BIO 201 - Anatomy and Physiology
Transcription occurs in the ____ while most translation occurs in the _____.
nucleus; cytoplasm
Dry Membrane
the skin, you don't lose water to the environment because you're dry, want to trap the water in
Fibro Cartilage
this is a mixture of both, it can handle bending but want it to be strong as well, example would be the meniscus or your vertebrae discs, primarily matrix, ground substance - chondroitin sulfate, proteins - 50/50
How do we report solutions?
As a percent solutions or molar concentrations EX: 5% glucose solution (w/v; 50 g/L); .1 M glucose solution (18 g/L); 5% sucrose (w/v; 50 g/L); .1 M sucrose (34 g/L)
Cholesterol
Body produces 85% of this that you need The stem compound for our steroid hormones
What charge are most proteins?
Negative
Can most polar molecules (sugars/proteins) cross the lipid membrane freely? What about water molecules?
No (both too large and polar) But water molecules are small enough to pass through the membrane freely
Neutral Fats
No charge Triglycerides (fuel sources, fatty acid chains, can store them or use them)
Passive Diffusion
No energy requirement, moving DOWN a gradient (water runs downhill)
What is Jell-O a good example of?
The process of coagulation of proteins into a 3D latticework that entraps water molecules to produce a semisolid gel
Can electrons move through distilled water? Dirty water?
Distilled water can't carry a charge Distilled water only has water molecules and all the electrons are right where they want to be Dirty water, yes It has "stuff" in it
What is the enzyme pathway?
A + B --> (enzyme) --> C + D (Substrates) (Products)
Glycogenesis
"Genesis" - birth The reaction from glucose to glycogen Storing it if we don't need the energy Anabolic (requires energy to do) Dehydration reactions
Synovial Membrane
(closed, wet - similar to serous membrane found in specific locations) Typically found in a joint cavity -First you need a joint capsule and a lot of ligaments -Think about the membrane itself (part of the bone is covered with the membrane) -This becomes the synovial membrane (but it doesn't extend completely around the joint) -Synovial fluid is secreted by the cells that is used as a lubricant
Serous Membrane
(closed, wet) Lining cavities Cells secrete serous fluid (made primarily of water, water is a great lubricant) When linings rub against one another, it helps to have a lubricant
Cutaneous Membrane
(dry, open membrane) Epidermis You don't find dry membranes unless they are exposed to the environment
Hypotonic
(more solutes on inside, than outside) Draws water in
Hypertonic
(more solutes on outside than inside) Draws water out
Mucous Membrane
(wet, open membranes) Gastrointestinal Respiratory Reproductive Urinary tract
1st Law of Thermodynamics
-"Conservation of energy" -Energy cannot be created of destroyed during transfer of conversion -It doesn't go away, and you can't make anymore but you can change it from one form to another -70% of our body energy is lost as heat
What is the first reaction in glycolysis?
-Anabolic reaction (building something new) -Glucose → Glucose-P -It's stuck in the cell now because it has changed shape -Moving it through a transport protein changes its shape -We've now changed the shape so TECHNICALLY we still don't have more glucose on the inside than the outside
Nucleic Acids
-Need a sugar, need a phosphate, and (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine) -Instructions are in nucleic acids in nucleus -RNA copies DNA (via mRNA) -These are instructions for proteins (and ONLY proteins) -Protein synthesis
What are functions of connective tissue?
-Bind organs (muscle to bone, the type of structure that binds like this is a tendon) -Support (bone, the connective tissue that is most supportive is bone) -Protection (cranium to protect brain, ribs to take care of lungs/heart) -Immunity (leukocytes and macrophages, blood is a special type of connective tissue, it flows through the open spaces of the body) -Storage (adipose - fat, nothing more than a cell and a drop of triglyceride oil that pushes the internal pieces of the cell to the outside) -Heat production (brown adipose, humans typically only have this after the baby is just born, found early in development, other animals have this for forever, this is used to keep the brain warm; it's brown because it contains mitochondria - that don't make ATP, they can burn glucose and produce nothing but heat; baby is more prone to dehydration than any other time in your life because of surface to volume ratio) -Transport (blood, this is how we feed the cells can transport nearly everything - heat, waste products, etc.)
Macromolecules
-Carbohydrates -Proteins -Lipids -Nucleic acids
Cell A has a glucose concentration of .1M, while cell B has a glucose concentration of 1M. Which cell has the highest osmotic pressure, and which direction will water move through a semipermeable membrane?
-Cell B; from A to B
What are the two components of connective tissues?
-Cells: create a matrix, their job is different, these secret a spacious matrix -Matrix: organic and inorganic components that are secreted by the cells (build matrix for bone or connective tissue) Protein fibers: collagen, elastin, reticulin Ground substance can be a solid (bone), liquid (blood, the matrix will be the plasma), or a gel (loose connective tissue in the dermis)
Ionic Bonds
-Complete transfer of an electron -Putting these bonds in a solvent will make them come apart -Na+ is unstable and highly reactive -It's stable as sodium chloride, but unstable as a charge atom or molecule (also called an ion)
Cytoplasm v. Cytosol
-Cytosol is just the liquid -Cytoplasm is anything inside the cell
Carbohydrates
-Fuel molecules General formula = CH2O -This includes cellulose, glucose, etc. -Glucose = C6H12O6 (no nitrogen, six carbon, ring shape, OH hanging off) -Put enough of these together and get glycogen, using dehydration synthesis
How are proteins made?
-Get instructions from cell in the DNA/nucleic acids -Take them out into the cytosol -Use the ER and the ribosomes -Collect monomers and bring them to the organelles -Spit out amino acids depending on the code/instructions
How does a bucket on a hill relate to kinetic/potential energy?
-Has potential energy because it is sitting at the top of the hill -Has kinetic energy when you kick the bucket over to let the water go down the hill
Proteins
-Have nitrogen associated with them -There isn't nitrogen in anything else -Also have OH's at the ends -You can do the dehydration synthesis to create a peptide bond between them
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
-It takes energy to maintain order. Loss of energy leads to decay or randomness. -Entropy -You need to put energy into a system to keep it neat (think of college roommates and how you have to put in energy to maintain order in the room)
What determines the rate of transport?
-Molecular weight (the bigger it is, the harder it is to move, You might need a transport protein to move it around, Might be so big that the cell will wrap around it) -Temperature -Surface Area (most are huge, lung surface area is about the size of a tennis court) -Concentration Gradient (Searching for equilibrate) -Membrane Permeability (We can change permeability by adding/subtracting...)
What are the characteristics of the nervous tissue?
-Neurons - excitable cells used to communicate instructions to another cell (These can produce electricity, Only the neurons communicate) -Glial cells - support cells for the neurons *Glial means glue -The central nervous systems has NO connective tissue; the support is provided by glial cells *This is part of the reason that the spine doesn't heal well
Covalent Bonds
-Share electrons -Electrons are trying to react and they move from a high level to a low level
Simple v. Stratified Epithelium
-Simple Epithelium: single layer -Stratified epithelium: palms of hands/feet, much thicker (Build of these layers create calluses)
How does the negative feedback go for thirst?
-Situation: during a hot day, water is lost through sweat and produces a condition of decreasing blood/fluid volume -Response: blood (fluid) volume decreases, can also be stated as increasing the osmolarity (or concentration of solutes) of blood -Detection: increasing osmolarity of the blood is detected by the osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus -Trend: the sense of thirst is enhance partially as a result of antidiuretic hormone -Effect: drinking of fluids reverses the declining water volume
Describe the situations involved in a negative feedback loop for thirst.
-Situation: during a hot day, water lost through sweat produces a condition of decreasing blood/fluid volume -Trend: Blood/fluid volumes decreases; can also be states as increasing the osmolarity (or concentration of solutes) of blood -Detection: increasing osmolarity of the blood is detected by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus -Response: the sense of thirst is enhanced partially as a result of antidiuretic hormone -Effect: drinking of fluids reverses the declining water volume
Monomers
-Smallest building block -Collection of atoms put together in a specific way EX: amino acids (for proteins) and glucose (for sugar)
How do we go through glycolysis?
-Start of with 6 carbons (C6 H12 O6) -First thing: unwind and make six carbons in a straight line -By the time it gets to pyruvate, you get two 3-carbon units -Glycolysis or Krebs Cycle (found in mitochondria) -Take the three-carbon units and run them over and over in the Krebs Cycle -Oxygen is needed for the complete combustion of the glucose molecules *Products: carbon dioxide, water, heat, and ATP -Glycolysis works a thousand times faster than Krebs Cycle -So truly, glycolysis makes far more ATP than the Krebs Cycle
Decomposition Reactions
-Take a structure like starch or glycogen and break it into glucose -Catabolic (breaking it down)
What is the process to get out of the capillaries?
-The blood pressure (water pressure) is forcing water and small solutes though narrow clefts between capillary cells -If you raise the blood pressure, you increase the force in the capillaries -This is called filtration pressure
Connective Tissue
-The space between the blood and the cells -Really the interstium -Want to make sure we have good flow of nutrients/ions/etc.
What is special about muscle tissues?
-These are the only cells/tissue in the body that provide movement -10,000 nuclei per cubic millimeter We don't know what they are there for
How do sugars travel against the concentration gradient?
-Through a coupled transport protein that is driven by the movement of counterions (like sodium ions or protons) that are moving down their concentration gradient -The sodium ions and sugars bind to the same transmembrane protein of the cell -This is symport
Characteristics of Water
-Universal solvent Most things will dissolve Especially the ions -Cohesive - water sticks to itself Covalent bonds Bent molecule Weak charges give us the bond -Adhesive - sticks to almost everything else Same with the car windshield water repellant - they've created a chemical structure/chemical compound similar to diamond -Polar The bent molecule/uneven distribution of charge gives it polarity -Chemical Reactivity Participates in chemical reactions You either use or break a water molecule Continually replace water -Thermal Stability (high heat of vaporization) Holds a lot of energy Evapotranspiration
Osmosis
-Water always follows solutes -Water pressure (hydrostatic pressure) -Won't be happy until it is equal on either side -This is passive transport
Hydrogen Bonds
-Weak electrical attractions
What happens when you breathe in a non-reactive element? A reactive?
-You can breathe this in and breathe it right back out, nothing will happen -If you breathe in something that is looking to bind to something or to give something up, there will be a reaction
What about electrons? How do they work?
-You have to work to keep electrons at higher states of orbitals. -They are attracted to lower orbitals/nucleus. -Have to input energy to keep electrons at higher orbitals.
Is DNA a stable structure?
-double helix code for building a protein -This is a stable structure (even though it's just hydrogen bonds in the middle) -The two coils are bonded pretty well together -It's VERY stable (otherwise we wouldn't be able to extract it from bones of dinosaurs)
Organ
-group of at least two tissues (but it's usually all four) designed to perform a specific function -The simplest organ is called a membrane -A membrane is composed of two tissues, epithelium and connective tissue
Is RNA a stable structure?
-single helix copy of the code -It can be attacked chemically -Lasts only a few hours
Three phases of water? What is the difference between them?
-solid, liquid, and water vapor The only difference is how quickly the molecules are moving Molecules are still moving in the ice (just very slowly) *The only point that there is no movement is a 0 degrees Kelvin (absolute zero) Ice changes density - because of crystal structure Water vapor - water molecules move quickly; They move quickly and then get more oxygen molecules between them
What is the flow of chemical energy? Sunlight to human cellular chemistry?
1. Sunlight to plant (kinetic) 2. Within the plant/chlorophyll, the energy is transformed into glucose CO2 + H2O = C6H12O6 + 6O2 Glucose + 6 Oxygen (Call this photosynthesis - without this, we wouldn't be able to make the third transformation) *When plants don't have light, they use mitochondria to make ATP (they make CO2 in the dark, oxygen in the day time) 3. The glucose in the plant will be eaten by an animal, a human, or by an animal that we then eat (it is then stored within the animal in protein) *Human has to break own protein, glucose, and fat via catabolic reactions (glycolysis) *Glucose does one of two things: store it if we can't use it (in glycogen for humans or starch for plants) or burn it if we need it (two molecules of pyruvate)
Facilitated Diffusion
A special carrier protein (with a central channel) acts as a selective corridor which helps molecules move across the membrane These carriers only bind to a specific molecule
How does a primary sequence take shape?
A string of amino acids are put together in a sequence If they all have positive charges, they will try to separate because they all have the same charge The reactive groups give us the next shape, based on their charges
Anatomy or Physiology? The small intestine has three portions (the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum).
Anatomy
Exocytosis/Endocytosis
Active transport the entire cell can wrap around a molecule and use it
What type of cell? Adipose
Adipocyte Everything is squeezed to the outer portions of the cell In the middle is triglyceride (like a drop of oil, pushing everything to the outside) These are under hormonal control New cells can form Use it primarily to store energy, as a cushion/protective (around the organs/heart - can be good or bad)
Anatomy or Physiology? The uterus has 3 layers.
Anatomy
Salts
Also called "ions" or "metabolites: -Charged ions or molecules EX: sodium, potassium, chloride, iron, hydrogen
Anabolism v. Catabolism
Anabolism: synthesis reactions that require energy input, BUILDING things (like protein synthesis) Catabolism: breakdown reactions that liberate energy, they DESTROY things to yield energy (like glycolysis)
Anatomy or Physiology? Several layers of squamous cells comprise the epidermis of the skin.
Anatomy
Anatomy or Physiology? Tendons are the structures that attach muscles to bones
Anatomy
Anatomy or Physiology? The brainstem is comprised of the midbrain, pons, and medulla
Anatomy
Anatomy or Physiology? The bronchi and alveoli are part of the lower respiratory tract.
Anatomy
Anatomy or Physiology? The internal carotid artery is lateral to the trachea.
Anatomy
Matter
Anything with mass; anything that takes up space
What type of cell? Blood
Blood is the transport connective tissue Arethrocytes (red, carry oxygen) and leukocytes (white, immunity)
How is facilitated diffusion similar to simple diffusion?
Both move molecules down their concentration gradient without any input of energy
Hydrolysis
Break a water molecule Take a water molecule floating in the solution to break it down Reverse from dehydration
Glycogenolysis
Breaking down glycogen Catabolic - requires energy
How do dryer sheets remove static cling?
By adding a positively charged something to the laundry
How does an enzyme work?
By binding to one+ specific molecules or substrates (this occurs at the active site) This creates an enzyme-substrate complex
How are proteins synthesized?
By polymerizing amino acids. This occurs by repeatedly forming peptide bonds that link individual amino acids together into a chain.
Protein Denaturation
Changes the solubility of individual protein molecules, entrapping solvent water into a semisolid gel structure
What goes out of the cells?
Carbon dioxide Water Heat (have to get rid of it,
Stable v. Reactive
Carbon is reactive, it's looking to bond to something Helium is stable/non-reactive
Hexokinase
Carrier protein Enzyme
Overall, is glycolysis a catabolic or anabolic reaction?
Catabolic Breaking glucose into pyruvate
Each atom can have a slight _______. These dictate how each atom will share ________.
Charge Electrson
What happens when you put chloride ions in the water?
Chloride has a negative charge The water molecules line up and surround the hydrogen (with hydrogen facing chloride)
What type of cell? Cartilage
Chondrocyte Chondro - cartilage Sharks have cartilage skeletons (chondroicthese - cartilaginous fish) Three types of cartilage depending on the needs of the system
Tertiary Structure
Coils Creates active sites This is 3D
Secondary Conformation
Could be a zig zag shape, pleated sheet or a helical shape It has become active
Tertiary Structure
Created when the protein molecules fold back on themselves outside of the helical segments Putting the hydrophobic portions on the inside and the hydrophilic portions on the outside
Kinetic Energy
Energy of motion EX: turning energy into another kind, water released from the dam
Nonpolar bonds means there is __________ sharing of electrons. Polar bonds have ____________ sharing.
Equal Nonequal
Non Polar Covalent Bond
Equal Sharing C - C
Lipids are...
Fats
What type of cell? Loose Connective Tissue
Fibroblast Fibroblast: blast - "young/immature cell" Fibroblasts: Secretes proteins/collagen (Strength, lots in the skin)/elastin (Rubber like property)/reticulum (Net like arrangement, it's supportive)
How do water soluble and small molecule exit capillaries typically? Can oxygen do this?
Filtration No, because oxygen does not dissolve in water Oxygen moves through the interstitial space (simple diffusion)
Exchange Reactions
First you have to disassemble something and then reassemble (In glycolysis → first step is to add something to the molecule)
Phospholipids
Found in every cell membrane Part of the molecule is polar Two fatty acid chains and a charged head (doesn't exist this way for very long because they molecules form together quickly) If it is charged can it react with water? Yes, water can stick to it. The negative part of the water molecule will attach to the charged head. These create the phospholipid bilayer Water has no way of reacting with the hydrophobic phospholipid These molecules are constantly moving
Are peptide bonds hydrophilic or phobic?
Hydrophilic
Water is a universal solvent. A substance that dissolves in water is referred to as:
Hydrophilic and a solute
What does heating proteins do to them?
Imparts energy to the molecules This added energy breaks the relatively weak forces that hold the protein together (in tertiary and secondary structures) As the heat continues, the protein molecule unfold more and more The hydrophilic regions are now exposed to the outside of the molecule
Where does glycolysis happen?
In cytosol This is where you find the enzymes necessary for the process
Where does the Krebs Cycle happen?
In mitochondria
The concentration of the particles diffusing into the cell...
Increase over time until there is an equal concentration of particles inside and outside the cell
What is frying an egg an example of?
Irreversibly denatured proteins resulting in the formation of a solid gel The gel entraps water molecules into a semi solid structure
How does adding hydrogen ions to a negative protein change it?
It affects the pH of the solution Covers the active sites Affects how the protein will work Can change the shape of the protein (denaturation)
Can we keep water separate?
It comes and goes as it wants
How does hydrochloric acid work?
It dissolves the skin because it is looking for electrons It's powerful enough to take them from the skin It won't stop dissolving skin molecules until all of the hydrochloric acid molecules are satisfied
Why do body builders drink whey protein?
It is pre-digested enzymes and is easier for the body to absorb
Polymer
Link three or more monomers EX: Polysaccharides (glucose monomers turn into glycogen or starch) or polypeptides (putting amino acids to build a protein)
Dimer
Link two monomers together
How do we know something is more basic or acidic in terms of pH?
Look at the hydrogen ions Too many is basic Too few is acidic
Homeostasis
Maintenance of a stable internal environment
What is swelling? Why does the body do it?
Makes it easy to get to the site of injury (allowing cells easier movement throughout the connective tissue
Gluconeogensis
Making new glucose Typically made out of protein (CHON) Formation of glucose from a non-carbohydrate source
What should we think of enzymes as?
Matchmakers Think of our class as "substrates" And there are only one A and one B The enzyme works as a matchmaker to connect those two (Like at a party, the matchmaker will grab the two people to meet up)
What is the active site on an enzyme for?
Meant to be a specific shape to bind to substrate molecules
Energy
Measured by its effect on matter as the capacity to do work
What are the characteristics of life?
Metabolic Response to stimuli (if I poke you, you are doing to react) Reproduction Movement Order and composition (we don't have random life, life has order, order requires energy) Growth (the first half of life you grow, as soon as you stop growing you begin to die) Repair Adaptive (this is big, system adapts to or grows resistant to certain stimuli) Energy processing/metabolic (have to be able to see an energy transformation)
In a covalent bond, the bond can be either polar or...
Nonpolar.
Transcription
Nucleic acid copied to a nucleic acid
Translation
Nucleic acid copied to amino acids Protein synthesis of an enzyme
What goes in the cells?
Nutrients (glucose is the biggest one) Neutral Fat (triglycerides) Ions (sodium, etc.) Oxygen (doesn't usually get out, it's non-polar, all gases are lipid soluble, hydrophobic, you need a mitochondria to use oxygen, goes from high to low)
Polar Covalent Bond
O - H Decomposition of a water molecule The oxygen nucleus is larger than the hydrogen nucleus (uneven distribution of electrons - they are spending more time around oxygen because it is larger) This is a negatively charged ion
Exocytosis
Opposite of endocytosis. The process results in the discharge of materials from membrane-bound packages that migrate to the inner surface of the plasma membrane, fuse with the membrane and then release the contents outside of the cell.
What type of cell? Bone
Osteoid cells Three types of osteoid cells: osteoblast (a juvenile cell, a stem cell, when it matures it becomes...), osteocyte (an adult cell), osteoclast (bone macrophage, it eats and digests bone chemically - we turnover a ¼ of our skeleton every year) These all use ATP at different rates
Facilitated Diffusion
Passive Diffusion Carrier mediated, high to low, requiring a protein, the most common is the glucose carrier protein - it is also an enzyme
Osmosis
Passive Diffusion Movement of water
Filtration
Passive diffusion Like a coffee filter, water runs from high to low and pulls things with it
Simple Diffusion
Passive diffusion Moving from high to low concentration, can happen inside the cell If you have a high concentration of ATP around the mitochondria it will diffuse around the cell
Anatomy or Physiology? During exercise, an increase in sympathetic activity increase cardiac output
Physiology
Anatomy or Physiology? Increased levels of prolactin promote milk formation in the mammary glands
Physiology
Anatomy or Physiology? Insulin and glucagon help maintain normal blood sugar levels
Physiology
Anatomy or Physiology? Kidneys secrete H+ ions to raise a person's pH
Physiology
Anatomy or Physiology? Sweat production increases to cool the body during exercise
Physiology
What does pH stand for?
Power of hydrogen Measures how much hydrogen is in a solution
What three features influence the 3D shape of a water soluble protein?
Primary structure Secondary structure Tertiary structure
What are the functions of the epithelium?
Protective (barrier, hard to get things in/out, UV light - alter chemical bonds permanently and DNA, water, bacteria - we have about 10x the cells in your body on your skin that are bacteria, probiotics - healthy bacteria, antibiotics - kill a bacteria) Excretion (send something out of the body, sweat - made of salts and water and helps with thermoregulation, enzymes - have an affect on bacteria) Secretion (putting something into the body, hormones) Absorption (everything that gets into your body has to got through an epithelium before it gets into the blood, can't put food through the skin and expect to absorb it; but you can go through the digestive system; anything that goes through that system has to go through an epithelium tissue at some point to get into the blood/body) Sensation (being able to feel, Icy-Hot is menthol for the ice and capsation for the heat which causes blood flow to the area) Filtration (filter substances all over the body, all based on water pressure)
What are characteristics of epithelia?
Protective: coverings and linings One surface exposed to external environment, one surface bound and one surface exposed *Tightly bound together (can't poke through skin) Highly mitotic (high turnover, we heal really well, like burning your mouth - but in a period of hours you are turning over these cells and by the next day you have new cells) Avascular (cells are not near a blood supply, typically we will see our cells that are firmly attached to a base membrane which is connective tissue but the cells above those don't really have any access to nutrients because they aren't close to a connective tissue; pass oxygen through simple diffusion - but the cell at the very top won't get much nutrients or any; these cells will die and harden creating a marvelous external protective cell layer; this is not beneficial in our organs) Polar (one bound and one exposed)
Aquaporin
Proteins in the membrane that allows for water movement in and out of cell Control permeability in the membrane Takes 2 minutes to make the protein (get energy for this reaction from glycolysis) Adding more of these proteins will make water transfer through the membrane faster
What are enzymes?
Proteins that speed up chemical reactions in the cell
What happens when you blow up a balloon, give it static, and put it into styrofoam peanuts?
Put electrons on it by giving it a static charge. It will attract the Styrofoam peanuts. Electrons are causing it to happen. It's a weak electrical charge, done by moving electrons around
What is the end of glycolysis?
Pyruvate "Lysis" - to break
What are some functions of membrane proteins?
Receptors Second messenger systems Enzymes Ion channels Carriers Cell identity markers Cell adhesion molecules
Synthesis Reactions
Requires a lot of energy Anabolic Building (amino acids into proteins for example)
Active Transport
Requires energy input usually in the form of ATP pumps. Movement is UP a gradient.
How is the shape of a monomer determined?
Shape will be based on electrical charges of the reactive group Reactive group is different for every amino acid Take the amino acids (1) and (2) and (3) and link them together to get a primary sequence
Polarity deals with the _______ of electrons.
Sharing
Where do electrons "live"? How can we move them?
Shells (Outer shells have higher energy) You can get an electron to a higher level but you have to put in energy (It takes energy to move something with a potential force; when they move it becomes kinetic energy)
What happens when you put sodium ions in water?
Sodium has a positive charge with it The water molecules (with negative charges) line up and surround the hydrogen With oxygen facing the sodium
How do glow in the dark objects work?
Something in the plastic accepts the light from the flashlight/light and kicks up electrons up to higher levels By doing so, they emit light It won't do that for forever The electrons will go back to where they want to be (their original energy state)
Potential Energy
Store energy EX: Chemical bonds (like water behind a dam, bucket on a hill, standing at the top of the stairs)
RNA plays a role in...
Synthesizing proteins and copying instructions from DNA It does NOT transfer hereditary information from cell to cell when they divide
Homeostasis
The body has the ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and maintain relatively stable internal conditions. The internal state of the body is best described as a dynamic equilibrium in which there is a certain set point and conditions fluctuate slightly around this point.
What happens when the enzyme and the substrates interact?
The chemicals bonds in the substrate are put under stress and begin to weaken This stress aids the substrates in forming into a different molecule completely (a new product is formed) After this new molecule is created, it leaves the active site and the enzyme is free to do it all again
When is sugar is mixed with water, equilibrium is reached when...
The dissolved sugar molecules are evenly distributed throughout the solution.
Primary Sequence
The first structure/shape Called a conformation What does it look like? How is it shaped? A string of amino acids This has no structure that can preform work for us Non-functional but they become functional almost immediately
Secondary Structure
The helix that the protein chain curls into as a result of hydrogen bonds and other weak forces
Primary Structure
The peptide bond between individual amino acids that creates a long chain of connected amino acids These include hydrophilic and hydrophobic projections (that are oriented perpendicular to the chain)
What is counter-transport?
The inward movement of sodium ions is coupled with the outer movement of another substance such as calcium ions
Basal Metabolism
The lowest rate of metabolism When you first wake up in the morning
Diffusion
The net movement of molecules down a concentration gradient Allows small molecule such as oxygen/CO2 to cross the plasma membrane
What is the antiport?
The site that two substances bind to in order to make co-transport happen
Where do ligands of sodium channels bind to?
The sodium channel directly
Metabolism
The sum total of all chemical reactions occurring in the cell/organism
What is Pleurisy?
The walls of cavities rub against each other without any serous fluid (without the lubricant it hurts)
What happens when protein molecules are denatured and unwound?
They attract water molecules This traps the water molecules in close proximity to the protein strands
What happens when hydrophobic molecules are exposed?
They become unstable in aqueous environments They will then associate with other hydrophobic molecules on other protein molecules
What happens when polar molecules are added to the water?
They interact with the water and thus reduce the number of free water molecules Because of this, the water from other cells will move to this one to balance the free water molecules
Where are the serous membranes located in the body? What are their names?
Think of the body/diaphragm is used to separate your body thoracic cavity and abdominal cavity; a membrane that lines the thoracic cavity - the lungs and the heart; a membrane that lines the abdominal cavity - digestive tract, intestines, etc.) The parietal (parent) pleura covers the walls of the cavities (thoracic) The visceral pleura covers the organs in the cavities (thoracic) The parietal (parent) peritoneum covers the walls of the cavities (abdominal) The visceral peritoneum covers the organs in the cavities (thoracic)
Hyaline Cartilage
This is primarily collagen fibers, these need to be strong, found at the end of long bones to protect them, primarily matrix, ground substance - chondroitin sulfate, proteins - collagen
Cardiac/Involuntary Muscle Tissue
This moves blood Controlled by involuntary nervous system - sympathetic and parasympathetic
Smooth/Involuntary Muscle Tissue
This moves food This controls blood flow Found in gastrointestinal tract and blood vessels
Skeletal/Voluntary Muscle Tissue
This moves us/bones and closing/opening joints Controlled by the somatic nervous system - voluntary nervous system (we have three nervous systems) Diaphragm has skeletal muscle - thus breathing is voluntary (it's a reflex)
Krebs Cycle
This reaction needs oxygen (you need oxygen to burn things, we're just combusting oxygen) It is necessary to keep glycolysis happening Makes a good amount of ATP
Where do we move heat?
To the surface.
True or False for Sodium/Potassium Pumps: -Na+/K+ pumps are active forms of transport -Na+/K+ pumps move sodium down its concentration gradient -Na+/K+ pumps are enzymes that hydrolize ATP into ADP and Pi -After death, Na+/K+ pumps can continue to function indefinitely -Use of the term "pump" refers to moving solutes down their respective concentration gradients -Na+/K+ pumps have six binding sites for reactants (3Na+, 2K+, 1ATP) -Na+/K+ pumps move three molecules of sodium to the ICF per cycle -Na+/K+ pumps consume about half of the daily energy expenditure -Na+/K+ pumps are antiporters that participate in cotransport -Na+/K+ pumps bind ATP in the ECF -Glucose is passively absorbed through Na+/K+ pumps during secondary active transport -Na+/K+ pumps create a Na+ gradient from the ECF to the ICF
True: -Na+/K+ pumps are active forms of transport -Na+/K+ pumps consume about half of the daily energy expenditure -Na+/K+ pumps have six binding sites for reactants (3Na+, 2K+, 1ATP) -Na+/K+ pumps are enzymes that hydrolize ATP into ADP and Pi False: -Na+/K+ pumps move sodium down its concentration gradient -After death, Na+/K+ pumps can continue to function indefinitely -Use of the term "pump" refers to moving solutes down their respective concentration gradients -Na+/K+ pumps move three molecules of sodium to the ICF per cycle -Na+/K+ pumps are antiporters that participate in cotransport -Glucose is passively absorbed through Na+/K+ pumps during secondary active transport -Na+/K+ pumps create a Na+ gradient from the ECF to the ICF -Na+/K+ pumps bind ATP in the ECF
Dehydration Reactions
Two OH's hanging on the ends of the monomers If you take a hydrogen and an OH off of them to create water Put together the monomers by a covalent bond (oxygen)
Quarternary Structure
Two or more polypeptide chains It's not only 3D, but it's bigger Association of 2+ polypeptide chains with each other Hemoglobin molecule (pretty big, it's designed to carry oxygen, iron ions are at the center of the particular protein gives that protein the ability to carry enough oxygen to keep you alive)
What direction does active transport move a solute?
Up its concentration gradient (From low to high)
Phagocytosis
Used when the material being taken in is "particulate", like a bacterial cell or an organic fragment
Pinocytosis
Used when the material being taken in is liquid
Receptor Mediated Endocytosis
Used when the material being taken in needs to be transported across the plasma membrane via receptors. The molecules will bind to a specific site embedded in the plasma membrane. These receptor molecules are in a concentrated location coated by the protein clathrin. When enough material molecules accumulate, the pit deepens and seals up to be incorporated into the cell as a vesicle.
Hydration Spheres
Water forming around an ion The charges of the molecule are going to attract the water molecules around it
What is the end result of heating proteins?
Water molecules adhere to the surface of hydrophilic regions and hydrophobic regions dissolve into each other to provide the energy to retain the structure of the protein It becomes a large insoluble mass with randomly organized structural framework
Osmosis
Water molecules move across a membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration
Endocytosis
What many single-celled eukaryotes use to ingest food particles. The plasma membrane surrounds/engulfs the food particle. There are three types of endocytosis: phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor mediated endocytosis.
How do sodium channels open?
When a ligand (acetylcholine) binds to the site If there isn't a ligand there, the channels say closed When it is open, Na+ ions diffuse through to enter the cell
How does facilitated diffusion work?
When a molecule binds to the carrier protein, the protein changes shape and moves the molecule down the concentration gradient
Denaturation
When natural proteins are subjected to physical/chemical treatment and their structures change They become "un-native or "unnatural"
What makes simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion different?
With facilitated diffusion, the molecules will only move if it is helped by a special protein carrier in the membrane
In order to survive, do we have to kill something else?
Yes, plants. We have to eat plants to harness energy to survive. By breaking chemical bonds in the plants, we can liberate energy to use.
Elastin Cartilage
an example would your ear, this can handle a little bending, primarily matrix, ground substance - chondroitin sulfate, proteins - more elastin
Glucose molecules (monomers) leave the vascular system by the transport process of _____________ and cross to the cells by _________________ and finally enter the cell by _______________.
filtration, simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion
The reaction responsible for the breakdown of glycogen to glucose is termed:
glycogenolysis
Tissue
group of cells with a specific function(s) Cells perform jobs of maintain their lives Get together with like cells Four types (epithelium, connective, nervous, etc.)
Wet Membrane
oral cavity through the digestive tract, if it dries out it will lose its function
Osmosis between two cells reaches equilibrium when...
osmotic pressure is equal to filtration pressure