BIO 1610 - UVU EXAM 2
first law of thermodynamics
Energy cannot be created or destroyed. ex: glucose --->cellular respiration---->ATP.
Total amount of energy (H) = energy available to do the work (G) + energy lost to entropy (TS)
Enthalphy H= Gibbs free energy (G) + the degree of disorder/entropy (S)*absolute temperature (T) H=G+ST
Four stages of cellular respiration
1. glycolysis 2. pyruvate oxidation 3. citric acid cycle 4. oxidative phosphorylation
Chemical equation for photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 Photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide and water for the production of sugar and oxygen. 6 CO2 is reduced to C6H12O6. 6 H2O is oxidized to O2.
Thylakoid
A flattened membrane sac inside the chloroplast, used to convert light energy into chemical energy.
central vacuole
A large vacuole that rests at the center of most plant cells and is filled with a solution that contains a high concentration of solutes. Provides structure for the plant, support for the plant,. proper pressure.
Nucleus
A part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction, info for all activities and structures of the cell.
ATP and NADPH needed for the Calvin cycle?
ATP and NADPH use their stored energy to convert the three-carbon compound, 3-PGA, into another three-carbon compound called G3P. This type of reaction is called a reduction reaction, because it involves the gain of electrons. The molecules of ADP and NAD+, resulting from the reduction reaction, return to the light-dependent reactions to be re-energized. 2 ATP and 2 NADPH are required for each molecule of CO2 incorporated by rubisco.
ATP Structure related to its function?
ATP has a chain of three phosphates attached to an Adenosine in one end. Phosphate bonds are high-energy bonds(but stable though), which performs the job of energy transfer. This explains its ability to release energy quickly. As it is a relatively small molecule, it has a higher mobility.
How is ATP related to anabolic and catabolic reactions?
ATP is the intermediate between anabolic and catabolic reactions. ATP used becomes ADP + Pi (anabolic reaction). ADP + Pi becomes ATP created (catabolic reaction).
Mitochondria
An organelle found in large numbers in most cells, in which the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production (ATP) occur.
Chloroplast
An organelle found in plant and algae cells where photosynthesis occurs, harnesses energy for the cell.
Overall chemical equation for cellular respiration?
C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6 O 2 --> 6 CO 2 + 6 H 2 O + ATP
Prokaryotic Cell
Cells lacking a nucleus, ex: bacteria and archaeons; phospholipid bilayers do not contain cholesterol. Cell size is tiny compared to eukaryotic cells. Internal structure is very organized because of lack of space. Does contain DNA.
FAD is reduced to
FADH2
Lysosome
Garbage man of the cell. Degrade damaged or unneeded macromolecules--contain a variety of enzymes to break molecules down. Has a pH of 5 vs pH of 7 that the rest of the cell operates in. Protects the proteins and organelles in the cell from degradation.
Overall function of glycolysis?
Glycose converted to pyruvate, make ATP, give off e-. Happens in the cytosol.
Chlorophyll
Green pigment in plants that absorbs light energy used to carry out photosynthesis
Hypotonic solutions
If the extracellular fluid has lower osmolarity than the fluid inside the cell, it's said to be hypotonic—hypo means less than—to the cell, and the net flow of water will be into the cell. ex: H2O moves into the cell to maintain equilibrim, causing cell to swell (crenation) or explosion (lyse). (Water is trying to balance the amount of solute vs. amount of water, not the amount of extracellular water vs. intracellular water.)
ATP synthase
Large protein that uses energy from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP--turbine to pull H+ down, which then powers the turbine to rotate, the rotation forces an ADP to take on an inorganic phosphate (Pi) to create ATP.
Formation of NADPH in the photosynthetic electron transport chain?
Light energy hits Photosystem II, pulls H+ from water and passes it to Photosystem I. Photosystem I passes electrons to the NADP+ reductase, creating NADPH.
Calvin cycle connection to light reactions?
Light reactions supply the ATP and NADPH needed to start the calvin cycle.
How do enzymes work?
Lower activation energy needed to start a chemical reaction, they participate in a chemical rxn but are not consumed in the process.
Catabolism
Metabolic pathways that break down molecules into smaller units, produce ATP.
Anabolism
Metabolic pathways that construct molecules, requiring an input of energy, usually in the form of ATP.
NAD+ is reduced to
NADH
The role of glucose in the Calvin cycle?
One of the G3P molecules leaves the Calvin cycle to contribute to the formation of the carbohydrate molecule, which is commonly glucose (C6H12O6).
Integral membrane proteins
Permanently associated with cell membrane and can't be separated from the membrane without destroying the membrane.
Contains two fatty acids
Phospholipids
What is the problem with photorespiration?
Photorespiration wastes energy and steals carbon, halts or slows down the Calvin cycle.
How does photosynthesis relate to cellular respiration?
Photosynthesis: 6 carbon dioxide + 6 water → glucose + 6 oxygen Cellular respiration: glucose + 6 oxygen → 6 carbon dioxide + 6 water + ATP The end products of one process supplies the input required for the other process.
What is the relationship between the electron transport chain and the two photosystems?
Photosystem II and Photosystem I work within the ETC to produce ATP, NADPH. To turn light energy into a chemical energy that the plant can then use to make glucose through the Calvin cycle.
Role of water in the photosynthetic electron transport chain?
Photosystem II uses the H+ from water to take on electrons and passes it to Photosystem I.
Fermentation
Pyruvate broken down in absence of oxygen. A catabolic process that makes a limited amount of ATP from glucose without an electron transport chain and that produces a characteristic end product, such as ethyl alcohol or lactic acid. Bacteria uses fermentation. *NO OXYGEN REQUIRED--anaerobic organisms use fermentation. Produces only 2 ATP.
anaerobic respiration
Respiration that does not require oxygen, final electron receptor is an inorganic molecule (ex: nitrate, malate). 2-36 ATP net production.
aerobic respiration
Respiration that requires oxygen, final electron receptor is Oxygen, 30-32 ATP net production.
Role of RuBP in the Calvin cycle?
RuBP is a 5 carbon sugar, catalyzed by rubisco, which is then broken down into 2 molecules of 3-PGA. (carboxylation phase)
The role of CO2 in the Calvin cycle?
RuBisCO catalyzes a reaction between CO2 and RuBP, which forms a six-carbon compound that is immediately converted into two three-carbon compounds (carboxylation phase)
Endomembrane system
Smooth ER, Rough ER, and Golgi connected by vesicles. A series of interconnected membrane-bound compartment in eukaryotic cells.
Nucleolus
Starts the production of ribosomes inside the nucleus, made of mRNA, the other organelles finish the process.
substrate-level phosphorylation
The enzyme-catalyzed formation of ATP by direct transfer of an inorganic phosphate group to ADP from an intermediate substrate in catabolism.
Hypertonic solutions
The extracellular fluid has a higher osmolarity than the cell's cytoplasm, it's said to be hypertonic—hyper means greater than—to the cell, and water will move out of the cell to the region of higher solute concentration. ex: H2O moves out of the cell to maintain equilibrium, causing cell to shrink. (Water is trying to balance the amount of solute vs. amount of water, not the amount of extracellular water vs. intracellular water.)
Isotonic solutions
The extracellular fluid has the same osmolarity as the cell, and there will be no net movement of water into or out of the cell. (Water is trying to balance the amount of solute vs. amount of water, not the amount of extracellular water vs. intracellular water.)
Stroma
The fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane; involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water.
allosteric competitive inhibitor
The normal substrate binds to the normal active site, but the non-competitive inhibitor stops the reaction from moving forward because it too has bound to an allosteric site, halting the reaction due to the change of conformation of the enzyme.
Contains three fatty acids
Triglyceride
Photosystem II
Works with Photosystem I to move electrons from water to NADPH. One of two light-harvesting units of a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane. Chlorophyll is at the heart of Photosystem II. Absorbs P-680.
Photosystem I
Works with Photosystem II. Photosystem I energizes electrons with a second input of light energy so they can be used to reduce NADP+. Contains lots of Chlorophyll a but not a lot of Chlorophyll b. One of two light-harvesting units of a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane. Absorbs P700.
Energy available (^G) = Total amount of energy (H)-energy lost to entropy (TS)
^G=^H-T^S
Product
a converted substrate
Electrochemical gradient
a gradient that has both charge and chemical components.
Facilitated diffusion
a molecule moves by diffusion through the membrane protein and bypasses the lipid bilayer.
non-competitive inhibitor
a molecule that binds to an enzyme at a location outside the active site and inhibits the enzyme's function by changing the conformation of the enzyme.
Reduction Reaction
a reactant gains one or more electrons, thus becoming more negative in charge
Oxidation Reaction
a reactant loses one or more electrons, thus becoming more positive in charge
Membrane proteins
act as transporters moving ions, receptors that allow cells to receive signals, enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions, or anchors that attach to other proteins.
Cholesterol
amphipathic, pack tightly with phospholipids, head interacts with phospholipid head, while ring structure participates in van der Waals interactions with fatty acid chains/tails.
Autotroph
an organism that is able to make by itself nutritional organic substances from simple inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide to sustain its life.
redox reaction
an oxidation reaction paired with a reduction reaction
FADH2 and NADH
are created from FAD and NAD+ through reduction-oxidation reactions in the citric acid cycle during cellular respiration.
Protein cells are sorted...
by form/function (depending on the desired end result/purpose).
The three steps of the Calvin cycle are
carboxylation, reduction, regeneration
adenosine triphosphate
compound used by cells to store and release energy, ATP
Overall function of pyruvate oxidation?
convert pyruvate into acetyl coEnzyme A (acetylCoA), release CO2, release e-, happens in the mitochondrial matrix. *NO ATP involved.
Passive transport
diffusion (the random movement of molecules), net movement of molecules results only when there are concentration differences. Always moves from high concentration to low concentration.
Secondary active transport
does not use ATP, uses the potential energy of an electrochemical gradient to drive transport.
Kinetic energy
energy of motion, ex: ball going down the stairs.
Reduction
gaining electrons
Phospholipids
glycerol head and fatty acid tail held together by ester linkage.
Overall function of oxidative phosphorylation?
happens in the mitochondrial matrix, production of ATP from the oxidized NADH and FADH2. Electron Transport Chain: move e- toward oxygen, pump H+ ions against concentration gradient Chemiosmosis: make ATP using movement of H+ concentration gradient.
Eukaryotic Cell
have a nucleus, ex: animals, plants, fungi, and protists; phospholipid bilayers have cholesterol. Cell size is large compared to prokaryotic cells. Contains organelles. DNA is protected by nucleus.
Amphipathic
having both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region
Cholesterol function in fluidity
increases or decreases membrane fluidity depending on temperature--regular temperatures found in the cell decreases membrane fluidity; low temperatures cholesterol increases membrane fluidity, prevents dramatic transitions from a fluid to a solid state.
Active Site
is the portion of the enzyme that bind substrate and catalyzes its conversion to the product.
unsaturated fatty acids in phospholipid
kinks in phospholipids reduce tightness in packing, double bonds
Endoplasmic Reticulum, Smooth
lacks ribosomes; responsible for fatty acid and phospholipid biosynthesis, detoxes medicines and poisons, stores calcium ions.
Light reaction
light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis in which energy from light and water are used to produce ATP and NADPH. Takes place on the thylakoid membrane.
Calvin Cycle
light-independent reactions of photosynthesis in which energy from ATP and NADPH is used to build high-energy compounds such as sugar
Endoplasmic Reticulum, Rough
looks bumpy because it's covered in ribosomes; makes proteins, protein modifications, transport of packaged proteins (vesicles) destined for the Golgi ap.
Oxidation
loss of electrons
Vacuole
lysosome-like organelle found in plants; stores water and wastes and pigments, contains enzymes to break down macromolecules, isolates hazardous materials.
entropy
measure of/degree of disorder
Chloroplast
organelle found in cells of plants and some other organisms that captures the energy from sunlight and converts it into chemical energy
Cell membrane
permeable barrier surrounding the cell, which regulates what exits and enters the cell.
Cytoskeleton
protein scaffolding; network of protein filaments within some cells that helps the cell maintain its shape and is involved in many forms of cell movement
Carrier protein
protein which binds to and then transports specific molecules.
Enzymes
proteins that act as biological catalysts to accelerate a chemical reaction; critical in determining which chemical rxns take place in a cell.
Channel protein
provides an opening between the inside and outside for the cell within which certain molecules can pass, depending on their shape and charge.
exergonic reactions
release energy and proceed spontaneously (does not require a sustained input of energy). Catabolism, negative ^G (free energy).
endergonic reactions
require energy and are not spontaneous (requires a sustained input of energy). Anabolism, positive ^G (free energy).
Ribosome
sites where proteins are made, amino acids are assembled into polypeptides.
Golgi
sorts proteins and lipids to other organelles, the plasma membrane, or the cell exterior. Chemically modifies proteins. Made of cisternae surrounded by small vesicles that transport proteins and lipids through the Golgi to their final destinations. Makes carbohydrates for the cell.
Low potential energy
stable and unreactive, ex: needs input of energy to move the ball back to the top of the stairs.
Potential energy
stored energy, ex: ball at the top of the stairs.
saturated fatty acids in phospholipids
straight and tightly packed, reducing mobility, no double bonds
competitive inhibition
substance that resembles the normal substrate competes with the substrate for the active site, prevents normal substrate from binding by changing the conformation of the enzyme.
enzyme inhibitors
substrate impostor that plug up the active site; inhibitors decrease the activity of enzyme.
Peripheral membrane proteins
temporarily associated with the lipid bilayer or with integral membrane proteins through weak noncovalent interactions.
Free energy
the amount of internal energy of a thermodynamic system that is available to do the work. ex: "free energy dictates metabolic processes and biological treatment benefits by selecting specific metabolic pathways to degrade compounds. This occurs in a step-wise progression after the cell comes into contact with the compound." Determines will a reaction occur?
Metabolism
the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life/transfer energy/convert molecules into other molecules.
Mitochondrial matrix
the inner membrane of the mitochondria containing enzymes and substrates for the citric acid cycle.
Activation Energy
the minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction/reach the transition state.
Osmosis
the net movement of a solvent such as water across a selectively permeable barrier.
Substrate
the reactant of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction
Active transport
the transport of many kinds of molecules across membranes, requiring energy, either directly or indirectly.
Overall function of the Citric Acid Cycle?
uses acetylCoA to make ATP, release CO2, release e-, regerate oxaloacetate, happens in the mitochondrial matrix.
Primary active transport
uses energy directly to move ions.
Aquaporins
water channel proteins
second law of thermodynamics
when energy is transformed, the quantity of energy remains the same, but its ability to do work diminishes aka entropy. ex: not all light is absorbed by a plant, some energy is reflected and other energy is lost to heat.