religion as a force for social change: Liberation Theology

- Otto Maduro argues that liberation theology (a combination of the teachings of Christ and Marx) has encouraged people to actively change society in Central America. - Liberation theology states that far from being the passive recipients of aid from richer countries, it was essential that the poor themselves should organise and overthrow the oppressive regimes that impoverish and exploit them. - This is an example of religion providing what Gramsci called 'counter-hegemony' in which RC hegemony can be challenged by presenting to oppressed people the vision of an alternative and more just organisation of society.

Why are sects thought to be short lived? The changing circumstances of members and appeal of sects

- People original reasons for joining, such as social deprivation, marginality, anomie and the search for meaning, may cease to be relevant. - Barker suggests that in NRMs, as younger people grow older, the reasons that drive them into the sect to begin with starts to disappear. This means the sect may lose its world-rejecting features and become more denomination like. - However, Wilson questions whether world-rejecting and introversions sects can ever survive in denominational form, as they have to go out and convert people which may destroy the fundamental beliefs of the sect.

Why are sects thought to be short lived? Religious diversity in postmodern societies

- Postmodern societies are characterised by a fragmentation of belief and a wide diversity of religious, spiritual and other beliefs. - Postmodernists tend to see the beliefs people hold as a purely perusal matter, and they can go spiritual and religious shopping, picking, changing and choosing beliefs as freely as they may choose clothing. - There is greater tolerance of all beliefs today, and this may mean that religious sects have a short shelf-life as consumer tastes and current fads change.

Evidence Supporting Secularisation: The decline of meta-narratives and the rise of 'spiritual shopping'

- Postmodernists like Lyotard argue that metanarratives like religion have lost their power to influence how people think about, interpret and explain the world in postmodern society. - Herview-Leger argues that there has been a dramatic decline in institutional religion, caused by what she calls 'cultural amnesia'- religion is no longer handed down from generation to generation through extended families and parish churches. - As a result, young people no longer inherit a fixed religious identity and they are ignorant of traditional religion. - However, religion itself has not disappeared. - Instead, individual consumerism has replaced the collective worship tradition of the past. People today feel they have become spiritual shoppers. - Religion is now individualised as we develop our own 'do-it-youself' religions that give meaning to our lives.

Religion and the 'clash of civilisations'

- Recently religion has been the centre of many global conflicts e.g. 9/11 and 7/7 - Huntington argues that these conflicts have intensified since the collapse of communism in 1989 and are symptoms of hat he called a wider 'clash of civilisations'. - Religion has now become a major source of identity, for 3 main reasons: 1) With the fall of communism, political differences between nations have become less important as a source of identity. 2) Globalisation has made nation-states less significant as a source of identity. 3) Globalisation makes contact between civilisations easier and more frequent, increasing the likelihood of old conflicts re-emerging. - In Huntington's view religious differences are creating a new set of hostile 'us and them' relationships, with increased competition between civilisations for economic and military power. - He sees religious differences as harder than political ones to resolve because they are deeply rooted in culture and history.

Religion as a Conservative Force: Marxism: Religion as the 'opium of the people'

- Religion eases the pain of oppression and exploitation in 3 main ways: 1) Religion promises an eventual escape from suffering and oppression in this life with promises of an ecstatic future in life after death. 2) Religion offers hope of supernatural intervention to solve problems on earth. This promise for a future, found in many of the world's religions, can encourage people to accept their position and not act to change society. 3) Religion provides a religious explanation and justification for inequality. - Religion can only perform the role Marxists suggest both if people believe and if religion has some institutional power.

Ethnicity and Religious Beliefs: Reasons for High Levels of Religious Commitment: Social Identity

- Religion in minority ethnic groups can provide individuals with many makers of identity e.g. dress, food, and festivals. - John suggest that many young British Asians have forged a single new hybrid identity, which he calls 'Brasian', derived from blending both British and Asian culture. This involves establishing an identity by adopting selective elements of the religion of their parents, with strong dimensions of personal choice, such as marrying who they want but still having strong religious beliefs. - Butler's interviews with 18-30 year old Muslim women found that they some attachment to the religious values of their culture, and saw religion as important in shaping their identities, but they challenged some of the restrictions that traditional muslim culture imposed on them. - Jacobson found that a muslim identity, rather than Asian or Pakistani identity, appealed to young people, as it provided them with stability, security and certainty when they faced much uncertainty in other aspects of their lives.

Religion and Globalisation: The big picture

- Religion may contribute to development. In India, Hinduism legitimates MC prosperity and ultranationalism. - Fundamentalism believes in the literal truth of scripture. It is seen as a reaction to globalisation or a question for certainty in response to postmodernity. - Huntington argues that globalisation is leading to a 'clash of civilisations' associated with the major religious and especially between the West and Islam.

Religion as a Conservative Force (barrier to change): Functionalism: Malinowski

- Saw religion as reinforcing social norms and values and promoting social solidarity. However, Malinowski also saw religion as providing explanations for events that were hard to explain and security in the face of uncertainty. - Religion fulfils a need for emotional security and relieves situations of emotional stress which threaten social stability and solidarity. - Religion can provide a source of comfort, explanation and meaning for individuals when faced by crisis such as bereavement.

The Appeal of NAMs and NRMs: Marginality

- Sects may be evidence of disillusion with institutionalised religion and may result from a search for more genuine ways of satisfying spiritual needs. - Weber links sects to social stratification. Sects are more likely to emerge amongst the poor. Such groups may develop a 'theodicy of disprivilege'- a religious set of idea which explain why they are in that position, thus providing justification of their social marginalisation. - Stark and Bainbridge saw many world-rejecting NRMs as acting as that they call 'compensators' to help deal with problems of marginality, particularly as the secularisation of mainstream religions has meant they are less able to perform this role.

Why are sects thought to be short lived? The loss of charismatic leaders

- Sects that are founded and led by a single charismatic leader, whose inspirational personal magnetism and leadership attracted people into the sect, may lose support and disappear once the leader dies. - However, Aldridge argues that not all sects require a charismatic leader to be successful.

Postmodernist Explanations of the New Age

- Several explanations for the popularity of the New Age have been offered. - John Drane argues that it is part of a shift towards postmodern society. One of the features of postmodern society is a loss faith in meta-narratives or claims to have 'the truth'. - Science promised to bring progress to a better world but instead it has given us things like war. - As a result, people have lost faith in experts and professionals such as scientists and doctors, and they are disillusioned with the churches failure to meet their spiritual needs. - As a result, they are turning into the New Age idea that each of us can find truth for ourselves by looking within.

Ethnicity and Religious Beliefs: Reasons for High Levels of Religious Commitment: Social Deprivation, Marginality and Status Frustration

- Social deprivation and marginality, as well as the sense of dissatisfaction with a lack of status in society, may explain the high levels of religiosity. - People may turn ti religion as a source of identity, status and community, which they find lacking in mainstream society. - Marx's view of religion- as the 'opium of the people'- might explain higher levels of religiosity. - Religion may also provide a 'theodicy of disprivilege', as Weber suggested, and the compensators that Stark and Bainbridge identified. - This may explain the pentecostalism found among afro-caribbeans, and the Rastafarianism among alienated youth black men.

The Appeal of NAMs and NRMs: Social Change

- Some argue that religious sects are the product of social change, such change may create what Durkheim referred to as anomie. This is because social change undermines/disputes traditional norms and values. - Wilson argues that the popularity of world-accommodating groups such as Methodism on the late 18th and early 19th century was a reaction to anxieties created by industrialisation and urbanisation. - Bellah argues that the increase in sect and cult membership seen in the late 60s in the USA was because of MC youth experiencing a 'crisis of meaning' in regard to the materialistic values of their parents culture. Many turned to an alternative drug/pop culture which rejected such values.

The Appeal of NAMs and NRMs: Status Frustration

- Status frustration means that people feel unhappy about the position they find themselves in society. This is particularly associated with young people experiencing a long period of transition from childhood to adulthood. - Wallis suggests that NRMs are most likely to appeal to young people because they offer them an identity and overcome a sense of frustration. - World-rejecting groups may appeal to young people because they offer them a supportive community of people in similar situations, thus bringing a sense of community and independence. - However, status frustration can be short-lived, and Wallis concludes that NRMs involved only a very small proportion of the population for a short period of their lives.

Age and Religion: Older People and Religion

- The attachment of older people to religion is often explained by 3 main factors : 1) Disengagement: This is in the sense that as people get older they become detached from the integrating mechanisms of society. Older people may face a growing privatisation of their lives, with increasingly social isolation as partners die. Thus, participation in religious organisation provides a form of social support in this situation, and a network of people to relate to. 2) Religious Socialisation: Older people are more likely to have had a greater emphasis placed on religion through education and socialisation in the family when they were younger. 3) Ill health and death: Older people tend to e faced with declining health, and death looms on the horizon. These are the very things that religion concerns itself with. The ageing process and disengagement from society may therefore generate an engagement with religion for comfort, coping, meaning and support.

Age and Religion: Younger People and Religion: The decline attraction of religion

- The mainstream religious organisations are very unattractive to most young people. In many cases, they find services to be boring, repetitive and old-fashioned, full of old people, and out of touch with the styles and attitudes of young people. - Controversies in religon over issues like abortion, contraception, the ordination of women priests and bishops, gay priests and gay rights in general, sex before marriage and so on seem bizarre to many young people, and alien to the values they hold.

The Growth of the New Age: Characteristics of the new age

- The term 'new age' covers a range of beliefs and activities that have been widespread since at least the 1980s- Heelas estimates that there are about 2,000 such activities. - Many of them are very loosely organised audience or client cults. They are extremely diverse and eclectic e.g. astrology, tarot and crystals. - Self-spirituality new agers seeking the spiritual have turned away from traditional 'external' religions such as churches and instead look inside themselves to find it. - De-traditionalisation: The new age rejects the spiritual authority of external traditional sources such as priests or sacred texts. Instead it values personal experience and believe that we can discover the truth for ourselves within ourselves.

Arguments Against Secularisation: Growth of Fundamentalism

- There are many parts of the world where religion appears to be thriving/reviving under the influence of fundamentalism ideas that advocate unwavering obedience to religious laws e.g. the Taliban on Afghanistan - Almond identifies a growth in fundamentalism among Jews in Israel, Muslims in Pakistan, and even Buddhists in Sri Lanka. - Root and Mckinney argue the growth of conservative protestant groups in the USA demonstrates that secularisation is not occurring. - However, Bruce questions the significance of the growth of the New Christian Right. He agrees that they have slowed down the growth of secularisation within their own religious institution but failed to achieve much more than this.

Are all sects short lived? Wilson: Introversionist and Adventist/Revolutionary Sects

- There are two types of sects that Wilson saw as not being able to survive denominational form: 1) Intorversionist Sects are those, like the Amish, which believe that they only route to salvation involves total withdrawal from the corrupting influences of the world and becoming inwardly looking. Such sects therefore cannot survive in denominational form. 2) Adventist/Revolutionary Sects are those, like Jehovah's Witnesses, who hold millenarian beliefs that suggest that there is going to be some form of imminent, sudden, dramatic and catastrophic destruction of the evil and ungodly world, and only the exclusive few selected members of the sect will be saved. - They Amy spread their beliefs, but there cannot e any compromise with the world, as otherwise they would be counted as sinners and cast aside on Judgement Day.

New Religious Movements: New Age Movements

- These are similar to cults, many are simply consumer orientated, e.g. selling products such as music, herbal remedies, etc. - Others are organised and concerned with the selling of specific messages such as opposition to traditional scientific approaches, an emphasis on green issues like environmentalism and/or vegetarianism, and a focus on spiritual and personal empowerment.

Religion as a Conservative Force (barrier to change): Functionalism: Durkheim: The collective conscience

- These are the shared norms and values, beliefs and knowledge that make social life and cooperation between individuals possible. - For Durkheim, shared regular religious rituals reinforce the collective conscience and maintain social integration, therefore preventing any damaging rapid social change. - There is growing secularisation in many western societies and thus religion is unable to carry out some of its functions. - Religious thinking, practise and institutions are becoming less important both in the lives of individuals and in society as a whole, and those involved are a declining group.

Functional Definitions

- These define it in terms of the social or psychological functions it performs for individuals or society. - Durkheim defines religion in terms of the contribution it makes to social integration, rather than specific beliefs in God. - Yinger emphasises the functions that religion performs for individuals, such as answering 'ultimate questions'. - An advantage of these definitions is that it is inclusive- allowing us to include a wide range of beliefs and practises that perform functions such as integration. Also, they have no western bias. - However, just because an institution helps integrate individuals does not make it a religion.

Religion as a Conservative Force (barrier to change): Functionalism: Evaluation

- They downplay the role that religion can sometimes play in social change. For example, the establishment of an Islamic Republic in Iran in 1979 and the talibanisation of Afghanistan illustrate how religion can promote reactionary social change. - It is also possible the religion can promote progressive social change such as the role of liberation theology in opposing dictatorships in South America during the 70s. This shows how religion can acts as what Gramsci called 'counter-hegemony- in showing oppressed people alternative ways of organising societies. - Historically, religions seems to have played a far greater role in dividing people that in uniting them. - For example, there are conflicts within the same religion, like protestants and catholics in NI. - There are also conflicts between religons, such as, in contemporary Britain there are tensions between the Muslim community, and internationally there are links between terrorism and the predominately Christian west and Islamic Fundamentalism.

Religion as a Conservative Force (barrier to change): Functionalism

- They see it as promoting social harmony, social integration and social solidarity through the reinforcement of value consensus. - The Functionalist perspective is concerned with the role of religion in meeting the functions and basic needs of society. - Religion is seen by functionalists as part of the culture of society, and it helps to maintain cultural traditions and establish the basic rules of social life. - Although functionalism sees religion as a barrier to social change, they do so in a very positive way i.e. it benefits society by promoting social cohesion.

Social Constructionist Definitions

- They take an interpretivist approach that focus on how members of society themselves define religion. - They argue it is not possible to produce a single universal definition as different individuals mean a very different thing by 'religion'. - They are interested in how definitions of religion are constructed, challenged and fought over. - For example, people believe scientology as a religion but the government refuse to acknowledge it. - They do not assume that religion always involves belief in God, or that it performs similar functions for everyone in all societies. - This approach allows them to get close to the meanings people give religion. But this makes it difficult to generalise views about what constitutes a religion.

Religious Organisations: Church

- This is a stable, formal organisation with a hierarchy and bureaucracy of paid officials, and widely accepted beliefs and values. - It may be involved in some secular concerns such as education and tends to have a close relationship with the state and monarchy. - Although all sections of the population are represented in its members, the higher status groups tend to be overrepresented. - Worship tends to be formal and ritualised, and conducted by ordinal clerics.

The Appeal of NAMs and NRMs: The Dynamics of Sects and Cults

- This is concerned with how and why they change over time. - Some suggest that sects tend to be short-lived as over time they turn into denominations or disappear all together. For example, Quakers used to be world-rejecting religious sects, with members living distinctive lifestyles in opposition to existing society. - However they have long abandoned their world-rejecting features, and have evolved from sects into highly respectable world-accommodating and tolerant denominations they are today. Other sects such as People's Temple have completely disappeared.

Religion as a Conservative Force (barrier to change): Functionalism: Durkheim: Totemism

- This is the practise of worshipping a sacred object known as a totem. - Durkheim argued a totem is created by society and thus when people are worshipping a totem they are actually worshipping society. - Religious beliefs, such as totemism, act as a social glue, binding people together and building bonds between them. These bonds create a sense of shared identity, commitment and belonging (collective conscience). This helps to bind society together and thus religion acts as a conservative force promoting social cohesion. - But it is hard to see how religion performs these functions in contemporary society, where there is a wide diversity of different beliefs. Different religions and beliefs can tear people apart and pose threats to social order and stability.

Gender and Religious Beliefs: Explanations: Status Frustration

- This may be experienced by some women who lack personal fulfilment or status as a result go being confined to the home by the constraints of housework an childcare, or are in unsatisfying lower-middle-class jobs. - Religious participation, particularly in sects or new age cults, may help to overcome this or to compensate for it.

Religious Organisations: Denomination

- This organisation also has beliefs and values which are widely accepted, but it has no formal connection with the state. - Worship is less formal. - Hierarchy and bureaucracy less developed. - Laypersons are encouraged to lead worship.

Religion as a Conservative Force: Marxism: Religion and the power of the bourgeoisie

- Traditional marxists see religion as an instrument of social control and oppression, used by the ruling class to justify their power and material wealth. - Inequalities of wealth, income and power are presented as God-given and therefore legitimised and inevitable. The inequalities between rich and poor can't be challenged or changed without questioning the authority of religion or God himself.

Religion as a Conservative Force: Marxism: Evaluation

- Traditional marxists tend to ignore the fact that religion can act as a form go resistive to the powerful, and as an agent of social change, and not simply as a conservative force. - For example, Islamic Fundamentalism is often a vehicle for resisting the global influence of western cultural imperialism, fighting the Americanisation of the world's culture, and resisting the dominance of western corporations in the world economy. - Neo-marxists, however, recognise this potentially positive influence.

The Appeal of NAMs and NRMs: Disenchantment with the World

- Weber argues that because the world has become more rational, or planned and predictable, the spiritual and magical elements of life have disappeared. - Many churches and denominations have watered down their beliefs to fit in with a more secular world. - Giddens adds this lack of spiritual meaning in traditional religions has lead many people to find comfort and a sense of community in smaller and, newer religious groups.

Evidence Supporting Secularisation: Disenchantment

- Weber argues the increasing rationalisation of the world has squeezed out magical and religious ways of thinking and starts off the process that leads to the dominance of rational modes of thought. This has allowed science to thrive giving humans more power to control nature. - However, people's belief in science also depends on irrational faith, people tend to accept the word of scientists. - Lyon argues that the last 4 decades have been a period of re-enchantment, with the growth go unconventional beliefs, practises and spirituality.

Religion as a Conservative Force: Weber and the 'protestant ethic'

- Weber believe that some religious ideas, specifically protestant beliefs, had initiated the economic and social conditions in which capitalism emerged. - He noted that capitalism has developed in those parts of Europe where a particular set of protestant beliefs were dominant, this was know as Calvinism. - He concluded that calvinism had brought about the right cultural climate for capitalist ideas and practises to develop in two main ways: 1) Calvinists believed in predestination. They were taught to believe that righteous living was all important and their reward would be economic success. 2) Calvinism encouraged values such as self-discipline, hard work and the rejection of self indulgence: The Protestant Work Ethic. The adoption of those ideas led to rapid accumulation of capital and the emergence of a Calvinist capitalist class. - Weber did not say that Calvinism 'caused' capitalism, he only suggested that it was the major contributor to a climate of change. Many other preconditions needed to be in place e.g. Calvinist beliefs had to be supplemented by a certain level of technology, a skilled and mobile workforce and rational modes of law and bureaucracy.

Substantive Definitions

- Weber defines religion as belief in a superior supernatural power that is above nature and cannot be explained scientifically. - Substantive definitions are exclusive- they draw a clear line between religious and non-religious views. To be a religion, a set of beliefs must include God or the supernatural. - They conform to widespread view of religion as belief in God. - These definitions are also accused of western bias because they exclude religions such as Buddhism, which does not have a western idea of God.

Evidence Supporting Secularisation: Disengagement

- Wilson argues the church is no longer involved in important areas of social life such as politics. - People are more likely to take moral direction from the mass media. Public apathy to religion now means that it only has symbolic meaning today, with people only entering church for 'hatching, matching and dispatching' ceremonies. - Wilson concludes that the church occupies a marginal status in modern society. - However, religion is still a major provider of education and welfare for the poor. Also, the media still shows a great interest in religious issues such as women priests. - Some sociologists (e.g. Parsons) say that because it means that the churches can focus more effectively on their central role of providing moral goals for society to achieve.

Are all sects short lived? Wilson: Established Sects

- Wilson has also rejected the view that the disappearance of a sect or its becoming a denomination are the only alternatives. - Wilson points to Jehovah's Witnesses which is a group that has retained their sect like features and not become a denomination. - Wilson suggests that what will affect whether a sect can retain its status or will turn into a denomination will depend on what they do in order to be saved.

Are all sects short lived? Wilson: Conversionist Sects

- Wilson suggested that 'conversions' sects were the most likely to develop into a denomination. - These are sects which think that the best way to save the world is to be engaged with it, and to try and change/convert individuals by spreading the religious message and 'saving souls'. - If they are successful in winning support they may turn into a denomination e.g. The Salvation Army.

Gender and Religious Beliefs: Explanations: Guardians of family life

- Women are often seen as guardians of family life/defenders of tradition as they take on the domestic role in the family. - Halman and Draulans argue that because of these roles, women are more involved Wirth their child's moral development and thus are more likely to introduce them to approved social values, such as religious beliefs.

Gender and Religious Beliefs: Explanations: Life Expectancy

- Women live longer than men, thus they may be more inclined to turn to religion for support and comfort, and as a means of building support networks in their community. - Women are more likely than men to afce social deprivation, and marginality and may experience more disillusionment and alienations from wider society. - These circumstances mean that women may seek and find solace in religious groups, and particularly in religious sects and new religious movements which provide theodicies explaining their feelings as well as solutions and support.

New Religious Movements: World-Accommodating

- World accommodating NRMs neither fully accept the values and goals of wider society nor do they entirely reject society. These NRMs exist on the margins of established churches and denominations. - They are a response to the increasing secularisation of the institutional church. e.g. The 'New Evangelical Movement' made up of fundamentalist, 'born again' Christian groups have grown rapidly in number in recent years and are typical of this type of NRM.

New Religious Movements: World-Rejecting

- World rejecting NRMs reject the secular world as corrupt and beyond redemption. - Such NRMs either abandon the world or attempt to transform the world with evangelical zeal. - For example, the Unification Church, commonly known as Moonies, reject materialism, encourages its members to hand over all assets and imposes an ascetic lifestyle on its followers.

Age and Religion: Younger People and Religion: The privatisation of belief- 'believing without belonging'

- Young people may be choosing to treat their religion, of whatever faith or mix of beliefs, as a private matter. - Even if they have some general spiritual or religious beliefs, they may not feel they belong to any particular religion, or hold any specific religious belief. - Davie called this 'believing without belonging'.

Arguments Against Secularisation: Believing without Belonging

-Davie argues religion is actually taking a more privatised form e.g. Church attendance has declined as attendance is now a matter of personal choice. As a result, we now have 'believing without belonging' where people have religious views without attending church. - Davie also suggests 'vicarious religion' where a small number of professional clergy practise religion on behalf of a much larger number of people, who experience it second-hand. - However, Voas and Crockett reject Davie's claim they use data from Social Trends which suggest the that from 1983 there has been a general decline in attendance and believing.

Wilson's three aspects of secularisation

1) Religious Beliefs- The influence of religion on people's beliefs and values. 2) Religious Practise- The things people do to carry out their religious commitment. The extent to which they take part in acts of religious worship and devotion. 3) Religious Institutions- The extent to which religious institutions have maintained their social influence in wider society.

Religion as a Conservative Force: Feminism: Evidence of Patriarchy

1) Religious Organisations: are mainly male-dominated despite the fact that women often participate more than men in these organisations. 2) Places of Worship often segregate the sexes and marginalise women, for example, seating women in balcony's while men occupy the main space. Thus women's participation may be restricted. 3) Sacred Texts largely feature the doings of male Gods and are usually written and interpreted by men. Stories often reflect anti-female stereotypes. 4) Religious laws and customs may give women fewer rights than men. Religious influences on cultural norms may also lead to unequal treatment. Many religions legitimate and regulate women's traditional domestic and reproductive role.

How are modernity and the New Age linked?

According to Heelas there are 4 ways: 1) A source of identity: In modern society, the individual has many different roles but there is little overlap between them, resulting in a fragmented identity. New Age beliefs offer a source of 'authentic' identity. 2) Consumer Culture: creates dissatisfaction because it never delivers the perfection that it promises. The New Age offers an alternative way to achieve perfection. 3) Rapid Social Change in modern society disrupts established norms and values, resulting in anomie. The New Age provides a sense of certainty and truth in the same way as sects. 4) Decline of Organised Religion. Modernity leads to secularisation, thereby removing the traditional alternatives to New Age beliefs.

Gender and Religious Beliefs:

Compared to men, women are more likely: - To express greater interest in religion, to have stronger perusal faith and belief in life after death, and have a stronger personal religious commitment. - To involve themselves more in religious rituals and worship e.g. they are more likely to attend religious services, and join or involve themselves with NRMs or NAMs.