BIO 102 Quiz 2 preparation

NASA Satellite Images Uncover Underground Forest Fungi

A NASA-led team of scientists has developed the first-ever method for detecting the presence of different types of underground forest fungi from space, information that may help researchers predict how climate change will alter forest habitats. Hidden beneath every forest is a network of fungi living in mutually beneficial relationships with the trees. Called mycorrhizal fungi, these organisms spread underground for miles, scavenging for nutrients that they trade with trees for sugars the trees make during photosynthesis. "Nearly all tree species associate with only one of two types of mycorrhizal fungi," explained coauthor Richard Phillips of Indiana University, Bloomington. Because the two types of fungi are expected to respond differently to a changing climate, knowing where each type predominates may help scientists predict where forests will thrive in the future and where they will falter. Creating maps of forests and their fungi has traditionally relied on various methods of counting individual tree species, an approach that cannot be done at large scales. In a new study published in the journal Global Change Biology, a team led by Joshua Fisher of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California, and UCLA found a way to detect this hidden network using satellite images. Every tree species has its own spectral signature -- it absorbs or reflects light in a specific pattern across all the wavelengths in the spectrum of light. Using satellite images of forest canopies, Fisher's group probed whether they could identify any patterns in the spectral signatures of tree species associated with one type of fungus that did not appear in species associated with the other type. Fisher explained, "Individual tree species have unique spectral fingerprints, but we thought the underlying fungi could be controlling them as groups." The team studied images of four U.S. forest research plots that are part of the Smithsonian Institution's Forest Global Earth Observatory. In these forests, which include 130,000 trees across 77 species, the tree species associated with each type of fungus had already been mapped from the ground. The researchers analyzed images of the forest canopies taken by the NASA/U.S. Geological Survey Landsat-5 satellite from 2008 to 2011 in many different ways, searching for similarities that lined up with areas of fungus dominance. They found what they were looking for when they examined various milestones throughout the growing season, such as when the trees leafed out in spring and when they reached peak greenness. There were significant differences in the timing of these milestones between regions dominated by the two types of fungi. Having identified the timing sequences related to each type of fungus, the researchers developed and tested a statistical model to predict the areas of fungus domination in any particular Landsat image from canopy changes alone. They found they could predict the fungus association correctly in 77 percent of the images. They went on to produce landscape-wide maps of fungi associations, uncovering intriguing patterns in forests that will be studied in greater depth in the future. Fisher said, "That these below-ground agents manifest themselves in changes in the forest canopies is significant. This allows, for the first time, some light to be shed on their hidden processes." NASA uses the vantage point of space to increase our understanding of our home planet, improve lives and safeguard our future. NASA develops new ways to observe and study Earth's interconnected natural systems with long-term data records. The agency freely shares this unique knowledge and works with institutions around the world to gain new insights into how our planet is changing. The work was also funded by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Science Foundation.

Birds biomes vary with altitude and latitude

Ah, those switchback roads. We were in a van, on a birding tour with about a dozen Minnesotans, some of us less confident in our driver than others. We were on a zigzag gravel road, climbing up a mountain toward Chiricahua Peak. Jutting out of the Sonoran desert in southeast Arizona are mountains called sky islands. These include the Chiricahuas. They rise to heights of more than 9,000 feet. Conquering that road, the birds you see as you climb are different from those in the desert below. It gets cold up high. At the top you might need mittens and a warm hat on what on the desert floor is a sweaty day in August. Every thousand feet you gain in elevation is equivalent to being 300 miles farther north. The tiny town of Portal is where we began our ride. Portal is about 1,600 miles from Great Falls, Mont. Climb a bit over 5,000 feet up that Arizona mountain and the weather is suitable for Montana. Weather can define habitat. As you climb, bird species change according to habitat, as they would if you drove north. We can experience that here in Minnesota. Drive from Minneapolis to International Falls, about 300 miles north. You've gained the equivalent of 1,000 feet in elevation. Things are different in far northern Minnesota, where you've entered a different biome, the boreal biome. Biomes are naturally occurring communities of animals and plants found in a particular habitat. In the boreal biome, you can see boreal chickadees, evening grosbeaks and spruce grouse, among other boreal specialists. These are species you won't find in Hennepin County. Incidentally, there is boreal biome high on that Arizona mountain. Scientists say the birds stayed in habitat maintained by the high-elevation climate as North American glaciers retreated. Every living plant or animal has a temperature comfort zone. Some animals or plants are more sensitive than others. For vegetation, in some cases, a few hundred feet higher or lower might be all that is needed to impact temperature and change plant species. Birds certainly move with more freedom, but for breeding purposes birds are biome-particular. Scientists have found an ongoing significant but varied shift by birds to the north and to higher elevations. It's getting warmer below. Birds that are habitat specialists are necessarily slower to make the moves; habitat lingers. Some years ago, ornithologist Dr. Jeff Price wrote a paper predicting what would happen to Minnesota bird variety as biomes change. He said that eventually we would lose more than half of our breeding warbler species. They would be driven into Canada by a changing landscape. There will be similar movement up and down our bird checklists. Other bird species will move into Minnesota from the south. Our cardinals began doing that about 100 years ago. Milder winters helped cardinals. So did we, dotting our landscape with seed feeders. Warblers eat insects, so feeders won't help. Those birds will still be with us, just at the end of a longer drive.

Atoms

Atoms of matter are composed of subatomic particles: electron, neutron, proton. An atom can be described by atomic number: # of protons. This determines what element it is. Mass number: sum of protons and neutrons (electrons too light to count)

SDSU report highlights status of native grasslands

BROOKINGS, S.D. - SDSU Extension recently released its new land use report, Quantifying Undisturbed (Native) Lands in Eastern South Dakota: 2013, which takes a comprehensive look at all historic and current land use in eastern South Dakota in regard to native or virgin sod that potentially remains. "This project was initiated in response to the continued conversion of grasslands for cropping and other uses and the multiple reports that have been published in recent years focused on land use," said Peter Bauman, SDSU Extension Range Field Specialist. Bauman has coordinated the project over the last two and a half years. "What had been missing from previous reports is a specific look at the impacts to truly native habitats - those habitats that had never been cropped or otherwise converted from their natural state," Bauman said. "We have a great team of people working on this project, and the results are meant to inform all land managers as to the status of this irreplaceable natural resource. We can shift acres into and out of programs like CRP and other similar programs, but we cannot re-create truly native grasslands." What the report said about South Dakota Native Grasslands Only 24 percent of eastern South Dakota remains in native grassland and woodland habitats according to the SDSU report. Counties near the Missouri River have a higher density of native grasslands than do those in the rich farm country in the southeast part of the state. The SDSU report contains charts and maps for each county as well as a thorough description of methods utilized in the inventory. The eastern South Dakota report is part of a continuing statewide evaluation on the status of native habitats by SDSU and has received funding support by federal, state, and non-government organizations. To view the complete report visit iGrow.org and search the term 'eastern South Dakota land use.' Maps, charts, and other data can be accessed at openprairie.sdstate.edu with the same search term as above.

radiometric dating 1

But carbon dating is only good for items up to about 50,000 years old. For older materials, it is necessary to use other isotopes. Uranium-234 to Thorium-230 Half-life of 80,000 years Uranium-235 to Protactinium-231 Half-life of 34,300 years Potassium 40 to Argon 40 Half-life of 1.3 billion years Rubidium-87 to Strontium-87 Half-life of 50 billion years Radiometric dating has many applications. Archaeologists use radiometric dating to better understand when humans arrived on different continents. Carbon dating can tell scientists whether a piece of ivory comes from an elephant that died before or after the United Nations banned products made from elephant parts in 1989.

ocean acidification

Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is aqueous, meaning is dissolves in water. As the ocean absorbs CO2, a chemical reaction takes place that releases hydrogen atoms, making the ocean more acidic.

Carbon Chemistry

Carbon is a versatile atom. It has four electrons in an outer shell that holds eight electrons. Carbon can share its electrons with other atoms to form up to four covalent bonds. Carbon can use its bonds to attach to other carbons and form an endless diversity of carbon skeletons varying in size and branching pattern. Carbon skeletons vary in length Carbon skeletons may have double bonds, which can vary in location Carbon skeletons may be arranged in rings

What is Carbon Dating

Carbon is one of the chemical elements. Along with hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur, carbon is a building block of biochemical molecules ranging from fats, proteins, and carbohydrates to active substances such as hormones. All carbon atoms have a nucleus containing six protons. Ninety-nine percent of these also contain six neutrons. The 6 proton + 6 neutron atoms are said to have a mass of 12 and are referred to as "carbon-12." The nuclei of the remaining one percent of carbon atoms contain not six but either seven or eight neutrons in addition to the standard six protons. They have masses of 13 and 14 respectively and are referred to as "carbon-13" and "carbon-14." If two atoms have equal numbers of protons but differing numbers of neutrons, one is said to be an "isotope" of the other. Carbon-13 and carbon-14 are thus isotopes of carbon-12. Isotopes participate in the same chemical reactions but often at differing rates. When isotopes are to be designated specifically, the chemical symbol is expanded to identify the mass (for example, 13C). Both 13C and 14C are present in nature. The former accounts for about 1% of all carbon. The abundance of 14C varies from 0.0000000001% (one part per trillion, a small, but measurable, level) down to zero. The highest abundances of 14C are found in atmospheric carbon dioxide and in products made from atmospheric carbon dioxide (for example, plants). Unlike 12C and 13C, 14C is not stable. As a result it is always undergoing natural radioactive decay while the abundances of the other isotopes are unchanged. Carbon-14 is most abundant in atmospheric carbon dioxide because it is constantly being produced by collisions between nitrogen atoms and cosmic rays at the upper limits of the atmosphere. The rate at which 14C decays is absolutely constant. Given any set of 14C atoms, half of them will decay in 5730 years. Since this rate is slow relative to the movement of carbon through food chains (from plants to animals to bacteria) all carbon in biomass at earth's surface contains atmospheric levels of 14C. However, as soon as any carbon drops out of the cycle of biological processes - for example, through burial in mud or soil - the abundance of 14C begins to decline. After 5730 years only half remains. After another 5730 years only a quarter remains. This process, which continues until no 14C remains, is the basis of carbon dating. A sample in which 14C is no longer detectable is said to be "radiocarbon dead." Fossil fuels provide a common example. They are derived from biomass that initially contained atmospheric levels of 14C. But the transformation of sedimentary organic debris into oil or woody plants into coal is so slow that even the youngest deposits are radiocarbon dead. The abundance of 14C in an organic molecule thus provides information about the source of its carbon. If 14C is present at atmospheric levels, the molecule must derive from a recent plant product. The pathway from the plant to the molecule may have been indirect or lengthy, involving multiple physical, chemical, and biological processes. Levels of 14C are affected significantly only by the passage of time. If a molecule contains no detectable 14C it must derive from a petrochemical feedstock or from some other ancient source. Intermediate levels of 14C can represent either mixtures of modern and dead carbon or carbon that was fixed from the atmosphere less than 50,000 years ago. Signals of this kind are often used by chemists studying natural environments. A hydrocarbon found in beach sediments, for example, might derive from an oil spill or from waxes produced by plants. If isotopic analyses show that the hydrocarbon contains 14C at atmospheric levels, it's from a plant. If it contains no 14C, it's from an oil spill. If it contains some intermediate level, it's from a mixture of both sources.

Chemical reactions

Chemical reactions involve reactants (what goes in) and products (what comes out). The arrow between the two indicates that some reaction takes place.

What Makes Water Special?

Cohesion of water molecule: H bonds are weak and last only a short time but at any given moment, there are many bonds. Water molecules tend to stick together, cohesion. This cohesion allows for water transport up a tree against gravity. As water evaporates from the leaves, it pulls the water up and cohesion causes it to move upward. Adhesion is sticking to an object. Moderates Temperature H bonds cause resistance to temperature change. When first applied, heat breaks H bonds rather than raise the temperature. So water absorbs and stores a large amount of heat. This is why in the spring the pool water stays cool even if the atmospheric temperature is in the 90s. The water is slow to warm. But in the fall, it retains heat even after the temperature has dropped Moderates Temperature of the planet Because of all the water on the planet, the temperature stays within certain limits that allows for life. Versatile Solvent Water is really good at dissolving stuff. And this allows for medium for chemical reactions. When something is dissolved in water, it is an aqueous solution. Things like fluid around cells, blood and plant sap are all aqueous solutions so that the reactions necessary for life take place. Ice Floats Ice is less dense than water because as it freezes, the water molecules spread out. If ice were denser than water, it would sink and all ponds, lakes and oceans would freeze solid. Because of the previous characteristic, it would take longer to thaw. In summer, only a few inches would thaw on the top. Instead, the ice acts as a blanket over liquid water.

Boreal forest

Common species include: White spruce, black spruce and tamarack 29% of worlds forest cover Subarctic climate with very large temperature range between seasons, but the long and cold winter is the dominant feature. Soil is in permafrost state.

Three of Earth's largest extinctions may have been caused by loss of essential element

Concentrations of selenium, a vital element for many organisms at the base of today's ocean food chain, dropped substantially in seawater in advance of three of Earth's largest die-offs, a new study suggests. Researchers analyzed the levels of various trace elements in hundreds of samples of carbon-rich shales that had been deposited in oxygen-poor regions of the ocean surrounding ancient continents during the past 3.5 billion years. They found that in the intervals preceding die-offs that occurred at the ends of the Ordovician, Devonian, and Triassic periods (about 443 million, 371 million, and 201 million years ago, respectively), only selenium dropped precipitously. In several pre-extinction intervals, selenium levels in seawater dropped to less than 1% of their modern value, the researchers will report in a forthcoming issue of Gondwana Research. Selenium is an essential part of certain enzymes and proteins for a broad range of organisms, from the sunlight-harvesting phytoplankton at the base of the food chain to the vertebrates that ultimately depend on them (such as the marine reptile Lariosaurus, shown, whose group died out with many others about 201 million years ago). So, the researchers argue, a major decrease in availability of the element would have had catastrophic effects on the ocean's ecosystems—and thus may have caused, or at least played a major role in, the widespread die-offs. An initial slide in selenium concentrations may have been triggered by a decrease in atmospheric oxygen, which slowed erosion of that element and others from rocks on land, the researchers note. Then, the effect may have snowballed, with the levels of both selenium in seawater and atmospheric oxygen crashing. Other evidence from the rocks supports that notion, the researchers note: Before and during those mass die-offs, atmospheric levels of oxygen—a gas produced in prodigious quantities by phytoplankton—also dropped substantially, recovering only long after the mass extinctions had occurred.

Forests

Dominated by trees Tropical, temperate, cold (boreal) For the following slides, think about how the temperature conditions affect each type of forest while still having the basic characteristics of forests.

Surface tension

Even though the H bond is weak, the cumulative effect of all those bonds creates surface tension and allows for insects to walk on water w/o breaking the surface.

Greenhouse gas layer vs Ozone layer

Greenhouse gas layer is not the same as the ozone layer. Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and hydroflourocarbons (HFCs) trap heat as the layer becomes thicker. The ozone layer (O3) filters out UV radiation. Due to the use of chloroflourocarbons (CFCs), the ozone layer was thinned out as the CFCs reacted with O3 to form O2 and single O atoms. While the greenhouse layer increases due to human-caused emissions of greenhouse gases, the ozone layer has begun to recover due to restrictions on the use of CFCs. However other chemicals are also capable of reacting with ozone such as dichloromethane (CH2Cl2). Human emissions of this molecule are currently small but could increase in the future, putting in jeopardy the ozone layer recovery to date.

High CO2 Makes Crops Less Nutritious

In the largest study yet, Samuel Myers of Harvard University and colleagues report that the CO2 levels expected in the second half of this century will likely reduce the levels of zinc, iron, and protein in wheat, rice, peas, and soybeans. Some two billion people, the researchers note, live in countries where citizens receive more than 60 percent of their zinc or iron from these types of crops. Deficiencies of these nutrients already cause an estimated loss of 63 million life-years annually. In addition to wheat, rice, peas, and soybeans, which all use a form of photosynthesis known as C3, Myers and his colleagues studied corn and sorghum, which use C4 photosynthesis, a faster kind. They found relatively little effect of CO2 enrichment on the nutritional value of the C4 crops. In the C3 crops, however, they found significant declines in zinc and iron. The largest was a 9.3 percent drop in the zinc level in wheat. They also found reduced levels of protein in wheat, rice, and peas, but not in soybeans. Myers says the "enormous number of observations" in the study, which involved multiple cultivars, or varieties, of each of the six crops, allowed a total of 143 comparisons between cultivars fed enhanced CO2 and cultivars that grew in normal air. "That gave us the statistical power to resolve a question which has been open in the literature," he says. "Crops are losing nutrients as CO2is going up." Unfortunately, the new study sheds little light on why more CO2 in the atmosphere should mean less nutritious plants. One hypothesis has been that plants in an enriched atmosphere produce so much carbohydrate that it dilutes the other nutrients. The new study seems to rule out that hypothesis: Instead of a uniform dilution of all other nutrients in the crops, it found that nutrients changed unevenly when CO2 was higher. Quality and Quantity The need to balance changes in yield against changes in the nutritional value of crops makes predicting the future of agriculture an even more complicated task, says Stephen Long, an agronomist at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign who did not participate in the study. "Rising global CO2 increases yield and decreases water use by crops, and this is often presented as one positive of atmospheric change," Long says. But the Nature study's "significant" finding suggests that higher-CO2 environments will mean less nutritional crops, so that "increased quantity is at the expense of quality." CO2 enrichment experiments at Long's university have also shown that rising CO2 levels lower crops' resistance to pests. By exposing the plants to levels of CO2 similar to those used in the Harvard-led study, says Long, crop damage from three major crop pests doubled. Myers and his colleagues suggest there should be a global effort to develop new breeds of wheat, rice, peas, and soybeans that show resistance to higher CO2 levels. While the various cultivars of wheat, peas, and soybeans in their study all suffered similar nutrient losses in response to higher CO2, rice offered a ray of hope: Its cultivars varied wildly in their response. "So there may be some basis for breeding rice and potentially other strains that are less sensitive to this effect," says Myers. Recent efforts by the U.S. Agency for International Development and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to breed rice and other crops with enhanced nutrition under current atmospheric CO2 levels have shown some success, he notes. But those efforts haven't been without setbacks. "There's been some indications that when you do that, you often suffer yield declines," Myers says. "So it's not entirely clear that you can have your cake and eat it too."I

Isotopes

Isotopes are variations of an element. Notice below that each of the carbon isotopes has 6 protons—that's what makes it carbon. But the number of neutrons varies resulting in different weights. Same number of protons and electrons but neutrons differ Forms of an element that differ in mass. The isotopes are known by the number of protons plus the number of neutrons.

How a 'Wonder Berry' Is Bringing an Economic Transformation in the Cold Deserts of Lahaul-Spiti

More than two decades after Himachal Pradesh discovered the potential of a little known deciduous plant called seabuckthorn, the state's high-altitude cold deserts have found new economic and environmental gains in the plant. Today, much of the developmental activities in this region have their roots in seabuckthorn cultivation. Long considered a humble shrub of the Himalayas, every part of the Seabuckthorn plant - fruit, leaf, twig, root and thorn - has been traditionally used for medicine, nutritional supplements, firewood and building fences. Hardy, drought-resistant and tolerant to extreme temperatures from - 43º C to + 40º C, the plant has an extensive root system which can fix atmospheric nitrogen, making it ideal for controlling soil erosion and preventing desertification.The Seabuckthorn berry, also called the "Wonder berry", "Leh berry" and "Ladakh gold", is among the most nutritious of fruits. Concentration of pro-vitamins A, B2 and C, flavonoids and Omega oils in the berries is much higher than other fruits and vegetables. Thus, the berries are a storehouse of essential nutrients in the region where availability of other vitamin-rich fruits are limited. Seabuckthorn berries (locally known as 'Drilbu' and 'Chharma' in Himachal) also have the unique characteristic of remaining intact on the shrub throughout the winter months despite of the subzero temperature. As such, many bird species feed on the berries at times other sources of food are limited in the region. The leaves, on the other hand, serve as protein rich fodder for cold desert animals like sheep, goat, donkey, cattle, double humped camel etc. The locals of these mountainous regions have utilised the wondrous nutritive properties of this super fruit for centuries and continue to do so till date. Dried berry peels are shredded into the rejuvenating tsirku tea while the oil made from them is known to have skin benefits. Seabuckthorn has also been used in traditional 'Amchi' system of medicine for centuries in Ladakh. The medicinal value of seabuckthorn was recorded as early as the 8th century in the Tibetan medicinal text, rGyud Bzi. Modern research has supported the medicinal properties of seabuckthorn. Interestingly, it is believed that the legendary Genghis Khan used it to improve the memory, stamina, strength, fitness and disease-fighting abilities of his army! In 2010, the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)and the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) launched a major national initiative for seabuckthorn cultivation in five districts that came under the high-altitude, cold desert ecosystems. Cut off from the rest of the world for almost six months due to heavy snowfall, the villagers of Spiti - living in some of the highest points in Asia - had few options for sustainable livelihood and hardly any regular income for many years. All this changed after they discovered the nutritional and medicinal value of seabuckthorn, a wild berry rich in vitamins, minerals and fatty acids, which could be marketed as a magic recipe for good health. Under the project, the Territorial Army and women's self-help groups were roped in for the project to help secure community livelihoods while ensuring conservation of the fragile high-altitude ecosystems. Training in techniques pulping, product design and packaging was imparted to local youth and farmers with the help of Defence Institute of High Altitude Research (DIHAR). Defence Institute of High Altitude Research (DRDO) also developed the technology for preparing beverage from its highly acidic fruit (this was because the seabuckthorn berry juice doesn't freeze in the sub-zero temperatures of Siachen or Drass-Kargil areas). The patented technology was then transferred to self help groups, NGOs and local entrepreneurs. This was followed by the development and commercialization of several other products such as herbal teas, antioxidant supplement, seapricot (seabuckthorn and apricot) beverage, jam, jelly, seabuckthorn oil soft gel capsules, UV protective oil, bakery products, animal feed etc. Government initiatives aren't the only ones bringing about change in this region. Having grown up in Dehradun, Ishita Khanna believed that she had a connection with hills and wanted to put her masters in social work (from Tata Institute of Social Science) to practical use. She founded Ecosphere, a community effort in Lahaul and Spiti that brought people from diverse fields together to create sustainable livelihoods for the locals. Under her guidance, many families of Spiti began cultivating and processing seabuckthorn, selling it under the organic brand named called 'Tsering' (which is now available across India). Other than seabuckthorn products, local cereals, vegetables and pulses were also processed into value-added products that were linked to markets through the right channels. Ecosphere is also keenly involved in reviving some of the traditional crafts of the region that have almost died out or are slowly disappearing. Spiti is home to some really unique handicrafts such as thangkas (paintings on silken canvas), choksays (wooden carved tables), mane stones (carving on stones), zama (Mud craft), lingzay (traditional shawls) and a whole variety of wool based handicrafts. With the aim of sustainable development of the entire region, Ecosphere also works to reduce human-wildlife conflict, set up solar houses, restore heritage buildings and promote responsible eco-travel in the valley. It has taken remarkable initiatives to 'reduce, recycle and reuse' products. To cut down the usage of bottled water, the tourists are provided with a water filter at the home stays. The waste materials like crushed mineral water bottles are being used in insulating solar passive homes in Spiti and waste tetra packs are recycled to make tissue paper. Since procuring vegetables from town which was 8-10 hours drive was one of the biggest problems for villagers, Ecosphere set up 100 green houses for the villagers where they could actively grow vegetables for the community. Another initiative was to stop the conventional practice of burning firewood to stay warm during winters, which had a detrimental effect on the environment. This has resulted in a drastic reduction in the usage of wood, which in turn reduced black carbon emissions. Today, Ecosphere continues to work towards economic empowerment of the locals with the sale of organic products, conservation of the environment and introduction of several environment-friendly products like solar lights, geysers, etc. Importantly, all the profits of these ventures are ploughed back into supporting the local communities through environment-friendly measures. Conservation happens best when the livelihoods of local communities are directly linked to it. This can be seen in how the cultivation of seabuckthorn forms the bedrock of self-reliant development in Lahaul and Spiti. With climate change mitigation becoming the need of the hour, the "Wonder berry" can play an integral role in ensuring a sustainable future for India's cold deserts.

New elements

New elements were recently isolated and identified on the periodic table. The man-made elements 114 and 116, which contain 114 and 116 protons per atom, respectively, are now officially called flerovium (Fl) and livermorium (Lv).

Proteins

Proteins are polymers constructed from amino acid monomers, account for more than 50% of the dry weight of most cells, perform most of the tasks required for life, and form enzymes, chemicals that change the rate of a chemical reaction without being changed in the process.

What Climate Change Looks Like: Dissolving Shells part 2

Pteropods are sometimes called sea butterflies, and salmon, whales and other marine life eat these little snails. And scientists have found that their shells, which contain calcium carbonate, are sensitive to changes in the ocean's pH levels. That's where climate change comes in. Carbon dioxide from human activities ends up in the ocean, increasing the acidity of seawater. As the pH level falls and water becomes more corrosive, calcium carbonate in pteropod shells dissolves. While the potential for this problem had been demonstrated in labs, last year National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration scientists were surprised to discover that damage to pteropod shells in the Pacific Ocean had already started. The ocean acidification that damages pteropods could have manifestations in other marine species, too, creating distress on the ocean's food web.

RNA

RNA, ribonucleic acid, is different from DNA. RNA uses the sugar ribose and the base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T). RNA is usually single-stranded, but DNA usually exists as a double helix.

Grasslands

Seasonal drought Grazing by large herbivores Occasional fires

These pteropods shells were placed in water that simulates the CO2 concentration expected in the ocean by 2100. They were then compared to shells that were in water that simulates the current CO2 concentration. What would the null hypothesis for this experiment have been? Shells exposed to higher CO2 will not dissolve more compared to shells exposed to current CO2 levels. Shells exposed to higher CO2 will dissolve more compared to shells exposed to current CO2 levels.

Shells exposed to higher CO2 will not dissolve more compared to shells exposed to current CO2 levels. CORRECT

Deserts

Slow plant growth Low species diversity Slow nutrient cycling (due to low bacterial activity) Very little water

Why care about pteropods

Some years, pteropods made up 60 percent of the diet of juvenile Alaskan pink salmon. Other years they made up just a fraction. Herring, mackerel and some seabirds eat pteropods, as do other pteropod species. In the open oceans, some small fishes, squids and large shrimp eat them. Some of those animals then become important in the diet of tuna, salmon and walleye pollock, the centerpiece of a $1 billion industry based in Seattle and Alaska.

Temperate deserts

Temperate deserts do not have the extreme hot temperatures of the tropical deserts but still have low rainfall, few species, and slow growth.

How proteins are formed

The "recipe" for proteins is contained in the DNA of a cell. The DNA is translated in to RNA which is read by the ribosome. The ribosome puts the amino acids together in the correct order to make the protein.

pH scale

The acidity of a solution can be measured using the pH scale. pH stands for potential hydrogen since this scales essentially is a measure of the ratio of hydrogen atoms to hydroxide (OH). The more hydrogen atoms, the more acidic a solution is. If something has more OH than hydrogen, the solution is basic. If you wanted to make a solution neutral (7 on the pH scale) and it was basic, you would add an acid. If a solution was acidic, you would add a base to reach neutral

Steroids

The carbon skeleton is bent to form four fused rings. Steroids vary in the functional groups attached to this set of rings, and these chemical variations affect their function. Cholesterol is a key component of cell membranes and the "base steroid" from which your body produces other steroids, such as estrogen and testosterone. Used as signaling molecules, energy stores, and make up part of cell membrane.

Fats

The difference between saturated and unsaturated fats is whether there is a double bond in the carbon chain.

Different climates

The different climates on the planet are determined by: Uneven heating of Earth's surface by sun Rotation of the earth on it's axis Properties of air, water, and land

Ocean currents

The oceans are all connected. The currents are driven by the temperature and salinity (salt content) of the water. Cold water is more dense (heavier) than warm water. Salt water is more dense (heavier) than freshwater. These differences in density drive the movement of the ocean currents. As the water moves up from the tip of Africa to the area around Greenland, the water warms and evaporates. While water is lost is evaporation, the salt is left behind making the remaining water more salty. This cold, salty water is denser and sinks near Greenland. This drives the currents around the world.

The Thermohaline Circulation - The Great Ocean Conveyor Belt

The oceans are mostly composed of warm salty water near the surface over cold, less salty water in the ocean depths. These two regions don't mix except in certain special areas. The ocean currents, the movement of the ocean in the surface layer, are driven mostly by the wind. In certain areas near the polar oceans, the colder surface water also gets saltier due to evaporation or sea ice formation. In these regions, the surface water becomes dense enough to sink to the ocean depths. This pumping of surface water into the deep ocean forces the deep water to move horizontally until it can find an area on the world where it can rise back to the surface and close the current loop. This usually occurs in the equatorial ocean, mostly in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. This very large, slow current is called the thermohaline circulation because it is caused by temperature and salinity (haline) variations. This animation shows one of the major regions where this pumping occurs, the North Atlantic Ocean around Greenland, Iceland, and the North Sea. The surface ocean current brings new water to this region from the South Atlantic via the Gulf Stream and the water returns to the South Atlantic via the North Atlantic Deep Water current. The continual influx of warm water into the North Atlantic polar ocean keeps the regions around Iceland and southern Greenland mostly free of sea ice year round. The animation also shows another feature of the global ocean circulation: the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. The region around latitude 60 south is the the only part of the Earth where the ocean can flow all the way around the world with no land in the way. As a result, both the surface and deep waters flow from west to east around Antarctica. This circumpolar motion links the world's oceans and allows the deep water circulation from the Atlantic to rise in the Indian and Pacific Oceans and the surface circulation to close with the northward flow in the Atlantic. The color on the world's ocean's at the beginning of this animation represents surface water density, with dark regions being most dense and light regions being least dense (see the animation Sea Surface Temperature, Salinity and Density). The depths of the oceans are highly exaggerated to better illustrate the differences between the surface flows and deep water flows. The actual flows in this model are based on current theories of the thermohaline circulation rather than actual data. The thermohaline circulation is a very slow moving current that can be difficult to distinguish from general ocean circulation. Therefore, it is difficult to measure or simulate.

How ozone depleting substances and greenhouse gases affect the atmosphere

The ozone layer and atmosphere absorb UV radiation due to substances like CFCs. Greenhouse gases like HFCs trap extra emitted heat, warming the planet.

periodic table

The periodic table organizes all the known elements based on predictable properties.

Rain shadow effect

The presence of geographic structures also impact the climate. For example, wind coming from off the ocean are full of moisture. Warm air holds more moisture than cold air. As the moist wind travels up the mountain, the air cools and the moisture falls as rain. By the time the air gets to the other side of the mountain it is cold and dry. Thus two sides of a mountain can have drastically different climates.

Structure of DNA

The structure of DNA has 3 parts: a phosphate group, a sugar (deoxyribose), and a nitrogenous base ( one of 4 molecules that each contain nitrogen).

Greenhouse gases

There is a natural layer of greenhouse gases that blanket the earth and keep our atmosphere from escaping. It traps heat as well and is the reason our planet has a relatively stable climate compared to other planets. However, the addition of greenhouse gases by man's activities increases the thickness of this greenhouse gas layer. This means more heat is trapped and increases the temperature of the planet.

Forest Symbionts

There is more to a forest than what we see above ground.

Results from dissolving shells article

These are the results of the experiment described in the article mentioned in the previous slide. This represents a pteropod shell being in water with elevated CO2 over time. Notice how by day 45, the shell is dissolved and weakened due to the increased acidity.

Elements

These elements compose both the earth and all life on it. Interactions between these elements impact biological activity whether in an ecosystem or in the human body.

Elevation effect

Things are different in far northern Minnesota, where you've entered a different biome, the boreal biome. Biomes are naturally occurring communities of animals and plants found in a particular habitat. In the boreal biome, you can see boreal chickadees, evening grosbeaks and spruce grouse, among other boreal specialists. These are species you won't find in Hennepin County. Incidentally, there is boreal biome high on that Arizona mountain. Scientists say the birds stayed in habitat maintained by the high-elevation climate as North American glaciers retreated. Every living plant or animal has a temperature comfort zone. Some animals or plants are more sensitive than others. For vegetation, in some cases, a few hundred feet higher or lower might be all that is needed to impact temperature and change plant species. Birds certainly move with more freedom, but for breeding purposes birds are biome-particular. Scientists have found an ongoing significant but varied shift by birds to the north and to higher elevations. It's getting warmer below. Birds that are habitat specialists are necessarily slower to make the moves; habitat lingers. Some years ago, ornithologist Dr. Jeff Price wrote a paper predicting what would happen to Minnesota bird variety as biomes change. He said that eventually we would lose more than half of our breeding warbler species. They would be driven into Canada by a changing landscape. There will be similar movement up and down our bird checklists. Other bird species will move into Minnesota from the south. Our cardinals began doing that about 100 years ago. Milder winters helped cardinals. So did we, dotting our landscape with seed feeders. Warblers eat insects, so feeders won't help. Those birds will still be with us, just at the end of a longer drive.

How do cities affect climate?

This images is a heat map that shows how the street and sidewalk hold heat and are much warmer than the grass (in blue). This is because concrete and other hard surfaces absorb heat while grass and other natural surfaces reflect heat back to the atmosphere. Urban heat islands are areas where cities are substantially hotter than surrounding rural areas. This is exacerbated by factors such as large swathes of paved surfaces and declining tree canopies. "The materials that make up cities like concrete and asphalt absorb a lot of heat and cities also have more cars and industry that generates heat," report author Alyson Kenward said. "And urban areas tend to have fewer trees and less vegetation than rural areas and it's those things, the shade and the moisture that they provide that helps keep rural areas cooler." In Louisville, it's a known problem: other studies have ranked the city's urban heat island as the fastest-growing in the nation. The report from Climate Central confirmed that Louisville's UHIs are among the worst in the country, and this heat has real implications for the city's air quality. Louisville had the distinction of being the only city to be included in all of the report's top ten lists. Louisville has one of the most intense urban heat islands in the country, as well as one of the fastest-growing urban heat islands. Climate Central's researchers found that in Louisville: urban areas were on average 4.8 degrees Fahrenheit warmer than rural areas over the past ten years; nighttime temperatures in urban areas were on average seven degrees warmer than rural areas over the past 10 years urban areas had 23 more days above 90 degrees than rural areas over the past 10 years. temperatures are increasing an average of 0.65 degrees per decade since 1970. nighttime temperatures are increasing an average of 0.61 degrees per decade since 1970 Hotter temperatures bring with them health implications. Besides heat-related illnesses like heatstroke, heat exacerbates problems like ozone, said Dr. Howard Frumkin of the University of Washington's School of Public Health. "When cities become hotter, the ozone levels in cities tend to rise," he said. "Ozone is toxic to our airways. Higher ozone results in irritation and inflammation of the airways and that translates into more respiratory symptoms, especially among people with asthma or bronchitis or other underlying conditions of the airways." Louisville has had problems with high ozone levels in the past; there were 23 days in 2012 when the area's ozone levels exceeded the federal standard. The city has also begun addressing its declining tree canopy. The preliminary results of a city-wide study have found that a core part of the city lost nine percent of its tree canopy from 2004 to 2012.

Tropical deserts

This is the typical desert that comes to mind. Note the low rainfall causes very dry conditions and slow plant growth. Only species adapted to these conditions can survive there so there is low species diversity. Sahara

The great nutrient collapse

Zooplankton are microscopic animals that float in the world's oceans and lakes, and for food they rely on algae, which are essentially tiny plants. Scientists found that they could make algae grow faster by shining more light onto them—increasing the food supply for the zooplankton, which should have flourished. But it didn't work out that way. When the researchers shined more light on the algae, the algae grew faster, and the tiny animals had lots and lots to eat—but at a certain point they started struggling to survive. This was a paradox. More food should lead to more growth. How could more algae be a problem? The biologists had an idea of what was going on: The increased light was making the algae grow faster, but they ended up containing fewer of the nutrients the zooplankton needed to thrive. By speeding up their growth, the researchers had essentially turned the algae into junk food. The zooplankton had plenty to eat, but their food was less nutritious, and so they were starving. What he found is that his 2002 theory—or, rather, the strong suspicion he had articulated back then—appeared to be borne out. Across nearly 130 varieties of plants and more than 15,000 samples collected from experiments over the past three decades, the overall concentration of minerals like calcium, magnesium, potassium, zinc and iron had dropped by 8 percent on average. The ratio of carbohydrates to minerals was going up. The plants, like the algae, were becoming junk food. What that means for humans―whose main food intake is plants―is only just starting to be investigated. Researchers who dive into it will have to surmount obstacles like its low profile and slow pace, and a political environment where the word "climate" is enough to derail a funding conversation. It will also require entirely new bridges to be built in the world of science―a problem that Loladze himself wryly acknowledges in his own research. When his paper was finally published in 2014, Loladze listed his grant rejections in the acknowledgements.