BES Final Exam Study Guide

What are alternative mating strategies?

Developmental/conditional strategies Permanent morphological types Sex changers

What are the adaptations for intrasexual selection for?

Direct competition - Adaptations for locating mates - Adaptations for attracting mates - Adaptations for guarding mates (fighting ability)

An animal appears to share food it has found with another. Which (if any) is not a plausible hypothesis for the apparent altruism. a) Avoidance of the punishment that the animal would receive if it didn't share. b) The recipient of the apparently altruistic act is a close relative of the donor. c) Reciprocal altruism. d) The animal benefits by sharing, because the recipient contributes to predator detection & deterrence. e) All four hypotheses (a-d) are plausible.

E

Which is not typically true of human hunter-gatherer societies? a) Social learning is important for acquiring new skills. b) Communities are egalitarian in terms of wealth and political power. c) Groups are small and kin-based d) Reciprocal altruism is important among group members. e) Both sexes perform the same foraging tasks.

E

Which of the following statements a-d is a statement that Gene - Culture theorists would not agree with? If such theorists would agree with all of them, select e. a) Genes constrain what can evolve via cultural processes b) Cultural change can cause genetic evolution. c) Cultural and genetic evolution can work in synergy. d) Cultural and genetic evolution can oppose each other. e) Gene - Culture theorists believe all of the statements a-d are probably important factors in human evolution.

E

How do human behavioral ecologists differ from evolutionary psychologists in their conception of the functioning of the brain?

HBE: consider the brain to be a general problem-solver, permitting humans to adaptively adjust their behavior to local conditions EP: view the brain as consisting of specialized modules designed for particular functions

Who often has low mating success?

Hybrid (F1) offspring

What is the problem with quality indicator of good genes?

Strong SS should exhaust genetic variation in fitness enhancing traits

The potential rate of evolution differs among the three methods. Rank the three as fastest/intermediate/slowest potential rate of evolution. 1. Sexually out-crossing species 2. Asexual (clonal) reproduction 3. Sexual recombination with self

1. Fastest potential rate of evolution 2. Slowest potential rate of evolution 3. Intermediate potential rate of evolution

Waxwings are birds that like to feed on fruit in crabapple trees. You observe waxwings foraging in two areas: (1) in the city of Potsdam, where crabapple trees are abundant and closely spaced and (2) Canton, where crabapples are rare, and widely spaced. Assume the average crabapple tree has the same amount of fruit in Canton and Potsdam. Applying the reasoning of the Optimal Patch model, circle the correct prediction to the following four questions: 1. The harvest rate of fruit at the time of departure is higher in: a) Potsdam b) Canton c) Same in Both Villages 2. The amount of fruit remaining on a crabapple tree when a waxwing departs and flies to another tree is higher in: a) Potsdam b) Canton c) Same in Both Villages 3. The average mean energy gain while foraging is higher in: a) Potsdam b) Canton c) Same in Both Villages 4. The time from arrival in a tree to departure is longer in: a) Potsdam b) Canton c) Same in Both Villages

1. A 2. A 3. A 4. B

Assume that food is found in discrete patches, and animals travel from patch to patch looking for food. A simple rule of thumb to find a good quality patch in which to forage might be to first go where there are many animals feeding. If all animals follow this rule, how will the following differ from that predicted by the ideal free distribution: 1. A forager's intake rate on a poor quality patch: a) higher b) unchanged c) lower 2. The number of foragers on a poor quality patch: a) more b) unchanged c) fewer

1. A 2. C

Critics of sociobiology argue that sociobiologists are adaptationists - they believe that most behaviors are adaptations that evolved by natural selection. How does Alcock respond to this claim? a) Mostly agrees - sociobiologists are 'guilty as charged'. According to him, behavioral traits are usually adaptations if examined at the right level, but there are some behaviors that are not adaptive due to pleiotropy, time lags in a changing environment, or developmental constraints. b) He disagrees. According to him, most behavior is not an adaptation, and sociobologists know this, but they focus on the behavior that is an adaptation. c) He strongly disagrees. Sociobiologists view most behavior as mal-adaptive or adaptive but not an adaptation. Behavior is acquired by individual experience, and not by evolution via natural selection.

A

In the War of Attrition Model, fights are longest and costliest when animals are ______ similar in how they value a resource and the rate at which they accrue costs. a) most b) least

A

In the classic 'Selfish Herd' model of aggregation: a) The higher the proportion of population members that are aggregated in a herd, the higher the per capita predation risk to individuals that are solitary. b) The higher the proportion of population members that are aggregated in a herd, the lower the per capita predation risk to individuals that are solitary. c) The proportion of population members that are aggregated in a herd has no effect on the per capita predation risk to individuals that are solitary.

A

In the classic 'Selfish Herd' model of aggregation: a) The per capita risk of predation is the same when every individual is solitary as when every individual has joined the herd. b) The per capita risk of predation is greater when every individual is solitary than when every individual has joined the herd. c) The per capita risk of predation is lower when every individual is solitary than when every individual has joined the herd.

A

Offspring often strongly resemble their genetic parents, even in traits that are not genetically heritable (i.e. resemblances are not due to genes). Which (if any) is not a reason why offspring might resemble their genetic parents? a) Horizontal transmission of socially learned behavior within age cohorts. b) The social status of a parent (e.g, territory quality, dominance rank) may be inherited by offspring. c) Vertical transmission of socially learned behavior across generations. d) The offspring share a common environment with their parents.

A

The local climate is warming as a consequence of global climate change. Behavior and physiology related to dealing with hot temperatures are likely to be undergoing...... a. Directional Selection b. Genetic Drift c. Disruptive Selection d. Stabilizing selection

A

When anatomically-modern Homo sapiens dispersed from Africa (about 70,000 years ago), they encountered other species of Homo humans existing in Europe and Asia. a) True b) False

A

Which (a-d) is not an ancestral trait among the primates? If a-d are all ancestral traits, select e. a) Diurnality (day active) b) Binocular vision c) Differentiation between the forelimbs and hindlimbs d) Large brain relative to body size as compared to other mammals e) All of the above (a-e) is an ancestral trait of the primates

A

Winners in cricket fights expend ______ energy than losers. a) more b) the same c) less

A

You are a Tit-for-Tat strategist. In a round, your partner Cooperates. In the next round, you will play: a) Cooperate b) Defect c) 50% Cooperate, 50% Defect

A

Homo sapiens differs from all other animals in that humans are the only species that has both vertical and horizontal cultural transmission of socially learned behavior. a) True b) False

B

Some critics of sociobiology argue that sociobiologists are prone to scientific errors that are a consequence of soft relativism - biases due to gender, race and ethnicity, class, nationality etc. . How does Alcock respond to this claim? a) Mostly agrees. According to him, sociobiologists like all scientists are strongly affected by our experience and social standing, and that strongly determines the kind of questions we ask, how we interpret our results, etc. b) He mostly disagrees. According to him, sociobiologists like all scientists are affected by our experience and social standing, but the self-correcting nature of science (peer-review, publication, competition to prove research wrong etc.) means that misconceptions due to social factors are weak and ephemeral. c) He strongly disagrees. Sociobiologists like all scientists are objective and follow rigorous scientific methods that prevent social bias from infecting science.

B

Using the comparative method (including parsimony), which one of the following complex behavioral traits can we not infer was present in the first hominids (e.g. Ardipithecus ramidus)? a) Tool use b) Language c) Food sharing d) Hunting & meat-eating e) Sex differences in foraging behavior

B

What are Darwinian puzzles? a) A thought game originated by Darwin where you look at a behavioral or physical trait, and come up with a plausible hypothesis for it - it is a way of scientifically making up an evolutionary 'just so story'. b) A behavioral or physical trait that on first inspection appears to reduce Darwinian fitness. It is the kind of puzzle that intrigues sociobiologists. c) A behavioral or physical trait that on first inspection appears to increase Darwinian fitness. It is the kind of trait that intrigues sociobiologists, because it fits their expectations about adaptation due to natural selection.

B

Which is a true statement about the relationship between genetic heritability and Darwinian fitness? a) Traits that have a strong effect on fitness have high heritability (high genetic variation). b) Traits that have a strong effect on fitness have low heritability (low genetic variation). c) Fitness and heritability (genetic variation) are not correlated.

B

Which of the following is not a statement that a sociobiologist is likely to agree with...? a) A behavior that destroys the cohesion of a social group may evolve if the behavior provides a direct advantage to the individual that practices it. b) Fighting among male wolves has evolved so that only the most genetically fit males breed. Therefore fighting has evolved to maintain high genetic quality within a species. c) An male macaque helps another male fend off an intruder, with the expectation that the other male will return the favor at some future time. d) A lactating female lion is more likely to nurse her sister's cubs than a pride member who is not related.

B

You are a Tit-for-Tat strategist. In a round, your partner Defects. In the next round, you will play: a) Cooperate b) Defect c) 50% Cooperate, 50% Defect

B

You observe 10 sparrows feeding from one feeder ('Feeder A') and 5 sparrows feeding at a second feeder ('Feeder B'). What is true if the classic 'Ideal Free Distribution' model of aggregation applies? a) The per capita foraging rate of birds on 'Feeder A' is twice as high as the per capita foraging rate of birds on 'Feeder B'. b) The per capita foraging rate of birds on 'Feeder A' is the same as the per capita foraging rate of birds on 'Feeder B'. c) The per capita foraging rate of birds on 'Feeder A' is only half as high as the per capita foraging rate of birds on 'Feeder B'.

B

What is one important similarity in how human behavioral ecologists and evolutionary psychologists view human behavior?

Both believe that kin selection and reciprocal altruism have been important in the evolution of human behavior, and both may use optimality and game-theory approaches to understanding behavior Both believe that the natural and social environment have been important forces driving the evolution of human behavior, via the process of evolution by natural selection. Both view human behavior as a result of natural selection.

Critics of sociobiology argue that sociobiologists are hard genetic determinists. How does Alcock respond to this claim? a) He agrees. According to him, behavioral traits are mainly determined by specific genes for the behavior, and this is why natural selection is effective at causing the evolution of adaptive behavior. b) He disagrees. According to him, behavioral traits are determined by many genes and environmental effects. Nevertheless, natural selection can be effective at causing the evolution of adaptive behavior. c) He strongly disagrees. According to him, behavioral traits are mainly determined by the environment, and animals are able to learn the behavior that is most adaptive without recourse to natural selection.

C

Eugenics refers to...... a) Traits that are affected by both the environment and genes. b) The process by which new breeds of plants and animals, such as the farmed fox, are developed. c) The attempt to improve human populations through selective breeding. d) Genes in humans that have no effect on fitness.

C

If you were using a phylogenetic approach to reconstruct the ancestral social behavior of the Hominid lineage, the most probable would be: a) Significant male-male aggression within groups, between group aggression, and importance of social dominance, since common chimpanzees have this and the chimpanzee is our closest living relative. b) Little aggression within and between sexes, and lots of social contact including sexual contact among group members, since bonobo communities have this and the bonobo is are our closest living relative. c) Impossible to say whether it is option a or b, since the bonobo and common chimpanzee are equally closely related to our species.

C

In most territorial animals (e.g. ants, songbirds), territory neighbors are normally ________ aggressive to each other than they are to strangers. a) more b) equally c) less

C

Males and females of many animal species evolve behavioral and physical differences. This is the result of.... a. Directional Selection b. Genetic Drift c. Disruptive Selection d. Stabilizing selection

C

The main process of adaptive evolutionary change in behavior is ..... a) Mutation & Recombination b) Group Selection c) Natural Selection d) Genetic drift

C

The most important lesson of the farm-fox experiment is ... a) It is easy to domesticate animals using artificial selection. b) Domesticated species are less fit than their wild ancestors. c) Selection on one trait can, via pleiotropy, can result in other traits evolving as well. d) Behavior can evolve via natural selection the same as physical traits

C

When two opponents have repeated encounters, assuming their relative fighting ability and resource value remain constant: a) Fight duration and level of escalation is unchanged with each successive encounter. b) Fight duration gets longer and fights get more escalated with each successive encounter. c) Fight duration gets shorter and fights get less severe with each successive encounter.

C

Which is the correct evolutionary lineage of hominid genera leading to our genus? a) Sahelopithecus > Australopithecus > Ardipithecus > Homo b) Ardipithecus > Australopithecus > Sahelopithecus > Homo c) Sahelopithecus > Ardipithecus > Australopithecus > Homo d) Sahelopithecus > Pan > Ardipithecus > Australopithecus > Homo e) Ardipithecus > Australopithecus > Sahelopithecus > Pan > Homo

C

Which of the following is not necessary for reciprocal altruism to evolve: a) The benefit to the recipient is greater than the cost to the donor. b) The altruistic act is preferentially performed for a recipient that is likely to reciprocate in the future. c) The donor benefits from doing the act, just not necessarily as much as the recipient.

C

Which of the following was not a typical belief about human evolution held by late 19th century social Darwinists? a) There are genetic differences among races that result in racial differences in intelligence, personality, and moral behavior. b) Societies evolve in a linear progression from primitive ape-like hunter-gathering to subsistence agriculture to feudalism to culminating in advanced civilization. c) Most differences in human behavior among societies (or among social classes, between the sexes within a society) are due to environmental differences and random cultural variation. d) Societies leaders (aristocrats, wealthy industrialists, intellectuals) have achieved their place because they have the highest Darwinian fitness. e) Encouraging societies leaders' to have large families, and discouraging criminals, mentally ill, or poor from having children, is an effective and desirable way to improve human genetic quality.

C

Which statement is true about the views of classical group selectionists and sociobiologists is ...? a) Classic group selectionists believe that behaviors principally evolve as adaptations that are advantageous to individuals, whereas sociobiologists believe that behaviors evolve as adaptations for the good of the species. b) Classic group selectionists believe that behaviors principally evolve as adaptations for the good of the species, whereas sociobiologists believe that behaviors evolve as adaptations that are advantageous to individuals. c) Classic group selectionists and sociobiologists actually both believe that behaviors principally evolve as adaptations that are advantageous to individuals, but sociobiologists believe that the behaviors are presently adaptive for individuals, and group selectionists believe that the behaviors were adaptive in the past, but not in the present environment. d) Classic group selectionists and sociobiologists actually both believe that behaviors principally evolve as adaptations for the good of the species, but sociobiologists believe that the behaviors are presently adaptive for the species, and group selectionists believe that the behaviors were adaptive for species in the past, but not in the present environment.

C

What is sexual dimorphism?

Can be niche differentiation Can be specialization Most cases, appears to be cost-reducing adaptation for the sex that gains no advantage from the sexually selected trait

What is Fisher's self reinforcing choice?

Coevolution of (genetically linked) preference and trait Preference arbitrary mutant, or originate from sensory bias or indicators Preference and trait can exhibit runaway evolution until the costs on the chooser become significant Can result in rapid divergence of populations due to SS, resulting in rapid speciation

Assuming that the environment has been stable for a long time, adaptive behavioral traits are usually subject to.... a. Directional Selection b. Genetic Drift c. Disruptive Selection d. Stabilizing selection

D

Scientists who study evolutionary approaches to human behavior believe .... (choose the best answer) a) The brain is an organ that has both a domain general component for general problem solving and some domain specific modules for dealing with some specialized common problems that individuals universally face. b) The brain is a generalized organ that, by using very general learning processes, can help a human adapt to most any circumstance. c) The brain is an aggregation of specialized 'domain specific' modules that are adaptations for specialized problems that the brain is designed to solve. d) All of the above (a-c) are close to the views of at least some researchers who study evolutionary approaches to human behavior.

D

Which of the following confusing statements is not true? a) A trait can be an adaptation that is not currently adaptive. b) A trait can be currently adaptive but not an adaptation. c) A trait can be both an adaptation and adaptive. d) A trait can be an adaptation despite never having been adaptive.

D

Which statement is not true about genetic influences on behavior? a) Knowing that a particular gene influences a behavior does not indicate how it influences the behavior . b) Genetic influences on a behavior can be environment-specific. c) A gene that influences a behavior typically also affects other traits as well, called pleiotropy. d) Most behaviors are primarily influenced by a single gene of major effect.

D

You count the number of eggs in a nest (clutch size) of 100 chickadee pairs; clutch size varies from 2 - 10 eggs. You later how many young fledge (leave) the nest from each pair's nest. The mean (and modal) clutch size is 5 eggs, but the maximum number of offspring is fledged from nests with 7 eggs. Which hypothesis (a-b) is not possible, and therefore not worth investigating if you want to understand the evolution of clutch size? If all are possible, select e. a) A 7 egg clutch is most adaptive, because the environment has improved, but there hasn't been enough time for natural selection to shift the average clutch size. b) A 7 egg clutch is most adaptive, but there isn't appropriate heritable genetic variation to shift mean clutch size, despite selection for larger clutch size. c) Each pair lays a clutch that maximizes its fledging success, but pairs vary in territory quality, and the average territory is only suitable for a 5 egg clutch. d) A 5 egg clutch is most adaptive from a lifetime perspective; 7 egg clutches fledge more offspring, but the parents and fledglings are more likely to die in the winter. e) Any of the above (a - e) is possible.

E

What is cryptic sexual selection?

Evolution of genitalia, other characteristics to match preferences of the partner

Explain how sexual dimorphism, in most cases, appears to be cost-reducing adaptation for the sex that gains no advantage from the sexually selected trait.

Evolves genetic modifiers that prevent development of SS trait The less sexually selected sex is better adapted for environmental conditions

Who often pays a higher cost of hybridization, are choosier?

Females

How can sexual dimorphism be specialization?

For different gender roles within pairs - Defensive weapons - Adaptations for offspring care

What are quality indicators of direct benefits?

Good provider and parent - Endurance display - Courtship feed - Display nest Healthy - Endurance displays - Signs of no STDs Smart - Complicated song and dance

How do human behavioral ecologists differ from evolutionary psychologists in their views of human behavior as an adaptation and human behavior as adaptive?

HBE: believe that the human brain is an adaptation for general adaptive problem solving, and particular human behavior is adaptive but not an adaptation EP: believe that human behavior is an adaptation to a past environment, but may not currently be adaptive.

Predator calls alert other monkeys in a group that there is a predator nearby. Monkeys respond by climbing up a tree. You notice that sometimes, when one monkey has a tasty fruit, another will produce the predator call, causing all the monkeys to run up the tree except the caller, who trots over to the dropped fruit and eats it. This appears to be an example of 'deceptive' signaling. Even the most dominant monkey only infrequently signals deceptively when it has the opportunity. Why might this be?

If dominants are deceptive too often, other animals will ignore the signal. In the case of frequent deception, receivers may not respond when it is really appropriate, which may cost the dominant as well, e.g. if its kin are captured by the predator.

Explain quality indicators: fluctuating asymmetry.

Indicator of developmental stability Degree of FA can provide indicator of "quality"

What are the three forms of sexual selection?

Intrasexual selection: competition within one sex over access to mates Intersexual coercion: forced mating by one sex Intersexual selection: one sex selects members of other sex

When an animal gets into a dispute with another animals. What two things does it want its opponent to believe?

Its motivation / subjective value of the resource is higher than it really is. Its condition & fighting ability / resource holding potential is higher than it really is.

Young-adult meerkats of both sexes remain in their birth colony without reproducing, and act as babysitters for the offspring of the breeders (their parents and other adults). These meerkat 'brood-helpers' guard and protect babies from predators, cuddle them for warmth, and prevent the babies from wandering off. Because babysitters cannot simultaneously forage and guard the babies, babysitters lose weight. Provide a plausible hypothesis at each of Tinbergen's four levels of behavioral explanation for why young-adult meerkats act as baby-sitters.

Mechanistic cause: The stimulus of babies (sight, smell, sound) cause the production of oxytocin, and hormone that elicits parental behavior. Development history: Brood-helping is a stage of maturation that provides practice in offspring-raising to young adults who are not ready to breed on their own. Function (adaptive) value: Baby-sitters are related to the babies, and thus benefit via kin selection. Evolutionary History: it is the ancestral trait of social mongooses (a clade of which meerkats are members) for young adults to babysit.

What is Bateman's rule?

One sex's reproductive rate is more limited by access to mates One sex's reproductive rate is limited by time, energy, and resources In many cases (monogamous mating) both sexes may be choosy because reproductive output is limited by partner's contribution

When an animal gets into a dispute with another animals. What two things does it want to know about its opponent?

Opponent's motivation / subjective value of the resource Opponent's condition & fighting ability / resource holding potential

Why might sexual selection counteract natural selection?

Result in traits that reduce survival - Increase conspicuousness to predators - Decrease mobility - Increase risk of starvation

Explain quality indicators: handicaps.

SS traits evolve as handicaps (only the most fit can bear exaggerated traits) Can be for direct or indirect benefits

What might adaptations aiding in sexual coercion by one sex result in?

Selection for traits that aid in resistance by the other sex - Resulting in antagonistic coevolution

What are quality indicators?

Signals - Originate from cues Key is chooser gets something from choice - Higher reproductive success - Lower costs/risks - More viable offspring

Predator calls alert other monkeys in a group that there is a predator nearby. Monkeys respond by climbing up a tree. You notice that sometimes, when one monkey has a tasty fruit, another will produce the predator call, causing all the monkeys to run up the tree except the caller, who trots over to the dropped fruit and eats it. This appears to be an example of 'deceptive' signaling. Subordinate monkeys produce 'deceptive' predator calls much less frequently than dominant group members. Why might this be?

Subordinates are punished by dominants if they are discovered to be giving deceptive calls.

What does the degree of sexual dimorphism often correlate with?

The degree of reproductive skew in competing sex

Because of ongoing climate change, spring thaw and warming is occurring earlier and earlier in the year. Spring peepers are frogs that breed immediately after ice-melt. What needs to be true for breeding date to evolve via natural selection in response to changes in climate?

There is a struggle for existence, and frog reproductive success depends on when they breed. There is some variation in breeding date among frogs. Variation in breeding date results in some frogs breeding at optimum dates (and therefore have higher fitness). Some of the variation in breeding date is heritable. Therefore, those that breed near the optimal date are 'naturally selected', so breeding date evolves.

What is sexual selection?

Traits evolve because they aid in acquiring mates - Increase number - Increase quality