Bio 185 Test 1

Trophic Levels and flow of energy

(refer to image) Simple formula to describe the amount of energy transferred from one trophic level to the next. Trophic level = feeding levels The plant is representative of all primary producers in the terrestrial food chain. - primary producers absorb ~ 1% of sun's energy - 90% of energy (sugar) used by metabolic processes or released as heat. --> 10% stored energy (NPP). The energy used by the next organism (primary consumer) when they eat the plant. - 10% of energy is transferred each time one consumer eats the lower one. 1. Plant absorbs 1% of sun's energy 2. Photosynthesis: convert light energy --> chemical energy 3. 10% of the sugar made from photosynthesis is stored by the plant/primary producer. 90% used by plant (cellular respiration: make ATP) or lost as heat (majority lost as heat) energy transfers always have some loss of energy as heat energy flow always starts from sun

Why does water affect temperature variation?

(temp varies more in the Northern Hemisphere where the moderating influence of water is less) - water has a HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT INDEX: Water can absorb lots of heat before changing temperature. Acts as an insulator and absorbs surrounding heat --> env doesn't change temp quickly (less fluctuation of temperature. Constant temp) - Since Southern Hemisphere has more water --> it can absorb heat --> temp is fairly constant

Zonation in Bodies of Water: OCEAN (upwelling and downwelling)

- As you go deeper into the ocean, temp + light decrease. - there is a lot of O2 at the top of the ocean and a lot of nutrients at the bottom of the ocean. Both need to be distributed = upwelling + downwelling - More Nutrients at BOTTOM of ocean because dead stuff sinks and continues to decompose at the bottom of the ocean = supports diverse group of organisms + incr diversity at bottom bc there are organisms that feed of dead things. Provides food for organisms that dont need sunlight - More Photosynthetic organisms at TOP of ocean. More sunlight = produces more O2 at the top. UPWELLING = water moves away from coastline + replaced by cold, nutrient rich water (nutrients from bottom move up) . These nutrients are needed by photosynthetic plants on water surface. DOWNWELLING = (El Nino - pacific ocean only). Warm water comes toward the coastline and O2 rich water goes to the bottom.

Most plants work with mycorrhizal fungi to obtain nutrients and even increase water uptake

- Fungi takes nutrients from soil - Involved in Nitrogen conversion for plant - Fungi body extend outside plant = Help plant take up H2O - Mutualistic relationship: - fungi help w H2O and nutrient intake. Protection from pathogens - plant gives fungi sugar. Fungi can't make their own food = Heterotrophs (have no chlorophyll). Depend on plant for food.

Other factors that can form microclimates

- Mountains = variations increase with mountains - Vallies - Rivers/lakes = land not all dry - Urban areas: How many trees there are? Concrete makes it hotter bc it doesn't allow H2O to seep into ground. Water just sits on it and evaporates. Asphalt on roads are black and make it hotter. Black roofs reflect sun = hotter.

Domain: BACTERIA

- aka Strains (bacteria very diverse = hard to classify) (ex: e coli) Not all e coli are harmful. There are some in the gut that are helpful. Prokaryotic cells (single celled) There are actually some photosynthetic bacteria that are multicellular (cyanobacteria) - Cyanobacteria = blending of algae and bacteria prokaryotes, photosynthetic, unicellular and multicellular, can be filamentous, found in many diverse habitats, capable of producing toxins, can form visible colonies in water. - some photosynthetic bacteria have membrane bound organelles Archaea is also prokaryotic so how can we distinguish btwn archaea and bacteria? - Bacteria has ESTER bonds in cell membrane - Bacteria LACKS HISTONES (bacteria and archaea have circular chromosomes but archaea has histones wrapped around them) - Bacteria may be affected by ANTIBIOTICS - Bacteria LACK INTRONS (when their proteins are made, goes from DNA straight to mRNA. Straight transcription and translation process) - Bacteria LACK METHIONINE (don't have the AUG as their start amino acid) - Contains PEPTIDOGLYCAN in cell wall

Toxoplasma gondii

- eukaryotic (parasitic protist) - one cause of schizophrenia. Toxoplasma gondii is parasite in brain that cause schiz - when pregnant cant clean litter box bc toxoplasma gondii carried by flees, taken by rats, taken by cats. Cats release thru poop and when poop dries, humans inhale toxoplasma gondii - cause rats behavior to change. Makes them not scared of cats

Brown Algae and Diatoms

- eukaryotic organisms - grouped together based on their chlorophylls: Photosynthesize with Chlorophyll A + C (every plant uses A) - All brown algae are multicellular but their relative = DIATOM is single celled with cell wall made of silica (glass). When dies, glass skeleton is made ( = sand) - Diatoms take up a lot of sunlight energy. Absorb 3% of sun's energy = maximize photosynthesis. (most plants only absorb 1%) - Diatoms may be a partial solution to absorbing CO2

What does it mean to be alive?

- gas exchange (breathing) - Ability to reproduce - genetic material (DNA) - reactive to its environment (move, genetic ability to adapt) - energy exchange (food chain/web) - ability to change/evolve (diff species)

Mechanism of Evolution: How would a trait be selected for or against?

- individual cannot evolve but a species can. Cant know future changes. Study evolution to study past changes In the example (picture): Initially, the color red is selected AGAINST. Later the green population decreases and is also selected against. Black lizard is the color selected FOR (directional selection) For natural selection to occur, there needs to be.... - CHOICES / VARIATIONS in traits in ex: Natural selection cant act on size, tails, or limbs because these traits are all the same - the trait must be INHERITABLE. even if the trait is varied but it is a non-inheritable trait, it will not be selected because it cannot be passed down ex: natural selection cant act on finger prints bc it is caused during development, not inherited = cannot be passed down If the trait is heritable, the organism with the selected trait will survive and reproduce more - in the pic: that is why we see more black than green. Black lizard is being selected for + reproduce at greater rate. Green selected against. In ex pic: What was the pressure on this population for the selection process? - could be new predator - consequence of change = population change (traits being selected for or against)

Fungi (kingdom)

- multicellular or single-celled - Animals and fungi more closely related than either are to plants. Characteristics of all Fungi: - Reproduce with spores - alternation of generations - Heterotrophs- release digestive enzymes to break down food. Food needs to be small enough to absorb - Cell wall (rigid) - contains chitin

Animalia (kingdom)

- must be MULTICELLULAR - all HETEROTROPHS - does NOT have cell wall (more vulnerable to environment) - major movement

Viruses are not considered living organisms because

- not made of a cell - has DNA OR RNA (not both) required to go into host cell. Use another organism's cell for reproduction or production of protein.

Segmentation

- repeating structures in organisms that are not related. - evolved differently but has the same structure - good at describing animal but not good in relation. - descriptive characteristic only ex: Body Cavity = COELOM- space for organ development - acoelom = without space. Btwn tissue layers, there is no space for organs to form. No body cavity. Tissues run together

Dinoflagellates

- single celled eukaryotic organisms. Photosynthetic (secondary symbiosis) - One species of dinoflagellates (zooxanthellae) are photosynthetic organism inside coral tissue. Can leave coral and make it turn white (coral bleaching). Helps coral photosynthesize (thus, when leaves coral and causes coral bleaching, the coral can die bc no photosynthesis) - Another species cause red tide- makes the tide toxic sometimes depending on species. - Another species cause bioluminescence: dinoflagellate get agitated, cause chemical reaction in their body and release light

Domain: EUKARYA

- strands of DNA in nucleus - DNA wrapped around histones - large ribosomes - multiple organelles (nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast) - cell itself of eukaryote is larger than prokaryote (helpers inside euk cell = larger cell. Help obtain more energy) Theory of Origin of Eukaryotic Cell: - chloroplast and mitochondria were once free-living bacteria (chloroplast = photosynthetic bacteria; mitochondria= aerobic bacteria) - Evidence for this: Chloroplast and mitochondria have their own circular DNA and can make proteins with it. Have small ribosomes and bilipid membrane - Endosymbiosis- Chloroplast and mitochondria were engulfed by prokaryotic cell, didnt digest --> beneficial relationship - Cell had a grooved membranes (Endoplasmic reticulum, nuclear envelope, and golgi apparatus) = increase in SA. includes Kingdoms: Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia

Population Ecology: Size and Distribution

-Population = group of individuals (same species in an area) What effects population size? - food - predators - suitable space - water - reproductive mates - disease - competitors - natural disasters Distribution of golden eagle in CA: - some areas don't have golden eagle because bald eagles win in fight for mating sites. Carrying capacity = Largest number of individuals of a population that a environment can support. - if overshoot carrying capacity = run out of resources. - initially, birth rate surpasses death rate = exponential growth. Trend later switches where death outgrows birth because resources are limited and carrying capacity is reached. Insufficient space, food supply, etc.

California Biodiversity Hotspot

CA has huge diversity of ecosystems = diversity of animals - California Floristic Province Endemic species= they only live in that area. Live nowhere else on the world. ~2,000 endemic plant species in CA floristic province

Classifying Protostomes and Deuterostomes: What does the BLASTOPORE BECOME?

1. Zygote 2. Cleavage stages (cell division) 3. Morrla = solid ball of cells. Pause in cell division to reorganize 4. Blastula = cells push out to be outer cells. "hollow" ball of cells 5. Endoderm. Cells start differentiating. Indent in blastula. First indentation for glastulation = Blastopore 6. Push in further. Deciding which digestive organ it wants to be. Another opening made (one for anus and one for mouth) 7. - Protostome: the first opening (the blastopore origin) is the mouth - Deuterostomia: the blastopore origin is the anus. The 2nd opening is the mouth

Flow of Energy: Thermodynamics

1st Law of TD: energy is never created, nor destroyed - nutrients are recycled but energy is not (it goes in a cycle). - source of energy = sun. Need to convert sun energy to chemical energy for use.

Kahoot: Sea otters have disproportionately high negative effect on kelp forests when removed from the community. They are a/an A. Keystone species B. Dominant species C. Endemic species D. Primary producer

A Disproportionately = sea otters are not high in number (not abundant) but they have high effect If they were proportionate, then would be a dominant species

Kahoot: Which Domain is Archaea more closely related to? A. Eukarya B. Bacteria C. Both equally D. Neither

A Though archaea has prokaryotic cell + ester bonds like bacteria, molecular + physical evidence shows that bacteria is a distant relative and archaea are more closely related to eukarya Similarities between archaea and eukarya: - DNA wrapped around histones - editing of RNA to mRNA - Using methionine (AUG) as start amino acid for all proteins For where nodes connect: Bacteria would be an outgroup further down the tree.

Comparison of cell membrane linkages among the domains

ARCHAEA: - ETHER linkage- able to stay connected in more extreme environments (salty, hot, or acidic conditions). Help stabilize their phospholipids so they dont fall apart. Keep cells intact. - has a PHYTANYL side chain - side chain is unique to archaea only (Archaea have branches that hang off their hydrocarbons = phytanyl side chain) --> Membrane lipids with BRANCHED hydrocarbons EUKARYA: - ESTER linkage- more fragile bond. - eukarya and bacteria have hydrocarbons (carbon chain with Hydrogens hanging off of them). Saturated + unsaturated depending on diet. Kinked hydrocarbons

What forces could result in SPECIES ISOLATION

All prevent from forming offpsring (pre zygotic barriers): - Behavior Isolation - Habitat Isolation - Temporal Isolation: seasonal or day/night. Timing is offex: plant that puts out flowers in spring is NEVER going to reproduce w a similar plant that opens in the fall. - Mechanical Isolation: reproductive organs do not match./ Limit reproduction. Lock and key mechanism- might try to reproduce but won't work. ex: rattlesnakes. reproductive organs don't work together (no way for sperm to get to egg) - Gametic Isolation: sperm + egg doesn't work together. If receptor on sperm (receptor usually a carbohydrate hanging off cell membrane) doesn't fit on the egg's receptor, cant reproduce. ex: fish release egg and sperm into water and let the rest happen.

Biotic factors

All the living organisms that inhabit an environment Interactions among organisms: - predation - competition ( in diff or same species) - inter specific competition = competition w diff species - intra specific competition = competition within same species - mutualistic relationship = both organisms benefit - parasitic relationship= one organism harms another (one gains, other is harmed (symbiotic relationship- organism lives off its host)

Kahoot: Which one of the following is part of the eukaryotic origin theory? A. Eukaryotic cells were the first to form on Earth B. Mitochondria were once free-living bacteria C. Prokaryotic cells consumed a lot of ATP and grew bigger and more complex D. Cells could get bigger and become multicellular with increased oxygen

B ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY- symbiotic relationship that formed by free living bacteria being engulfed by another prokaryotic cell. Rather than the cell digesting the bacteria and consuming it, it just stayed in there. (mitochondria and chloroplasts) A is wrong because prokaryotes were the first cells to form on earth C is wrong because they're just saying the result of what happened D is wrong because cells can't just get bigger. If you get bigger, SA to Volume ratio decreases = low efficiency of diffusion (gases, waste, food). Need high SA:V ratio to survive. Cells can only get to be so big that they have to be multicellular

Kahoot: Which type of distribution is a result of resources being unevenly distributed? A. Random B. Clumped C. Uniform D. None of these

B if resources evenly distributed, then its either A or C

Domains of Life

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

Lytic and lysogenic life cycles differences

Bacteriophage = virus that infects bacteria cell Lytic: - Virus DNA gets into host cell's proteins and continues to produce these virus-infested proteins. - Bacteria protein making machinery continue making more phage proteins - Bacteria cell continues filling up with viral proteins until it breaks apart/LYSES. - Viral component is expelled and goes to infect other cells Lysogenic: - Phage DNA becomes integrated within bacterial chromosome by recombination (becoming a prophage) - Lysogenic bacterium reproduces (replicates and fission) like normal but with phage DNA integrated.

Willet and Bald Eagle: Why are these 2 species different?

Based on physical look: they look different from one another = cant reproduce with one another Both birds are from the same area though so why can't they interbreed? - different feeding areas - different mating calls/courtship behaviors - might not recognize each other as potential mates - genes not compatible, cant make offspring

Why organisms are diverse:

Because our earth is diverse. Diverse environments - differences in organisms in same environment: varying genes (or same gene but expression differs) RNA can be modified B4 becoming proteins. Introns removed. Bacteria does not do modification (doesn't remove introns. No editing process). Varying proteins from same DNA sequence = Diversity

Biomes (land biomes)

Biomes- major areas characterized by CLIMATE (temp and ppt patterns) which, along with soil characteristic, determines the organisms that can live there (dont need to memorize the biomes) - erosion: moving dirt, rock, gravel, etc to another place - weathering: rock broken down into soil Major Biome Patterns: - Equator (0*) = tropical rainforests and grasslands Grasslands - mountain ranges and coastlines --> Creates wind tunnels (plants that allow wind to blow through them are better suited for the environment. Grasses are very wind adapted) Grassland vs Savanna / Tropical Grassland depend on temp (savanna in tropics) Northern Hemisphere has more land than the Southern Hemisphere: - Northern Hemisphere has Taiga and Tundra band pattern, none in Southern. Mountains can lead to forming grasslands and ALSO have their own changes because of elevation. -

Kahoot: Why is the air temperature near a large body of water more consistent than the air temperature over a large body of land? A. Air moves fast over land B. Air moves slower over land C. Water absorbs heat from the air D. Water evaporates into the air causing the temperature to decrease

C

Kahoot: A population of lizards has a new trait that is only seen in a different population of the species living on the other side of the canyon. Which one of these factors best explains the new trait in your study group? A. Mutation in DNA B. Founder's Effect C. Gene flow D. Directional Selection

C. Founder's effect is a form of Genetic Drift which DECREASES species diversity. In this question, there is an addition of a new trait. Gene flow = NEW TRAIT only seen in a diff population living in another area. Individual of the same species came over from another area and introduced a new trait. Directional selection = smth changed in environment to select one trait over another

Population growth patterns

Carrying capacity = Largest number of individuals of a population that a environment can support. - if overshoot carrying capacity = run out of resources. - initially, birth rate surpasses death rate = exponential growth. Trend later switches where death outgrows birth because resources are limited and carrying capacity is reached. Insufficient space, food supply, etc. a. Exponential (unrestricted) growth = not possible because there are limited, finite amount of resources. There is a carrying capacity. B. Logistic (restricted) growth. = there is still some exponential growth but population size slows down because there is competition for resources. There is a carrying capacity where population size stabilizes. Birth rate = death rate.

Evolutionary adaptations (to plantae) to living on land

Challenges: - water availability on land - desiccation (drying out) - Temperature Water has high specific heat but air temp fluctuates a lot. Need to adapt to many temps - Gravity More buoyant in water, less pressure on plant. Water needs to go UP xylem (against gravity). Plant needs to be structured and have protective layer to be able to retain water - Xylem = upward movement of H2O - Phloem = move in both up and down directions. Moves sugar down from leaf to root. Takes H2O from xylem to make sugar solution so it can move sugar around Benefits: - Better access to sunlight (greater area diversity. not just ocean surface) In water, lose red light first. Blue last to be lost. Photosynthetic organisms really like red and blue. - More Oxygen (air ~20% O2, in water 0.5-1%) --> Stomata= physical opening in leaf for gas exchange (O2 and H2O (g)). Guard cells surround stomata. Control opening or closing of stomata. - More access to nutrients Nitrogen cycle. Plants take up nitrogen as ammonium or nitrates. Cant take N as N2(g) as it is. Organisms in soil that will convert N2(g) to ammonium or nitrates. Plants depend on other organisms in soil. - Pollinators - More CO2 In water, CO2 is converted to carbonic acid.

Evidence of Evolution: VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES

Characteristics or traits that have been lost. organisms could be related but might have lost a trait. - features that seem to serve no useful function and areusually reduced in size - Structure was useful in an ancestor, but not useful tothe current organism - Ex: a human appendix and tail bone - Ex: whales lost their hindlimb. Might find floating limbs in whales body

Global changes affect species in different ways

Climate change: CO2 levels rising at very fast rate, contributing to climate change - some organisms (gulf firtillary butterfly) traveling b/c of changes in climate. SHIFTING its population to new place (amount of individuals in population does not change, just migrating somewhere else) - some organisms cannot shift. Ex: polar bears and pika. There is nowhere else for them to go b/c they are already at the top of their range. Can only live in that environment. Climate change destroying arctic regions/tundra habitat = diminish these species.

Climate Patterns

Climate patterns affect where organisms can live (they live where they are best adapted to) - organisms are distributed based on where they are adapted to the precipitation or temp Climate patterns: - precipitation - temperature

Microscopic, photosynthetic (O2 producing) organisms

Convert light energy to chemical energy (sugar) - dinoflagellates -cyanobacteria - diatoms Makes sugars for itself but tends to make more than they need

Kahoot: Which one of these organs is NOT from mesoderm tissue? A. lungs B. heart C. Liver D. Stomach Kahoot: Which is the advantage for having a coelom? A. Space for more food B. Space for organ development C. Space for excess fluid D. Space for developing ideas

D B

Kahoot: Which two species, such as the True Elk and the Roosevelt Elk look similar, but do have some distinguishing features, what is the most likely reason for their speciation? A. Habitat Isolation B. Behavioral (i.e. courtship, diet) islation C. Temporal Isolation D. Any of the answers are possible, more info needed

D.

diploblast vs triploblast

DIPLOBLAST - animals whose embryos have two types of tissue (ectoderm and endoderm) - ectoderm = OUTERskeleton (exoskeleton) ex: skin - endoderm = tissues that become organs ex: digestive tract, intestines, stomach, anus, mouth TRIPLOBLAST- contain 3 tissue layers (ectoderm, endoderm, MESOderm) - Mesoderm is the 3rd tissue layer = makes it a lot more complex --> animals have a lot more organs) ex: fat, muscle, bones, heart, lungs, kidneys, reproductive organs, eyes

Zonation in Bodies of Water: LAKES (turnover)

Deep lakes go through extreme TURNOVERS- changing Water current directions (freezing lake, thawing, etc) - rate of turnover is twice a year. (SPRING AND FALL) - FALL: wind picks up during the fall = cause water to churn. Nutrients at the bottom come to the top of the lake, and O2 at the bottom comes to the top. Temperature changes (the surface of lake is much warmer than at the bottom) = THERMOCLIMB - huge temp variation btwn bottom and top of lake. In fall, the temp is evenly distributed. - SPRING: air temp changes mostly. Most a TEMP turnover, not as much O2 and nutrient turnover as in fall. Temperature mixes. - during winter, the top of the lake freezes. Nothing really happens. Below 4*C, water expands rather than getting denser = forms ice that floats. All living things still able to survive at bottom. Dec temp = enzymatic reactions slow down (all biological processes slow down) Summer: temp varies greatly btwn bottom and top (thermoclimb). Lots of nutrients at the bottom.

Types of Aquatic Biomes

Freshwater, Estuarine, Marine, Intertidal Regions Precipitation is NOT a major feature of aquatic biomes (it literally is water). Precipitation pattern depends on current Characteristics of aquatic biomes: (these affect which organisms can live there) - salinity - temp - nutrients - depth (= light availability) - pH (can vary a little but ocean tends to be acidic) Estuarine- fresh water + salt water mix. Tide in = salt water comes in. Tide out = fresh water comes from river Kelp forests in temperate areas (cooler water) Coral reefs tend to be in tropical areas (warm water) - to have photosynthetic organisms need to have nutrients. Kelp and coral provide nutrients

Giardia sp

Giardia sp - parasitic PROTIST (dont need to be able to classify into kingdom, but know its domain). SINGLE CELLED EUKARYOTIC organism in your gut that you get from drinking contaminated water or food. - beaver spread giardia in water through their feces. Giardia in their gut but doesn't negatively affect them

Gross Primary Productivity Net Primary Productivity

Gross Primary Productivity- energy transfer from photosyntehsis - energy that is transferred from sun to sugar. - primary producers make sugar for themselves but still need to convert that sugar to ATP. Usually make more sugar than they need so they store some of that energy (sugar) Net Primary Productivity- energy STORED after metabolic uses and heat loss. - this is the leftover sugar that primary producers have in stores (unused energy). - this is the energy that they provide to the ecosystem NPP changes in diff regions of the earth bc: - Diversity on land: temp and ppt variation. Diff plant communities change. Hot + dry = less plants = less animals there. More ppt = more plants = able to support a lot more animals - Diversity in water: depends on sunlight, temp, nutrients. Productivity high around coastlines (upwelling = lots of nutrients). Middle of ocean is very deep = little upwelling

Evidence of Evolution: HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES

Homologous structures- structures that are the same/similar and have recent, shared common ancestor - shown through cladogram/phylogenetic tree ex: forelimbs: bones match in each arm though there are some changes like elongation, deletion, reduction of bones Vestigial structures- remnant of a structure that may have had an important function in a species' ancestors, but has no clear function in the modern species.

Characteristics of Phylogenetic Tree

In ex pic: what trait do the salamander, turtle, leopard have in common? Four Walking Legs - If tuna actually did have legs but later lost it. How would we fix the cladogram? Move the "four walking legs" to be written on the branch with "jaws" Using animal's HOX genes to construct phylogenetic trees: - base pair comparisons - can do protein comparisons but less accurate than bp Need entire DNA sequence to be compared in order to be 100% sure of the relationship

Community structure: Keystone and Dominant species

KEYSTONE species- species of high importance for the health of a community but NOT the most abundant. - ex: starfish removal = # of species dropped drastically. Starfish are the keystone species = made community collapse when removed DOMINANT species- removal has negative impact on the community due to its abundance and relationship with others. The species that are the most abundant or that collectively have the highest biomass. ex: if redwood tees removed from redwood forest, community would be affected drastically bc other species are directly + indirectly dependent on them. Dominant vs Keystone species: - keystone = high impact w/ less biomass (less abundant) - dominant species = high impact, high biomass (very abundant).

Plantae

Kingdom of multicellular photosynthetic autotrophs that have cell walls containing cellulose (inside the eukarya clade. One of the branches is the plants) Ex: red algae in the kingdom plantae but not green = outgroup To be green plant, need to have chlorophyll A and B - to be green plant: need to have chlorophyll A and B - Green Algae usually lives in water (some live with other organisms so that they can live on land) - Land Plants -cuticle: waxy layer that prevents water loss - stomata: Pores for gas exchange - Vascular Plants: has vascular tissues to transport things thru plant. Allow them to grow bigger and taller - xylem and phloem. - Seed Plants: (embryo) has nutrients in food storage so that the embryo can feed off it while developing. - Angiosperms reproduce by flowers

Protostomia (bilateral = talk about how they develop) - Lophotrochozoa vs Ecdysozoa

LOPHOTROCHOZOA- skeletons/bodies continue to grow bigger. ex: worm continues to grow bigger. Body segments keep increasing (do stop eventually) ECDYSOZOA - must molt first and then their body can grow. Molting: Hormones separate tissue that keeps exoskeleton attached to body and then they can get bigger. Then form a new exoskeleton that fits larger body. ex: tarantula comes out of its exoskeleton

Domain: ARCHAEA

Many are "extremophiles" - can live in extreme environments (hot, salty, acidic) -deep sea thermal vents, animal guts in yaks, waste-site acid runofff, very salty water, hot springs Very diverse. Live in extreme environments as well as normal environments (ex: soil) Archaea: - prokaryotic - ETHER bonds- stabilizing for extreme environments - Circular DNA wrapped around HISTONES - Introns (edited mRNA)

Other variations that affect biomes

Mountains (air changes going up mnt) - Moist, warm air incoming. Going to go over mnt - As air rises over mountains, it cools --> causing moisture to condense and fall as precipitation. - Dry air descends (comes down mnt) and warms, promoting evaporation Mnt ranges affect wetness- distributes moisture. Latitude bands change wet or dry bc there are mnt ranges.

Other Mechanisms of Evolution: MUTATIONS

Mutation- change in DNA/genes. ex: sickle cell - Normal amino acid sequence (Glu) = normal RBC. Single change in amino acid sequence (glu -> Val) = deformation in RBC. When hemoglobin binds to O2, it becomes sickle shaped + cant go thru capillaries = clotting - need 2 copies of the gene to have the condition. Need to be homozygous recessive. - however, carrier (heterozygous) is resistant to mailer. - in places common w malaria (tropics), there's higher frequency of heterozygous people reproducing = more children with sickle cell disease - Mutation + Natural Selection = allow carriers to survive malaria (selective pressure) environment dictates whether a mutation is good or bad

Morphology of viruses

Naked virus: has capsids with capsomers. Enveloped virus: has envelope around it (cell membrane). probably taken from host cell after exocytosis. either have ribo or deoxyribo nucleic acids but not both

Other mechanisms of Evolution: GENETIC DRIFT

Natural selection- selection process (selected for or against)GENETIC DRIFT- RANDOM (right place, right time = survival)- causes LOSS in genetic diversity due to a RANDOM event (if the event is not random, it is natural selection) 2 types of genetic drift: - BOTTLENECK EFFECT - results in death. ex: hunted. Based on if caught or not (not chosen bc of trait). loss in genetic diversity - in pic ex: the person stepped on the beetles and resulted in more brown beetles surviving. The brown beetles not surviving because of their color or any trait. It was just randomly not stepped on - FOUNDERS EFFECT- by random event, the group gets separated. NO death. Loss in genetic diversity - ex: Beetles were flying and storm took a group of beetles to another island. Nobody died. Original population alive but the small group left is not representative of the original population. Due to this random event, more green beetles made it to the island = loss of genetic diversity.

Abiotic factors

Non-living things ex: sunlight, terrain/topography, humidity, soil composition, water ecology: How does SUNLIGHT affect organisms? How does PH affect organisms that live in that area? How do these features affect organisms

Other Mechanisms of Evolution: SEXUAL SELECTION

Non-random Mating - choosing partner based on a specific characteristic (not just choosing anyone). - ex: female mating choice based on male feather display. There are other traits that she is not choosing for/ignored (leg length) very powerful effect: might choose trait that actually causes harm or death but is beneficial to choosing mate (not surviving). Bad for survival but it is a trait that the female wants for mating. - might be explanation for why unhelpful/dangerous traits are passed on

parasitic relationship

One organism benefits and the other is harmed

Evidence of Evolution: Earth's Change Over time

Organisms and earth have changed: - Plate tectonics: major plates have shifted over time. Earth looks different. - Fossils: organisms that existed back then dont exist today + vice versa. Evidence that evolution has occurred

Species Interactions

PREDATOR/PREY: - Interaction between two organisms of different species in which one organism, called the predator, captures and feeds on parts or all of another organism, called the prey. - food is the defining factor. "true" predator has to kill prey - prey population affects the predator population more. Prey determines predator population size. PARASITIC: - One organism benefits and the other is harmed - type of predator but not true predator - negative effect on host but generally doesn't kill host MUTUALISTIC: - both organisms benefit - ex: whale shark: small fish eats leftovers while also cleaning parasites of whale shark COMPETITION: - going after the same resources - competition for food between the same or diff species

Santa Cruz Island Fox + Gray Fox: Why are these 2 species different?

Physically look identical. Things that prevent them from interbreeding: - habitat isolation (separated by ocean) - on island, the santa cruz foxes became dwarfs = no gene flow between the two. If they were able to interbreed, both would be the same size - Pressure of dwarfism: survive better smaller - If gray fox introduced to island, they would probably still be able to reproduce because they are so physically similar (violates our definition of a species)

Primary Producers of Biomes

Primary Producers- capture sunlight + transfer it into chemical and heat energy (every conversion of energy has to release heat, which is not useful for us. 2nd law TD) - base of ecosystem and food web. - energy transferred from solar to chemical and heat energy. - only chemical energy can be used for biological processes - plants are usually the primary producers. - Coral reefs and kelp forests are large primary producers in aquatic biomes dinoflagellates are primary producers in coral reefs. (Dinoflagellates have symbiotic relationship with coral. The coral itself is not the producer)

Symmetry: Radial vs Bilateral

RADIAL - at least 2 planes creates about even halves - cut into multiple planes and able to get equal cuts - Diploblasts (2 tissue animals) are radial BILATERAL - only one plane (sagittal) creates about even halves. One cut in one direction to get equal cuts - Triploblasts are bilateral (can only talk about development for triploblasts bc of bilateral symmetry)

Speciation and Extinction

SPECIATION: formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution 1) Gradualism- gradually branch into new species (OVER TIME) 2) Punctuated Equilibrium - species who have gone through dramatic change in SHORT amount of time (change after 1 generation). Stayed constant for long time but changed fast. New species in short amount of time. Not many transitional species EXTINCTION- species that longer has any known living individuals 1) Mass extinction - major loss of organisms in short amount of time (6 mass extinctions). Effect is GLOBAL 2) Background extinction- over time lose species. Changes in habitat, competition with other species. LOCALLY lost something

Segmentation in animals is considered Homoplasy (rather than homology)

Segmentation = refers to a body composed of a series of repeating similar units ex: Human vertebrae, arthropods, annelids. Not closely related to each other Characteristics are USEFUL to describe them but NOT useful to say who's related to who. Segmentation is an example of analogous structures - look similar but not bc of common ancestor

Genetics of RNA viruses

Single stranded (Positive sense) (+) sense ssRNA: - the RNA already looks like mRNA - therefore, goes directly to ribosome to get manufactured Single stranded (Negative sense) (-) sense ssRNA: - must be transcribed first (mRNA transcription) - needs a base sequence that looks like mRNA in order for the ribosome to read it Double stranded RNA= has + and - senses together. - The + sense sequence is the only that is read and translated. - Does have to come apart.

Retrovirus

Special case: Go from single stranded RNA to double stranded DNA - Goes through reverse transcription (single stranded RNA → Double stranded DNA) - Integrate its DNA into human DNA so body thinks its a part of your code + makes its own proteins

What defines a species

Species- group of individuals that can reproduce to form fertile offspring (under natural conditions). Taxonomy- group of organisms based on characteristics they share, can separate organisms into domains and kingdoms.

Characteristics Used to Classify Animals

TISSUES: - Parazoa = no tissue (= no symmetry) - Metazoa = true tissue. (two layers of tissue or three layers) - Diploblast (2) - Triploblast (3) SYMMETRY: - Radiata - Bilateria = has 2 sides. Has tissues can only talk about development for bilateral EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT: - Dueterostomia vs Protostomia - w/in Protostomia: Lophotrochozoa = continues to get bigger over time. grow by extending the size of the skeleton may contain a lophophore development may include a trochophore larva Ecdysozoa = outer covering gets bigger and reforms. MOLT all have a molting cuticle: grow by shedding the skeleton/cuticle

Evidence of Evolution: FOSSIL RECORD and TRANSITIONAL SPECIES

Transitional species- Fossils or organisms that show the intermediate states between an ancestral form and that of its descendants Ghost lineage- an evolutionary lineage that is inferred from a phylogeny, but for which no fossil evidence has been found.ex: humans change from hominids to primates happened so quickly that there are not many transitional species we can look at.

Major climate patterns: PRECIPITATION (be able to match zones/latitudes with wet or dry)

Types of percipitation: rain, snow, hail, fog - Wind patterns on earth create 3 big cells: Hadley cell, mid-latitude cell, polar cell (do not need to know the name of the cells). 3 major wind patterns that distribute moisture Zones: - Equator (0* latitude) = WET as air rises (moving toward 30* line), it drops its moisture = moisture drops at equator - 30* N & S = DRY air descends at 30* latitude line. Where air descends is where it's dry bc it already dropped all its moisture at the equator. - 60* N & S = WET air rises and drops its moisture. - at poles N&S = DRY air drops (air lost most of its moisture at 60*).

Distribution Patterns (of individuals of same species. population) ON EXAM

UNIFORM: distribution where populations are spaced evenly - tend to be territorial individuals defending their resources (plants can do this too) RANDOM (dont need to know): combination of uniform and dumped. Individuals are spaced at unpredictable distances from each other. Uneven (some are more close together, others further away) - chances of random distribution is slim CLUMPED: population distributed in clusters. Areas where resources are unevenly distributed (clump around the different areas of resources) - in individuals that have some reason to be together: rely on social interaction, hunting prey, predator avoidance, reproduction, division of labor, resources are clumped

Major Climate Patterns Summary (Price + temp)

WINTER: 0* = Wet and Warm 30* = Dry and Cool 60* = Wet and Cold Pole = Dry and Very Cold SUMMER: 0* = Wet and Warm 30* = Dry and Hot 60* = Wet and Cool Pole = Dry and Very Cold Ex: Taiga exists in wet + cold area. Which latitude? 60* Taiga exists 60* latitude? what is the climate (temp +ppt) likely be? Wet + cold

Why compete? Competition outcomes:

Why compete? (competition btwn + among species) - bc we have limited resources + we're all competing for the same resources. Resources are FINITE Competition outcomes: 1. WINNER LOSER SITUATION: - one species is outcompeting the other. - ex: gray squirrel outcomes the red squirrel because it is superior in obtaining resources. - in order for gray squirrel population to expand, need to REPRODUCE (usually at faster rate). Population incr = more reproduction - LESS DIVERSITY 2. NICHE PARTITIONING- competition and tolerance of environment (coexist) - gray squirrel population stops expanding. Red + gray species stay in their respective areas. Gray squirrel is still the better competitor but the red has some tolerance/adaptation that the gray squirrel doesn't. - GREATER SPECIES DIVERSITY

Phylogenetic Tree (cladogram)

a diagram that depicts the ancestral relationships between organisms. We are all related. Each place it branches off shows split in groups. Closest branching show sister taxa - Node = where it branches or splits. From node, we can see who is related to who. - Branch= any characteristic is written on a branch - Sister taxa = branched from same point. Share an immediate common ancestor, thus are each other's closest relative

Reproductive Barriers

determine who can make a species 1. PREZYGOTIC barriers - inhibit mating between species or inhibit fertilization of egg and sperm. Cannot mate. - Isolation: Behavior, Habitat, Temporal, Mechanical, Gametic 2. POSTZYGOTIC barrier - inhibit the hybrid zygote from developing into a fertile adult. Started life of zygote but cant fully develop - Happens after mating. The sperm did reach the egg but there is a problem in zygote DEVELOPMENT or parent is INFERTILE. - Inviable = cannot develop due to incompatible genes. - Infertile / Sterile = unequal # of chromosomes. Enough to develop zygote but can't make its own gametes (meiosis). Meiosis I = homologous chromsomes come together. But at checkpoint in Metaphase 1, the unequal # chromosomes stops it from going through Anaphase 1. If checkpoint works, not able to continue and can't make gamete. (sometimes checkpoint fails and able to make a hybrid offspring)

Major climate patterns: TEMPERATURE

earth tilt = variations in temperature = Seasons Winter Soltice: - Equator (0*) = in winter, it is mild/warm. Consistent temperatures throughout the year - 30* = cooler/mild - 60* = cold - Poles = VERY Cold Summer solstice: - 0* = warm - 30* = HOT earth is titled right (toward the sun) so the 30* latitude is the hottest spot) - 60* = cool - Poles = VERY cold

Homologous genes

genes derived from the same ancestral gene that have accumulated random mutations that make their sequences slightly different ex: eyes - recent common ancestor that our eyes evolved from. Many genes involved in the eye. Some genes overlap in diff organisms - Human, mouse, and fruit fly who have function PAX6 gene all have normal functioning eyes. But when they all have non-functional Pax6 gene, the abnormality affects their eyes in similar ways.

Threats to Biodiversity

habitat loss, introduced species, overharvesting, global change - Habitat loss (#1 threat) = mostly agricultural. Importance of ecosystem diversity - Overexploitation = taking a resource faster than it is recovered. Ex: overhunting. Hunting at faster rate than animals can reproduce. Or taking fresh water faster than it rains - Invasive species = non-native species that spread faster than native - Rapid Climate change = mass extinction (6). Look at # of families lost. - Pollution/ Particulates (natural and human caused) = disrupt health of organisms

Hierarchy of Ecology

organism/individual, population, community, ecosystem, biome, biosphere 1) Starts at organism 2) Population - group of individuals of the same species in an area 3) Community- different organisms in that same area (interactions among organisms) 4) Ecosystem- biotic (living) and abiotic (non living) parts of the area. Ex: Sahara Desert 5) Biome- specific area of world. Collection of ecosystems that are similar around the world (share similar climates and typical organisms). Ex: Desert Biome. (where groups of similar ecosystems are located on earth. 6) Biosphere - everywhere on earth that has life

Subspecies

populations of the same species that differ genetically because of adaptations to different living conditions - in plants, called VARIETIES - animals get a third name ex: Many different salamanders living in California - populations have been split over the central valley- where it is too dry for them to live. Salamanders live in moist environment. Salamanders spread out --> mutations came about and colors changed - Populations that overlap with each other usually can interbreed with neighboring subspecies (more often stay within their subspecies but can interbreed with neighboring)

Protists

single-celled or simple multicellular eukaryotic organisms that generally do not fit in any other kingdom - A kingdom in the domain of eukarya. - Protist - a paraphyletic group name- no longer a single cladogram (different recent ancestors) - Back then some organisms classified into Kingdom protista - classified as being not plant, not animal, not fungus. Now known that protists are not a single group - Now found that same are more related to plant, others to animals, or others to fungi than to each other. They have different recent ancestors. Not united by single ancestor. ex: giardia sp

DNA: single stranded or double stranded

ssDNA is a linear structure that has only one DNA strand. dsDNA has two DNA strands bound by hydrogen bonds in a helical fashion. It is found in a few viruses.

Beware of Analogous Structures

structures that do not have a common evolutionary origin but are similar in function. similarities among unrelated species that result from convergent evolution Structures that are similar to each other but actually come from different common ancestors (the organisms are not related even tho they have similar structures) AKA Homoplasy - A similar (analogous) structure or molecular sequence that has evolved independently in two species. - Convergent Evolution- Process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments

Ecology

study of interactions among organisms and their environment - relationship between abiotic (organisms) + biotic (environment)

what is Biodiversity?

the variety of life in the world or in a particular habitat or ecosystem. - ECOSYSTEM diversity = variations in landscape. Features of other ecosystems are required by a species beyond its own ecosystem. ex: kelp forests need a lot of nutrients. Some nutrients come from upwelling but doesn't happen often. Nutrients from land may erode and go out to ocean to provide some nutrients to kelp. - SPECIES diversity = # of diff species in an area ---> w/in species: GENETIC Diversity- allow for adaptations if environment changes. Variation in traits that could help if there is a change in environment (change in food, predator, etc). differences in DNA among individuals within a species or population