BIO 137 Final
Outline the three levels of motor hierarchy.
*Reflex arcs & fixed-action patterns (stereotyped sequential motor actions; e.g., walking) *segemental level (spinal cord): lowest level of the hierarchy. Segmental circuit activates network of ventral horn neurons in a group of cord segments, causing them to stimulate specific groups of muscles. Central pattern generators (CPGs): circuits that control locomotion and other specific oft-repeated motor activities. *projection level (upper motor neurons of motor cortex & brain stem) the spinal cord is under direct control of the projection level. Axons of direct system neurons produce discrete voluntary movements of skeletal muscles. Axons of indirect help control reflex and CPGs. * precommand level (cerebellum & basal nuclei; control output of cortex & brainstem): Precisely start or stop movements, coordinate posture, block unwanted movements, and monitor muscle tone. * Cerebellum: modulates and coordinates voluntary movement of limbs, maintains muscle tone & posture, coordinates eye movements with body movements, & aids in learning of motor skills * Basal nuclei: receive input from the cerebral cortex & then issue output fibers back to the cerebrum via the thalamus; planning & execution of movement * Parkinson disease (along with substantia nigra)
What are the functions of the skeletal system?
-support for body and soft organs -protection -movement -mineral growth and storage -blood cell formation -fat storage -hormone production
List and describe the different type of joints.
1)Fibrous Joints→ bones joined by fibrous tissue, without a joint cavity. Most are immovable -Suture= joint held together by short fibers. Ex= bones in skull connective -Syndesmoses= bones connected by ligaments/ bands of fibrous tissue. Ex=knee (ACL) & ankle. -Gomphoses= peg-in-socket joints of teeth. 2) Cartilaginous Joints→bones united by cartilage, no joint cavity. Not highly moveable -Synchondroses=bar/plate of hyaline cartilage unites bones. Ex-cartilage of first rib -Symphyses→ fibrocartilage unites bone. Ex- in vertebrae/pubic sympheses. 3)Synovial Joints→ most common type of joint. Bones separated by a fluid-containing joint cavity. Freedom of movement -plane joint=non axial movement (gliding) -Hinge joint= uniaxial movement (flexion & extension) -Pivot Joint=uniaxial movement (rotation) -Condylar Joint=biaxial movement (flexion &extension) -Saddle Joint=biaxial movement )adduction, abduction, flexion, extension) -Ball-and-socket joint= multiaxial movement (flexion&extension, adduction&abducton, rotation)
Compare the roles of the cerebellum and vassal nuclei in controlling motor activity.
1. Cerebullum- The key center for "online" sensorimotor integration and control is the cerebellum. Remember the cerebellum is a target of ascending proprioceptor, tactile, equilibrium, and visual inputs—feedback that it needs for rapid correction of "errors" in motor activity. It also receives information via branches from descending pyramidal tracts, and from various brain stem nuclei. The cerebellum lacks direct connections to the spinal cord; it acts on motor pathways through the projection areas of the brain stem and on the motor cortex via the thalamus to fine-tune motor activity. 2. The basal nuclei receive inputs from all cortical areas and send their output back mainly to premotor and prefrontal cor- tical areas via the thalamus. Compared to the cerebellum, the basal nuclei appear to be involved in more complex aspects of motor control. Under resting conditions, the basal nuclei inhibit various motor centers of the brain, but when the motor centers are released from inhibition, coordinated motions can begin. Cells in both the basal nuclei and the cerebellum are involved in this unconscious planning and discharge in advance of willed movements.
Compare stretch, flexor, crossed-extensor and tendon reflexes.
1.Stretch- In the stretch reflex the muscle spindle is stretched and excited by either an external stretch or an internal stretch. 2. Golgi tendon- The Golgi tendon reflex produces muscle relaxation and lengthening in response to contraction. 3. Flexor- The flexor, or withdrawal, reflex is initiated by a painful stimulus and causes automatic withdrawal of the threatened body part from the stimulus. 4. Cross extensor- The crossed-extensor reflex is a complex spinal reflex consisting of an ipsilateral withdrawal reflex and a contralateral extensor reflex.
What would be the result of cutting the ventral root of a spinal nerve?
A complete loss of voluntary movement.
Oligodendrocytes?
A glial cell similar to an astrocyte but with fewer protuberances, concerned with the production of myelin in the central nervous system.
What is a synapse?
A junction between two nerve cells, consisting of a minute gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter.
What do tendon sheaths do?
A layer of connective tissue that lines the cavities of joints along with bursae. It helps with the movement of tendons.
What is an enzyme?
A protein catalyst that lowers the energy of activation required for chemical reactions in living organisms.
What is the functional unit of a skeletal muscle called?
A sarcomere.
Astrocytes?
A star-shaped glial cell of the central nervous system.
What is a catalyst?
A substance that speeds up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to occur.
Turns the eyeball laterally.
Abducens.
What happens to ACh in the synaptic cleft after nervous stimulation stops?
AcCh is prevented from continuing stimulation of contraction by acetylocholinesterase destrying the Ach.
Formed by the union of a cranial and a spinal root.
Accessory.
Which cranial nerve has a cervical (spinal cord) origin?
Accessory.
During muscle contraction, what do myosin cross bridges attach to?
Actin Filaments.
Describe receptor and generator potentials and sensory adaptation
Adaption is change in sensitivity in the presence of constant stimulus. -receptor membranes become less responsive -receptor potientals decline in frequency or stop.
What is the pathway between the receptor and the control center in the reflex pathway called?
Afferent pathway.
How are trabeculae of spongy bone oriented?
Align along lines of stress to help resist it, don't contain osteons, but do contain irregularly arranged lamellae and osteocytes.
In what types of tissue are macrophages found?
All tissue types.
Where is articular cartilage found?
Also can be refered to as hyaline cartilage. Is found at the end of long bones and in between ribs. In synovial joints.
Describe an osteon.
Also known as Haversian System. Structural unit of compact bone. Elongated cylinder parallel to long axis of bone. Consists of Haversian canal, canaliculi, lamelle, and lacunae containing osteocytes.
What are articulations permitting only slight degrees of movement called?
Amphiarthroses.
Medulla Oblongata?
An autonomic reflex center, helps in rate of breathing vomiting, swallowing, and rate of heart contractions.
Distinguish between anatomy and physiology
Anatomy-study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another. Physiology-study of the function of body parts; how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities.
What is osteogenesis?
Another word for ossification. It is the process of bone tissue formation, and bone growth.
What is the process of bones increasing in width called?
Appositional growth.
What are menisci?
Articular discs, fibrocartilage that separates articular surfaces to improve the fit of bone ends, it stabilizes joints, and reduces wear and tear.
The octet rule?
Atoms desire 8 electrons in their valence shell.
What type of joint is the hip joint?
Ball and socket joint.
What are the types and severity of skin cancer?
Basal Cell Carcinoma- least malignant, most common, cured by surgical excision Squamous Cell Carcinoma- second most common type, good prognosis if treated by radiation therapy, or removed by surgery. Melanoma- cancer of melanocytes, is the most dangerous, and treated by chemo/ and or surgery.
Describe the lengthwise, long bone growth during infancy and youth.
Begins in 2nd month of development, break down of hyaline cartilage, begins at primary ossification center in center of shaft.
What is found in the canal that runs through the core of each osteon (the Haversian canal)?
Blood vessels and nerve fibers.
Describe the correct anatomical position.
Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward with thumns pointing away from the body.
Fully describe the anatomical position for the human body
Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward with thumns pointing away from the body.
What is the function of Osteoblasts?
Bone forming cells.
What most often causes osteoporosis?
Bone reorption outpaces deposit. Maybe an imabalnce in calcium and phosphate there is an imbalance between new bone formation and old bone resorption.
What is the function of Osteoclasts?
Bone resportion during bone remodeling.
Describe Wolff's law.
Bones grow or remodel in response to demand placed on them. Ex- curved bones thickest where most likely to buckle. Large projections occur where heavy, active muscles attach.
Striking the "funny bone" (ulnar nerve) may cause injury to a nerve of this plexus.
Brachial plexus.
Trauma to a nerve of this plexus may cause wrist drop.
Brachial plexus.
Survival center?
Brain Stem.
What are the connective tissue sacs lined with synovial membranes that act as cushions in places where friction develops are called?
Bursae.
What substances are required by excitation-contraction coupling?
Calcium ions and ATP.
List the major groups of organic compounds, their building blocks and primary functions.
Carbs-Monosacharides, living things main energy source. Sugar/starch, cellulose, glycogen, chitin. Protiens-Amino acids, to catalyze chemical reactions and build muscles. Lipids-Saturated fats, unsaturated fats, used to store energy. Nucleic Acids-Nucleotides, to store and transmit genetic information, deoxyribose sugar, nitrogen base, phosphate group. DNA and RNA.
Identify the saddle joint of the skeleton.
Carpometacrarpal joint of the thumb.
What tissue forms the model for endochondrial ossification?
Cartilage.
Compare the matrix of cartilage with that of bone.
Cartilage; chondroblasts and chondrocytes. Tough yet flexible, and is Avascular (bad blood supply) Bone; osteoblasts, osteocytes, and are richly vascularized (many blood vessels)
Distinguish between cations and anions.
Cation-atom that lost one or more electrons; negative charge. Anion-atom that gained one or more electrons; positive charge. *oppositie of charge*
What are basal nuclei?
Caudate nucleus, amygdaloid body, claustrum, lentiform nucleus (putamen and globus pallidus)
Arbor Vitae?
Cerebellum.
Motor command center?
Cerebellum.
Provides timing and patterns of skeletal muscle contraction for daily life?
Cerebellum.
Executive suite?
Cerebrum.
Describe an isotonic muscle contraction.
Changes in length and moves the "load"
What cells are responsible for the early stages of endochondral ossification?
Chondrocytes.
Identify the fiber type that gives connective tissue great tensile strength.
Collagen.
What is the single most abundant protein in the body?
Collagen.
What two nerves combine to form the sciatic nerve?
Common fibular and tibial.
Name the components of a reflex arc and distinguish between autonomic and somatic reflexes.
Components of Reflex arc: 1. Receptor: Site of the stimulus action. 2. Sensory neuron: Transmits afferent impulses to the CNS. 3. Integration center: In simple reflex arcs, the integration center may be a single synapse between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron (monosynaptic reflex). More complex reflex arcs involve multiple synapses with chains of interneu- rons (polysynaptic reflex). The integration center for the reflexes we will describe in this chapter is within the CNS. 4. Motor neuron: Conducts efferent impulses from the integration center to an effector organ. 5. Effector: Muscle fiber or gland cell that responds to the ef- ferent impulses (by contracting or secreting). Autonomic and somatic reflexes: Reflexes are classified functionally as somatic reflexes if they activate skeletal muscle, or as Autonomic (visceral) reflexes if they activate visceral effectors (smooth or cardiac muscle or glands).
What is the function of Canaliculi?
Connect lamaellae together and to the central canal.
Visceral sensory area?
Conscious perception of visceral sensations.
Frontal eye field?
Controls voluntary eye movements.
Describe development of cranial bones.
Cranial bones develop within fibrous connective tissue membranes.
Consists of an ipsilateral withdrawal reflex and a contralateral extensor reflex; important in maintaining balance.
Crossed-extensor.
What is the function of Lamellae?
Cylinder lines of collagen fiber around each osteon that add strength and resiliency to bone.
What can a deficiency of growth hormone during bone formation cause?
Decreased proliferation of the epiphyseal plate cartilage.
Describe the anatomy of a neuron and the function of each part.
Dendrites-Recieve electrical messages Nucleus-Conatins the genetic material in the form of chromosomes. Cell Body-produces the proteins for the dendrites axons and terminals and conatins specialized organelles. Axon- Myelin sheath-function is to protect the neuron, provide insulation, and increase the speed of impulse transmision Axon termina-l often club-shaped endings by which axons make synaptic contacts with other nerve cells or with effector cells
What type of connective tissue are tendons and ligaments composed?
Dense Regular Connective Tissue.
What structure prevents heart muscle cells from separating?
Desmosomes.
Name the type of tissue that maintains the shape of the external ear.
Elastic Cartilage.
What type of gland, such as the thyroid, secretes its product directly into the blood rather than through ducts?
Endocrine Gland.
What lines arteries, veins, and lymphatics?
Endothelium.
What lines blood vessels and the heart?
Endothelium.
What is the functional role of the T tubules?
Enhance cellular communication during muscle contraction.
What is the epithelial membrane that lines body cavities open to the exterior?
Exocrine glands.
In a crossed-extensor reflex, if the right arm was grabbed it would flex and the left arm would ______________.
Extend.
Distinguish between each of the following. extension flexion hyperextension circumduction
Extension→increases the angle of a joint Flexion → decreases the angle of a joint Hyperextension→ movement beyond the anatomical position Circumduction→involves flexion, abduction, extension, AND adduction of a limb.
Potentially damaging stimuli that result in pain are selectively detected by __________.
Exteroceptors.
Slow or fast muscle fibers? Contain abundant amounts of glycogen.
Fast (oxidative or glycolytic)
Slow or fast muscle fibers? Have very fast-acting myosin ATPases and depend upon anaerobic metabolism during contraction.
Fast (oxidative, or glycolytic)
How is hyaline cartilage different from elastic or fibrocartilage?
Fibers are not normally visible in Hyaline cartilage.
What are efferent nerve fibers?
Fibers that conduct impulses (carry info) away from the CNS. Usually considered motor. 1. Efferents to skeletal muscle 2. Autonomic nervous system= efferent system of neurons transmitting nerve impulses to cardiac muscle (heart), smooth muscle and glands. Two neurons compose a chain from the CNS to the effector organ.
What are afferent nerve fibers?
Fibers that conduct impulses (carry info) toward the CNS. Usually considered sensory.
Describe the stem cells of connective tissue.
Fibroblasts- connective tissue proper Chondroblasts- cartilage Osteoblasts- bone Chondrocytes- cartilage Osteocytes- bone
What cell types are found in areolar connective tissue?
Fibroblasts.
What type of tissue are the shock-absorbing pads between the vertebrae formed?
Fibrocartilage.
Produces a rapid withdrawal of the body part from a painful stimulus; ipsilateral.
Flexor.
What causes rigor mortis?
Follwing the death of an individual, ATP is rapidly consumed and cannot be replaced. Because cross bridge detachment and calcium active transport is ATP driven, calcium leakage from the sarcoplasmic reticulum cause attachment of cross bridges, and lack of ATP prevents detachments.
What is dorsiflexion?
Foot flexed up.
What is inversion?
Foot turned inward.
What is the structural unit of spongy bone?
Framework called trabecule.
Define ganglion and indicate the general body location of ganglia.
Ganglion - collection of nerve bodies in the PNS
List the most predominant organelles in goblet cells and other glandular epithelium.
Goblet cells, Microvilli, Golgi Aparatus, and Nucleus.
What is a reflex that causes muscle relaxation and lengthening in response to muscle tension called?
Golgi tendon reflex.
Produces muscle relaxation and lengthening in response to tension; the contracting muscle relaxes as its antagonist is activated.
Golgi tendon.
What is a fibrous joint that is a peg-in-socket is called?
Gomphosis join.
What are the three main components of connective tissue?
Ground substance, Fibers, and Cells.
Describe the general composition of connective tissue.
Ground substance, fibers (collagen, elastic, reticular), and cells (blast and cyte cells).
What is the single most important stimulus for epiphyseal plate activity during infancy and childhood?
Growth Hormone.
Premotor cortex?
Helps plan movements- staging area for skilled motor activities.
Name the blast cell for blood production.
Hemocytoblast.
Describe muscle tissue.
Highly vascularized, and responsible for most types of movement. (skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth).
What is a dynamic equilibrium of your internal environment termed?
Homeostasis.
Association fibers?
Horizontal fibers running that connect different parts of the same hemisphere.
Commissural fibers?
Horizontal fibers that connect gray matter of two hemispheres.
What kind of tissue is the forerunner of long bones in the embryo?
Hyaline Cartilage.
Visceral command center?
Hyopthalmus.
This area is the main visceral control center of the body.
Hypothalmus.
Why must a normal body temperature be maintained in order for chemical reactions to be continued at life-sustaining rates?
If body temperature is too low, chemical reactions slow and eventually stop. If body temperature is too high, chemical reactions speed up and body proteins lose their normal shape, resulting in loss of function.
Where is the cerebellum?
Inferior to the occipital lobe of the cerebrum.
Distinguish between inorganic and organic compounds.
Inorganic-a compound that doesn't contain carbon. exceptions (CO2 - carbon dioxide environmental and CaCO3 calcium carbonate) Organic-a compound that contains the element carbon, most only occur in living organisms or in their byproducts.
How does a myelin sheath function?
Insulates the axon, speeds up nerve impulse, if theres nodes ions can flow in and out through charges, and conserves energy.
Somatosensory association cortex?
Integrates sensory input from primary somatosensory cortex for understanding.
What does the term diploë refer to?
Internal layer of spongy bone in flat bones.
Describe interphase, mitosis and cytokinesis.
Interphase-Cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division. Mitosis-1 diploid parent cell splits into 2 identical diploid daughter cells. Cytokinesis-the cytoplasm forms a cleavage furrow at the equator to split the cytoplasm. (in plants a cell plate forms at the equator.)
Auditory areas?
Interprets info from ear as loudness/location. Stores memories of sounds and permits perception of sound.
Olfactory cortex?
Involved in conscious awareness of odors.
Gustatory cortex?
Involved in perception of taste.
What are the fuctions of basal nuclei?
Involved in the control of motor functions
Posterior association area?
Involved in understanding written and spoken language. (wernickes area)
Anterior association area?
Involved with intellect, cognition, recall, and personality. Contains working memory needed for judgement reasoning.
Describe ossification of the ends of long bones.
It is produced by secondary ossification centers. Cartilage in diaphysis calcifies then develops cavities. Formation of spongy bone occurs. Diaphysis elongates and medullary cavity forms. Lastly, the epiphyses ossifies.
What is the function of periosteum?
It is the fibrous membrane covering attached by fibers. It enters into the bone, allowing nerves, blood/lymphatic vessels to pass through it.
Meissner corpuscle?
Just beneath epidermis, discriminative touch.
What is the protein found in the epidermis that is responsible for toughening the skin?
Keratin.
What are the most abundant cells of the epidermis?
Keratinocytes.
During vigorous exercise, there may be insufficient oxygen available to completely break down pyruvic acid for energy. As a result, what is the pyruvic acid converted to?
Lactic Acid.
Explain the role of the limbic system.
Large part of emotional and affective brain. Puts emotional responses to odors, most output relayed via hypothalamus. allows us to react emotionally to things we consciously understand to be happening.
What is the function of Endosteum?
Layer of connective tissue that lines inner surface of bones, responsible for appositional bone growth (width), bone remodeling/repair.
Ruffini endings?
Lie in dermis, respond to deep continous pressure.
The obturator and femoral nerves branch from this plexus.
Lumbar plexus.
What is homeostasis? Know examples
Maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite continous changes in the environment.
What is the stimulus above which no stronger contraction can be elicited, because all motor units are firing in the muscle called?
Maximal stimulus.
Explain what is meant by polarity of epithelial tissues.
Means that epithelial tissue has an Apical surface (upper free side), and a Basal Surface (lower deeper side).
Football players often sustain lateral blows to the extended knee. Which of the ligaments is (are) damaged as a result?
Medial Collateral, Medial Meniscus, and Anterior Cruciate.
The heart is ________ to the arm. Know all of these relative terms.
Medial.
What is the epithelial membrane that lines the closed ventral cavities of the body?
Mesothelium.
What broad term covers all chemical reactions that occur within the body cells?
Metabolism.
What are the three major regions of the brainstem?
Midbrain, Pons, and Medulla Oblongata.
The ________ cavity contains tiny bones that transmit sound vibrations to the organ of hearing in the inner ear.
Middle ear.
Describe the correct sequence of events for muscle contractions.
Motor neuron action potential, neurotransmitter release, muscle cell action potential, release of calcium ions from SR, ATP-driven power stroke, sliding of myofilaments.
Broca's area?
Motor speech area that directs muscles of speech and voluntary motor activities.
What is a motor neuron and all the muscle cells that it stimulates are referred to as?
Motor unit.
What is abduction?
Movement away from the midline.
What is adduction?
Movement toward the midline.
What lines the digestive and respiratory tracts?
Mucous Membrane.
What is determined by alternating motor units of a muscle organ even when the muscle is at rest?
Muscle tone.
Explain the concepts of positive and negative feedback and give examples
Negative-reduces or shuts off orginal stimulus; hot, sweat, cool down; increase glucose, pancreas secetes insluin, insluin causes cells to absorb more gluclose. Positive-enhances or exaggerates the orginial stimulus; labor contracfions with oxytocin; platlet plug blood clotting.
What type of homeostatic feedback reflex is the withdrawal reflex?
Negative.
Define plexus. Name the major plexuses and describe the distribution and function of the peripheral nerves arising from each plexus.
Nerve plexuses (Fig. 13.6) * Ventral rami: all ventral rami (except thoracic) of the spinal nerves branch and join one another lateral to the vertebral column, forming nerve plexuses * Back (Fig. 13.7) each dorsal ramus innervates the narrow strip of muscle and skin in line w/ its emergence point from the spinal column. *Anterolateral thorax & abdominal wall: (Fig. 13.7) Only in the thorax are the ventral rami arranged in a simple segmental pattern like that of the dorsal rami. * Intercostal nerves: The ventral rami of T1-T12 mostly course anteriorly, deep to each rib. *Cervical plexus & neck (Fig. 13.8 & Table 13.3): burried deep in the neck under the sternocleidomastoid muscle is the cervical plexus. * Phrenic nerve: the most important nerve from this plexus. It provides motor and sensory fibers to the diaphragm, which is the chief muscle for breathing movements. * Hiccups: irritation of the phrenic nerve causes spasms of the diaphragm, or hiccups. If both nerves severed, then respiratory arrest. e. Brachial plexus & upper limb (Table 13.4 & Fig. 13.9) situated in the neck and partly in the axilla. * Radial nerve: continuation of posterior cord. Wraps around humerus and then around elbow. Supplies posterior skin of limb along entire course. All extensor muscles of upper limb. Trauma results in wrist drop. (improper use of crutches, Saturday night paralysis) Lumbosacral plexus & lower limb * Lumbar plexus (Table 13.5 & Fig. 13.10) L1-L4. Innervates some abdominal wall muscles and medial and anterior thigh. * Femoral nerve: innervate anterior thigh muscles, which are principal thigh flexors, and knee extensors. Also cutaneous serve skin of anterior thigh and medial surface f leg. Damage to this nerve results in gait problems. *Obturator nerves: enters via obturator foramen and innervates adductor muscles. Damage to this nerve causes anesthesia to anterior thigh and pain in medial thigh. * Sacral plexus (Table 13.6 & Fig. 13.11) L4-S4. Innervate ass and lower limb, pelvic structures and perineum. * Sciatic nerve: Thickest and longes nerve in the body. Supplies entire lower limb except anteromedial thigh. Injury to nerve causes sciatica (severe pain over nerve). If nerve transected, leg is nearly useless. Footdrop. *Innervation of skin: Dermatomes (derma = skin + tom = segment) (Fig. 13.12) The area of skin innervated by the cutaneous branches of a single spinal nerve. Every spinal nerve except C1 innervates dermatomes. Because those of the trunk overlap considerably, the destruction of a single spinal nerve will not result in complete numbness anywhere. Less overlap in limbs. * Innervation of joints: Hilton's law: Any nerve serving a muscle that produces movement at a joint also innervates the joint and the skin over that joint.
Describe cognitive function of the cerebellum.
Neuroimaging suggests that cerebellum plays role in thinking, language, and emotion.
Hypothetically, if a muscle were stretched to the point where thick and thin filaments no longer overlapped, what would happen to contractibility?
No muscle tension could be generated.
Name and describe the types of bone fracture?
Nondisplaced→ ends retain normal position Displaced→ ends out of normal alignment Complete→ broken all the way through Incomplete→ not broken all the way through Open→ skin is penetrated (compound) Closed→ skin is not penetrated (simple)
Distinguish between nuclei and ganglia in the nervous system?
Nuclei - CNS collection of nerve bodies Ganglia - PNS collections of nerve bodies
What is atomic number?
Number of protrons in nucleus.
Receptors located in epithelium of the nasal cavity.
Olfactory.
Where is keratinized stratified squamous epithelium found?
Only in the skin.
Consider the following structural levels: chemical, organ, tissue, cell, and organ system. Which level encompasses the other four?
Organ system.
The structure of bone tissue suits the function. What tissues are found in bone and how does each contribute to bone function?
Osseous Tissue→structure and support Nervous Tissue→sensation, communication, integration Cartilage→Provides Flexible Support Serves as sliding area of joints Essential for the development and growth of long bones Fibrous Connective Tissue→
What tissue has lacunae, calcium salts, and blood vessels?
Osseous tissue.
What cell is responsible for secreting the matrix of bone?
Osteoblast.
What contributes most to the resilience of bone?
Osteoblasts, and direct supply to nutrients.
Bones are constantly undergoing resorption for various reasons. What cells accomplish this process?
Osteoclast.
Which hormone increases osteoclast activity to release more calcium ions into the bloodstream?
Parathyroid hormone.
How are burns classified?
Partial thickness burns (first degree- epidermal damage only, redness/swelling. Second degree- epidermal and upper dermal damage, blisters appear) Full Thickness burns (third degree-entire thickness of skin involved. Skin gray-white/cherry red/blackened. Not painful because nerve endings destroyed.)
Which cavity contains the bladder, some reproductive organs, and the rectum?
Pelvic cavity.
Why are the abdominopelvic cavity organs the most vulnerable to blunt deceleration in an automobile accident with seat belts?
Pelvis bones provide limited protection to the pelvic cavity, the walls of the abdominal cavity are formed by muscle only, so these organs are most vulnerable.
What tissue secures the periosteum to the underlying bone? How is it secured?
Perforating (Sharpey's) fibers.
Tests both upper and lower motor pathways. The sole of the foot is stimulated with a dull instrument.
Plantar.
Midbrain?
Play role in superssion and fight-or-flight response.
What is the pleura and pericardium?
Pleura is tissue that wraps around the outside of your lungs, and the inside of your chest cavity. Pericardium is the membrane enclosing the heart with a fibrous layer.
Which feedback mechanism causes the variable to deviate further and further from its original value or range?
Positive feedback.
Controls the outputs of the cortex and regulates motor activity.
Precommand level.
The cerebellum and basal nuclei.
Precommand level.
This brain area associates experiences necessary for the production of abstract ideas, judgment, and conscience.
Prefrontal area.
The axons from this area form the major pyramidal tracts.
Primary motor cortex.
Includes cortical and brain stem motor areas.
Projection level.
Intermediate relay for incoming and outgoing neurons.
Projection level.
What are the parts of an atom?
Proton-positive, 1 amu. Neutron-neutral, no charge, 1 amu. Electron-negative charge, 0 amu.
Limbic association area?
Provides emotional impact that makes a scene important to us and helps establish memories.
Define peripheral nervous system and list its components.
Provides links from and to world outside body. Al neutral structures outside brain-sensory receptor, peripheral nerves, and ganglia, and motor endings.
What type of epithelium appears to have two or three layers of cells, but all the cells are in contact with the basement membrane?
Pseudostratified Columnar.
Begins about 90 minutes after the onset of sleep
REM.
Indicated by movement of the eyes under the lids; dreaming occurs.
REM.
Necessary for emotional health; may be neural "debugging."
REM.
Describe the three levels of neural integration in sensory systems.
Receptor level-sensory receptors Circut level-processing in ascending pathways. Perceptual level-processing in cortical sensory areas.
List requirements for occurrence of a sensation
Receptors have to specifically for stimulus energy. Stimulus must be applied in receptive field transduction occurs, and graded potientals must reach threshold.
Primary somatosensory cortex?
Recieves general sensory information.
Where is red bone marrow found in infants and adults?
Red Bone Marrow in infants→ found in medullary cavities and spongy bone -Red Bone Marrow in adults→ little found in long bones, heads of femur and humerus only.
What is the goal of all of the negative feedback mechanisms of the body
Reduces or shuts off the orginal stimulus.
What is a reflex?
Reflexes are rapid, automatic responses to stimuli.
What is the major function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle contraction?
Regulate intracellular calcium concentration.
________ physiology concerns urine production and kidney function.
Renal.
Which body system would be most affected by a lower than normal atmospheric pressure?
Respiratory system.
Vestibular cortex?
Responsible for conscious awareness of balance.
The ability to sense changes in the environment and respond to them is called ________.
Responsiveness.
Visual areas?
Revieves visual information from retinas.
Starting at the spinal cord, list the subdivisions of the brachial plexus are (in order).
Roots, trunks, divisions, cords.
The phrenic nerve branches from this plexus.
Sacral Plexus.
A fall or improper administration of an injection to the buttocks may injure a nerve of this plexus.
Sacral plexus.
What is formed by spinal nerves exiting the cord from the level of L4 to S4?
Sacral plexus.
What are electrolytes?
Salts, acids, and bases.
Pacinian corpuscle?
Scattered in deep dermis, only 1st touch, mechanoreceptors.
Schwann cells?
Schwann cells are glia of the peripheral nervous system.
The neural machinery of the spinal cord, including spinal cord circuits.
Segmental leve.
Central pattern generators.
Segmental level.
Explain the role of the reticular system.
Sends impulses to cerebral cortex to keep it conscious and alert. Fileters out repetitive, filimar, or weak stimuli.
How are bones classified? Name them.
Short, Long, Irregular, Flat bones.
Which type of epithelium forms the lining of serous membranes?
Simple Columnar.
Describe simple columnar epithelium that forms absorptive cells of the digestive tract.
Single layer of tall cells. Responsible for absorption and secretion of mucus.
Slow or fast muscle fibers? A relatively high percentage are found in successful marathon runners.
Slow (oxidative)
Slow or fast muscle fibers? Abundant in muscles used to maintain posture.
Slow (oxidative)
Slow or fast muscle fibers? Depends on oxygen delivery and aerobic mechanisms.
Slow (oxidative)
Slow or fast muscle fibers? Red fibers, the smallest of the fiber types.
Slow (oxidative)
How well do each of the following regenerate? o Smooth muscle. o Skeletal muscle. o Cardiac muscle. o Areolar connective tissue o Tendons and ligaments.
Smooth muscle- Moderate regenerating capacity Skeletal muscle- Cardiac muscle- virtually no functional regenerative capacity Areolar connective tissue- Regenerate extremely well Tendons and ligaments- moderate regenerating capacity
What type of muscle tissue is characterized by peristalsis?
Smooth muscle.
Which muscle cells have the greatest ability to regenerate?
Smooth.
Pons?
Some neculi play role in reticular formation, and some help maintain normal rhythm of breathing.
Very easy to awaken; EEG shows alpha waves; may even deny being asleep
Stage 1.
Typified by sleep spindles
Stage 2.
Theta and delta waves begin to appear
Stage 3.
The stage when vital signs (blood pressure, heart rate, and body temperature reach their lowest normal levels.
Stage 4.
List the steps of tissue repair.
Step 1- inflammation occurs Step 2- organization restores blood supply, and epithelium begins to regenerate Step 3- regeneration and fibrosis/ scab detaches
Outline the events that lead to sensation and perception
Stimulus then enerator potiental in afferent neuron then action potiental.
Classify a many-layered epithelium with cuboidal basal cells and flat cells at its surface.
Stratified Squamous Epithelium.
Identify the epidermal layer that contains the mitotic viable cells of the epidermis.
Stratum Basale.
List in order the epidermal layers that a needle would pierce if pushed into your forearm.
Stratum Corneum, Stratum Granulosum, Stratum Spinosum, Stratum Basale.
Identify the layer of the epidermis where the cells are considered protective but nonviable.
Stratum Corneum.
What is the patellar "knee jerk" reflex is an example of?
Stretch reflex.
Prevents muscle overstretching and maintains muscle tone.
Stretch.
What does gross anatomy study?
Study of large, visible structures.
Identify the epidermal glands that serve an important function in thermoregulation.
Sudoriferous Glands.
Name the joint united by dense fibrocartilaginous tissue that usually permits a slight degree of movement.
Symphysis.
Which subdivision of anatomy involves the study of organs that function together?
Systemic.
Pressure, pain, and temperature receptors in the skin are ______________.
Tactile sensations.
Describe the general structure of a nerve.
Tentacle dendrites (receptors) attached to a cell body (center) with a long tail, (Axon, sender).
What is continued sustained smooth contraction due to rapid stimulation called?
Tetanus.
What is the diencephalon composed of?
Thalamus, Hypothlamus, and epithalamus.
A major relay station for sensory information ascending to primary sensory areas of the cerebral cortex. Contains many specialized nuclei.
Thalamus.
Gateway to the cerebrum?
Thalamus.
Where must all processing at the circuit level going up to the perceptual level synapse?
Thalamus.
Describe how space constraints affect brain development.
The brain grows faster than surrounding membranous skill, so it must fold to occupy aviavle space. Forebrain moves towards brainstem, ceberal hemispheres, double back and envlope.
Fassicle?
The compartments that contain bundle of muscle cells.
Isotonic?
The concentration of solutes is equal inside and outside the cell so water moves across the membrane in both directions maintaining cell size.
Describe how excess postexercise oxygen consumption (oxygen deficit) restores metabolic conditions.
The difference between the amount of oxygen needed for totally aerobic muscle activity and the amount actually used. Converts lactic acid back into glycogen stores in the liver, replaces the oxygen removed from myoglobin, and resynthesizes creatine phosphate and ATP in muscle fibers.
Ependymal cells?
The ependyma is made up of ependymal cells (ependymocytes), a type of glial cell. These cells line the CSF-filled ventricles in the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord. The cells are ciliated simple columnar epithelium-like cells.
What do the terms inversion and eversion pertain to?
The feet.
pH?
The measure of a solutions' potential to attract Hydrogen ions. The measure of how acidic or basic a solution is.
Solute?
The minor component in a solution.
What is the structural unit of compact bone?
The osteon.
What is myoglobin?
The oxygen-binding protein found in muscle cells.
Which ligament of the knee initiates the knee-jerk reflex when tapped?
The patellar ligament.
Describe intramembranous ossification.
The process of bone formation in the flat bones of the skull and most of the clavicle, where bone forms directly within mesenchyme arranged in sheetlike layers that resemble membranes.
What is hematopoiesis?
The process of production, multiplication, and specialization of blood cells in bone marrow.
To what does the term aponeurosis refer?
The sheetlike indirect attachment to a skeletal element.
Hypertonic?
The solution has a higher solute concentration than the cell so water moves out of the cell and into the solution causing the cell to plasmolyze.
Hypotonic?
The solution has a lower solute concentration than the cell so water moves into the cell causing plant cells to swell and animal cells to swell and burst.
Diagram the cell cycle.
The stages that take place between the time a eukaryotic cell divides and the time the daughter cells divide. (stages of growth, preparation, and division (Interphase and Mitosis)
The higher we go in the mountains, the greater the atmospheric pressure, resulting in an increase in available oxygen. Comment on this statement.
The statement is backwards. The higher we go, the less atmospheric pressure there is, therefore less oxygen
Solvent?
The substance that dissolves a solute.
What does a buffer do?
They are weak acid-base pairs. They maintain proper cellular pH.
In which body cavities are the lungs located?
Thoracic cavity.
Similar cells that have a common function are called ________.
Tissues.
Why is anatomical terminology necessary?
To study anatomy, anatomical terminology is crucial to be able to observe, manipulate palpate, and ausculate.
Which receptors adapt most slowly?
Tonic.
Atomic mass?
Total number of protons and neutrons in nucleus.
Where is pseudostratified columnar epithelium ciliated variety found.
Trachea; lines most of the respiratory tract.
Distinguish between nerves and tracts in the nervous system.
Tract- CNS, collection of axons Nerves - PNS, collection of axons
To what does transduction refer?
Transduction refers to conversion of stimulus information to nerve impulses.
What is the role of tropomyosin in skeletal muscles?
Tropomyosin serves as a contraction inhibitor by blocking the myosin binding sites on the actin molecules. -Tropomyosin a rod-shaped protein, spiral about the actin core and help stiffen and stabilize it.
How are sensory receptors classified?
Type of stimlus they detect, location in body, and structureal complexity.
What nerve is involved in striking the "funny bone"?
Ulnar nerve.
Helps to regulate blood pressure and digestion.
Vagus.
Projection fibers?
Verticle fibers that connect hemispheres with lower brain or spinal cord.
Serves the senses of hearing and equilibrium.
Vestibulocochlear.
What is the serous membrane that covers the intestines called?
Visceral serosa.
What is the single most abundant chemical substance in the body?
Water.
What is the situation in which contractions become stronger due to stimulation before complete relaxation occurs?
Wave summation.
What causes edema?
When areolar connective tissue is inflamed it soaks up excess fluid (fluid accumulates in lungs).
When do bones stop growing?
When epiphyseal plate closure occurs, and bone of epiphysis and diaphysis fuses. Females=18 yrs old, Males=21 yrs old.
Describe adipose tissue.
White fat that is being stored to eventually become ATP/energy. Made up of Adipoctyes that store nutrients.
What are the two types of fat in the body and what is the primary function of each?
White fat- storage to become atp/energy. Brown fat- use lipid fuels to heat bloodstream not to produce ATP.
Primary motor cortex?
Works in association with other motor areas to plan and execute movements.
What is the composition of yellow bone marrow?
Yellow bone marrow consists mainly of adipose cells, which store tryglicerides as a potential energy reserve.
Epimysium?
exterior collagen layer, connected to deep fascia, Separates muscle from surrounding tissues
Describe smooth muscle.
nonstriated (no sarcomers), involuntary, greater amount of actin, short and spindle shaped cells with poorly developed SR, uninucleate, caveloae, no T tubules, dense bodies.
Describe the main aspects of sensory perception (6)
perceptual detection, magnitude estimation, spatial discrimination, feature abstraction, quality discrimination, pattern recognition.
Endomysium?
surrounds individual muscle cells (muscle fibers), contains myosatellite cells (stem cells) that repair damage
Perimysium?
surrounds muscle fiber bundles (fascicles), contains blood vessel and nerve supply to fascicles
Classify general sensory receptors by stimulus detected, body location, structure.
•Mechanoreceptors—respond to touch, pressure, vibration, and stretch •Thermoreceptors—sensitive to changes in temperature •Photoreceptors—respond to light energy (e.g., retina) •Chemoreceptors—respond to chemicals (e.g., smell, taste, changes in blood chemistry) •Nociceptors—sensitive to pain-causing stimuli (e.g. extreme heat or cold, excessive pressure, inflammatory chemicals) •Exteroceptors -Respond to stimuli arising outside body -Receptors in skin for touch, pressure, pain, and temperature -Most special sense organs •Interoceptors (visceroceptors) -Respond to stimuli arising in internal viscera and blood vessels -Sensitive to chemical changes, tissue stretch, and temperature changes -Sometimes cause discomfort but usually unaware of their workings Classification by Location •Proprioceptors -Respond to stretch in skeletal muscles, tendons, joints, ligaments, and connective tissue coverings of bones and muscles -Inform brain of one's movements
