Bio - Chapter 21 - evidence for evolution (a), Bio - Chapter 21 - evidence for evolution (b), Bio - Chapter 21 - evidence for evolution (c), Bio - Chapter 21 - evidence for evolution (d), Bio - Chapter 21 - evidence for evolution (e), Bio - Chapter 2...

different traits evolve at different rates and different times

Archaeopteryx fossils exhibit some traits that are characteristic of birds and other traits that are indistinguishable from those of carnivorous dinosaurs. This indicates that

seeds

Galapagos finches with powerful beaks typically eat (pg 418)

1.greatest similarity is present 2.different characteristics are lost or formed 3.final form is attained

developmental patterns seen in a group of organisms often reveal evolutionary relationships. Place the developmental description in the order that they would occur in a group of related organisms

1. greatest similarity is present 2. different characteristic are lost or formed 3. final form is obtained

developmental patterns seen in a groupof organisms often reveal evolutionary relationships. Place the developmental description in the order that they would occur in a group of related organisms, beginning with the earliest description at the top

unintentional

domestication is a form of artificial selection that has lead to _______ selection for some traits in the silver fox

1.atmospheric composition 2.climate

dramatic shifts in which of the following have led to the mass extinctions and influenced the course of evolution

modern horses have a single toe enclosed in a bony hoof

early horses had four toes on the front foot and three toes on the hind feet, all enclosed in a fleshy pads. What is true for modern horses

broad , short

early horses inhabited woody areas ...... this explains why those animals had ______ feet and _______ legs

pharyngeal pouches

early human embryos have _____ pouches which indicates that one of our earliest ancestors was an aquatic species

1.organic 2.inorganic

early organisms were thought to be autotrophs because of their ability to sythesize complex __________ compounds from simple ________ compounds and later use them as energy sources

1.pigs 2.corn 3.cattle

economically important organisms that have been modified significantly through artificial selection include

teeth , tail

even though it has feathers similar to modern birds, Archaeopteryx also has many features of carnivours dinosaurs for example______ in its mouth and a bony _______ (pg 425)

the evolutionary change in a series of related organisms

even though the fossil record is still incomplete there are many examples where fossils provide information on (pg 425)

intermediate

even though there are gaps in the fossil records some of the most direct evidence for evolution comes from fossils called _______ fossils that illustrate how the major transition in life occurs

the widespread appearance of grasslands

evolutionary changes in the horse in North America is related to

35- 40 generation

experiments with fruit flies have shown that significant evolutionary change can be observed within

Darwin initially identified some of the finches incorrectly

explain Darwins observations on his Galapagos finches using the correct choice

1.similar 2. resistance

fast swimming marine predators such as dolphins ,sharks and tuna have _____ body shape that ________ in the water

1.variation 2.food

finches on the Galapagos islands exhibit remarkable _______ in the shape of their beaks that can be related to their specific ____ gathering habits

1. specimen preserved in permafrost 2. in dry caves 3.in amber 4. remains preserved in rocks

fossils include 4 examples (pg 424)

speed

gradualism and punctuated equilibrium differ in their views concerning the ______ of evolutionary change

55 (MYO)

horses are a member of an animal family that produced many extinct species and originated approx _______ million yrs ago (pg 425)

traits produced by convergent evolution have not evolved from a common ancestral trait while homologies have

how are traits produced by convergence evolution different from homologies? (pg 428)

traits produced by convergent evolution have not evolved from a common ancestral trait while homologies have

how are traits produced by convergent evolution different from homologies

differences between breeds can be larger than differences between different genera of animals or plants

how does artificial selection contradict the claim that selection can only produce minor evolutionary change

the climate impacts on the size of seeds which is a selective force for beck size

how does climate drive evolution in the medium ground finch

the parent species do not come into contact with one another

how does ecological isolation prevent successful interspecies hybridization

individuals of different species breed at different times of the year preventing the exchange of gametes

how does temporal isolation prevent successful interbreeding among members of different species

relative dating was used in the past now we use absolute dating

how has rock and fossil dating changed since Darwin's time

will experience gene flow,which will homogenize them, causing them to integrate into one species

if two distinct populations that have not evolved independently for a long enough time to be completely reproductively isolated come into physical contact with one another, they ......

they will remain distinct species

if two species that have evolved over time to be completely reproductively isolated suddenly come into contact with one another

relative dating , absolute dating

in Darwin's day rocks were dated using _______ dating, while today we can determine the ________ age of rocks using carbon dating (pg 424)

1. marsupials 2.placental

in _______ mammals the young are born in pouches while the offspring of _______ mammals are not born until they can safely survive

postzygotic

in _________ isolating mechanisms a hybrid zygote is formed, but it is unable to survive or reproduce due to developmental or genetic problems

the cytosol

in eurkaryotes, RNA transcripts from nuclear DNA are processed, transported and translated in

higher

in his experiments with peppered moths, Kettlewell recaptured a _______ proportion of dark moths in a polluted wood than in an unpolluted wood

has lead to strong, predicable evolutionary response

in the laboratory setting selection for a trait in fruit flies

reinforcement

incomplete reproductive isolation may become completely effective over time when natural selection acts upon less fit hybrid individuals, a process termed what?

very

island species are usually _______ closely related to the species on nearby continents

prezygotic

isolating mechanisms that prevent the formation of a zygote are called ______ isolating mechanisms

postzygotic

isolation mechanisms that block the development of a variable and fertile individual after fertilization has taken place are called

different species

laboratory selection experiments have produced forms that cannot reproduce and thus would in nature be considered

intermediate

many _____ fossils have been found that illustrate how major transitions in life have occurred in the past

intermediate fossils

many _______ fossils have been found that illustrate how major transition in life have occurred (pg 425)

related

many fossils that have been discovered provide information regarding the evolutionary change of a series of ________ organisms

fruit fly

many of the laboratory experiments that test the hypothesis that selection can produce evolutionary change have been performed with drosophila melanogaster, known by its common name (pg 422)

wolf = thylacine lesser anteater = numbat flying squirrel = flying phalanger

match marsupial mammals to placental mammals that look similar and occupy the same niche (431)

1.whales = pelvic bones 2.boa constrictors = hip bones 3.manatees = finger nails on fins 4.cave fish = rudimentary eyes 5.humans = ear wiggling muscles

match organisms to their vestigial structures

ground finches= crushing beaks vampire finches = sharp beaks warbler finches = small narrow beaks

match the beaks with feeding habits

homology = vertebrate limb embryonic development = lanugo vestigal structure = coccyx

match the different types of anatomical evidence for evolution to an example

artificial selection

most of the species that humans use as foods have been modified through (pg 422)

isotopic dating

much of what we know about history of life on earth comes from the fossil record. Which of the following methods can determine the absolute age of fossils

light

on trees without lichens Tutt proposed that _____ coloured peppered moths were more visible to predators

light

on trees without lichens Tutt, proposed that _____ coloured peppered moths were more visible to predators

equidae family

one of the best studied examples of evolutionary change is the _______ family

inaccessible

one reason why fossils records is incomplete is that many fossils occur in rocks that are ______ to scientists (pg 424)

1.invertebrates 2.first land animals 3.amphibians 4.reptiles 5.flowering plants

order the different types of organisms according to their appearance in fossil records

1.5 BYA

organisms belonging to the domain eukarya appear in the fossil record about

increased

over the last 55 million years, the limbs of animals in most lineages of the horse family have ______ in length

the evolution of photosynthesis

oxygen that provides an environment for cellular respiration was added to the ocean and atmosphere during which of the following

1.hybrid offspring have lower fitness than non-hybrid offspring, but some hybrid survive and reproduce 2.

partial reproductive isolation examples are

light gray , black

peppered moths come in a variety of shades from _____ grey with speckles to completely ____ (melanic)

1.organism becomes buried in sediments 2.hard tissues (such as bones) mineralise 3.surrounding sediments harden into rock

place the series of events that must occur to produce a rock fossil

zygotes

prezygotes isolating mechanisms prevent the formation of which of the following

very rare

prior to 1850, the melanic form of the peppered moth in Europe was ______

dark, light

regarding the peppered moth, many studies have shown that in polluted areas, the ______ form of the moth is favoured, and in unpolluted the ______ form of the moth is favoured (pg 420)

polluted

scientist have observed that light coloured moths decrease in abundance in areas that are _____

dehydration

some species, for example frogs are very vulnerable to _______ in saltwater and therefore have almost no chance of island colonization (pg 432)

compartments

specialised functions occur in distinct _______ within eukaryotic cells

the populations undergoing speciation do or do not live in he same geographic area

speciation is defined as allopatric or sympatric based on whether which of the following occur

gene flow

speciation is more likely in allopatric populations than in sympatric populations because _______ does not homogenize genetic differences between allopatric populations

mechanical isolation

species are unable to mate due to structural differences such as size or incompatibility

ecological isolation

species live in the same area but occupy different habitats

behavioural isolation

species may live in the same area but do not select each other as mates due to differences in courtship communication

niches

species on islands often show great diverification as islands may have many unexploited ecological _______

the absence of many plants and animals means there are many unexploited niches

species on islands often show great diversification why?

temporal isolation

species reproduce in different seasons or at different times of day

1.fly 2.swim 3.float

species that _____, _______ or _________ are more likely to be able to disperse to an island than others

sympatric

species that are ________ species can occur in the same location and are pheonotypicallly different

niches

species that make it to islands will often times diverge into many new species that copy ecological ______ typically used by unrelated species on the continent (pg 432)

islands , water

species usually arrive on _______ by dispersal across the ________ from a nearby continent (pg 432)

increased almost 100%

starting in the 1850 when europe become industrialised the frequency of melanic forms of the peppered moth in populations _______ until they made up ____ of some populations

homologous , vestigial

structures that were derived from a common ancestor but with different appearance and functions are called ______ structures, while ______ structures refers to structures that have little or no function

homologous

structures with different appearances and functions that are all derived from the same body part in a common ancestor are called ______ structures

1.vestigal structures 2.imperfect adaptions

supporters of intelligent design cannot explain the presence of

1.disruptive selection 2.allopolyploidy 3.autopolyploidy

sympatric speciation may occur as a result of which of the following

larger , increased

the Grants were able to show that after dry years when _______ seeds are produced, the average beck depth of medium ground finches ______ (pg 419)

regardless of environmental conditions

the Grants were able to show that the depth of beak in finches was similar between parents and offspring (pg 419)

biological

the _______ species concept defines a species as a group of individuals that is able to interbreed, producing viable and fertile offspring

oil , artificial selection

the amount of _____ in corn kernels has been increased dramatically by over 90 generations of ________ selection (pg 422)

convergent

the ant eaters of South America and echidna have similar features. This is an example of _____ evolution (pg 431)

melanic

the black jet form of the peppered moth is also known as the ____ form

gradualism

the concept of _________ suggests that each new species evolve continuously over long spans of time

CO2

the early atmosphere of earth likely had water that slowly vaporised from the molten rock and high levels of

infolding of the plasma membrane

the endomembrane system of eukaryotes is thought to have evolved through

well documented by the fossil records

the evolution of members of the horse family is

one four three

the feet of modern horses have _______ toes in contrast early horses had ________ toes on their front feet and _______ toes on their hind feet

1.genus 2.species

the first words in the scientific name of an organism is the _______ to which it belongs, and the second is its __________

1.parents with large beaks tend to have offspring with large beaks 2.beak depth seems to be genetically inherited trait 3.parents with small beaks tend to have offspring with small beaks

the following graph plots the relationship between beak depth of medium ground finches and their offspring. What can you conclude from the graph

evolved from the same body part in a common ancestor

the forelimbs of modern vertebrates are homologous structures meaning that they may have changed evolutionary to perform functions but the

homologous structures

the forelimbs of modern vertebrates exemplify

homologous , vestigial

the forelimbs of vertebrates are an example of _______ structures, while the human coccyx is an example of a _______ structure (pg 428)

prezygotic , postzygotic

the formation of an interspecies hybrid zygote is prevented by ______ isolating mechanisms, whereas ________ isolating mechanisms prevent the successful development of hybrid zygotes once they are formed

false

the formation of proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids were essential and sufficient for life

increase

the fossil record reveals that during the last 25 million years horses have exhibited rapid and substantial _______ in their size (pg 426)

skull

the fossil records indicate that the ______ of horses has evolved, growing stronger in order to withstand stress imposed by continued chewing

offspring

the grants were able to show that the beak depth they observed ............ similar to the beak size of their _________

adaptive radiation

the great diversity of Hawaiian Drosophila, Finches , NZ alpine buttercup and cichlids may be attributed to the process of

eye

the human ______ is an example of imperfect adaption: this becomes very evident when compared with that of mollusks (pg 429)

gradualism

the idea that evolution occurs over time through the accumulation of small changes at a realatively slow pace is known as ______

punctuated equilibrium

the idea that evoution proceeds with long periods of stasis alternating with relatively rapid periods of evolutionary change is known as

biological species concept

the idea that species are defined based on the ability to interbred with each other and exchange genes is the basis of which species concept (437)

wet

the medium ground finch of the galapagos islands feeds on small seeds,produced in abundance during ______ years

industrial melanism

the phenomenon where dark forms of moths become more prevalent than light forms is knowns as? (pg 421)

corn

the plant teosinte has been modified to become ________

how the parents are chosen (by humans)

the primary difference between natural and artificial selection is

rarely

the process of fossilization occurs only ______ (pg 424)

in both Europe and north America

the reversal of melanism after the introduction of pollution control laws has been observed

wooded areas

the short legs and broad feet of early horses made them well adapted to

natural

the significant changes illustrated by artificial selection provide strong support for the power of _______ selection

natural

the significant changes illustrated by artificial selection provide strong support for the power of ________ selection

convergent evolution

the similar shapes of fast swimming marine predators are an example of

small and relatively simple

the teeth of early members of the horse family were

large with complex pattern of ridges

the teeth of modern members of the horse family are

all major groups of vertebrates

today, fossils have been found that link (pg 425)

1. illustrate how major transitions in life occurred 2. fill in gaps in fossils records between two groups

transitional fossils help _____ (pg 424)

true

true or false: Darwins theory of evolution is not accepted by everyone, especially in the general public (pg 432)

false

true or false: Even though humans have used artificial selection for centuries, only animals have been significantly modified by our efforts (pg 422)

false

true or false: current diversity in the horse family is much greater than it was in the Myocene

true

true or false: evidence indicates that the first cells were probably prokaryotic

true

true or false; gene flow decreases differences between populations

false

true or false; industrial melanism has only been observed in a few countries in Europe

true

true or false; intermediate fossils are not usually intermediate in every single trait (pg 424)

true

true or false; reinforcement increases differences between populations

behavioral

two species of frog live in the same pond, but do not interbreed because they have different mating calls. This is called ________ isolation

homologous and vestigial structure

two types of structures in adult organisms that provide anatomical evidence for evolution are ______ and ________ structures (pg 427)

more closely

typically how are species on islands related to species on nearby continents

1. ancestors 2. descendant

typically not all the traits of an intermediate fossil are intermediate some traits resemble those of its ________ and some, those of its ______

1.corn 2.dogs 3.cats 4.pigeons

varieties of which of the following organisms are the result of artificial selection

barriers that prevent successful interbreeding among members of different species

what are reproductive isolating mechanisms

1.tree seeds rarely make it to isolated islands 2.the tree niche is empty and so a flower can evolve through natural selection to be tree like

which of the following are reasons why island trees belong to plant families that typically do not have trees members

1.the tree niche is empty and so a flower can evolve through natural selection to be tree like 2. tree seeds rarely make it to isolated islands

which of the following are reasons why island tress belong to plant families that typically do not have tree members eg. the sunflower family

1.many fossil occur in rocks that are inaccessible 2.fossils can be destroyed before they are collected 3.organisms decay or are scavenged before forming fossils

which of the following are reasons why the fossil record is incomplete

sediment , mineralize , hardens

Rock fossils occur when three events occur: dead organisms are buried in _______; hard tissues ________; the material that surrounds the remain ________to form rock (pg 424

developmental

______ homologies are temporary similarities in species that occur during the early embryonic stages (pg 428)

developmental

_______ homologies are temporary similarities in the species that occur during the early embryonic stages

mitochondria

_________ are organelles, which originated through endosymbiosis, and are present in all modern eukaryote cells

vestigial

a _______ structure has no apparent function in a species but is fully functional in the species ancestors (pg 429)

minor , species

a common criticism of evolution is that selection only produces ______ changes and cannot produce the variety of _______ documented in the fossil record (pg 423)

mechanical

a prezygotic isolating mechanism that physically prevents mating due to structures differences of reproductive organs is _______ isolation

can produce significant evolutionary change

artificial selection clearly shows that selection ____ evolutionary changes such that over millions of years selection can produce the diversity of life on earth

1.unintended 2.intended 3.undesirable 4.desirable

artificial selection may result in traits that are

to migrate between the once disconnected continents

cold periods that led to glaciation and a drop in sea levels during the last 2 million years created an opportunity for humans and other animals

a widespread phenomenon

convergent evolution is (pg 431)

radioactive decay

currently the age of fossils is estimated by the rate of ______ _________ (absolute dating)

20 times

Co2 levels prior to the cooling that began in the Ordovician are thought to have been about ______ higher than present day concentrations

Birmingham

Kettlewell released peppered moths in Birmingham a highly industrialised area, and Dorset then an unpolluted wood. In which area did he recapture a higher proportion of dark moths

equal , recaptured

Kettlwell tested Tutt's hypothesis on peppered moths by releasing ______ numbers of dark and light individuals and counting those that were ______ (pg 420)

1.hydrogen cyanide 2.formaldehyde

Miller and Ureys experiment revealed that carbon in the form of methane gas could be converted to which of the following simple carbon compound before being converted to more complex molecules

silver fox

after generations of selective breeding this animal has been made exceptionally tame

long legged, fast running, open grasslands

all modern members of the horse family are large, _____ legged, _______ running animals adapted to living in open _______ (pg 426)

populations are geographically isolated and diverge because of natural selection and random processes

allotropic speciation is thought to occer when

allopolyploidy

an increases in chromosome number due to the hyberization of two species followed by doubling of the chromosomes number in the hybrid offspring is a type of polyploidy called

pheromones

chemical signals that are used in communication between different individuals are known as

1.the rates of evolution varied through time with long periods of little or no change 2.change often occurred simultaneously across the different lineages of the horse family 3.in some linages completely opposite trends are observed

as the horse family fossil record became more complete scientists realised that the evolution of horses was not linear constant and unidirectional. Why?

3 billion years

at the beginning of the cambrian, life had been unicellular (with the exception of a few algae) for

is a non-random process

because it favour those variations that lead to the highest reproductive fitness, natural selection

is a nonrandom process

because it favoured those variations that lead to the highest reproductive fitness natural selection (pg 432)

the geographic distribution of modern and extinct species

biogeography studies

1.tiktaalik, a species that is transitional between fish and amphibians 2.a four legged aquatic mammal that links marine mammals to their terrestrial ancestors 3.a fossil snake with legs that link modern snakes to the lizards from which they descended

what are some fossils findings in recent years that have bridged major gaps in our understanding of vertebrate evolution

1. evolution has not been demonstrated 2. complex organs can be explained by intelligent design

what are two of the common misconception of evolution (pg 432)

their skulls

what feature of horses strengthened over tome to cope with continuous chewing (pg 426)

1.gene linkage 2.pleiotropy

what genetic phenomena may be responsible for unintentional selection

substantial

what is the magnitude of change produced by artificial selection

natural selection

what is the primarily responsible for evolution (pg 418)

genetic drift

what process can promote speciation through random changes between isolated populations

natural selection

what process may lead to speciation when a population adapts to its environment in such a way that it becomes reproductively isolated from other populations

reversal of industrial melanism is not correlated with the re-appearance of lichens

what recent obsevation has prompted scientists to challenge Tutt's hypothesis about the cause of industrial melanism

some organisms do not appear to be perfectly adapted to their environments

what statement is true about natural selection?

reproductive

what type of isolation occurs when members of one species are unable to successfully interbreed with members of another species

1. mass extinction 2. formation of islands through volcanic activity and subsequent colonization 3. a species occurs in an environment with few other species and many resources

what types of conditions may lead to adaptive radiation

1.a species occurs in an environment with few other species and many resources 2.formation of islands through volcanic activity and subsequent colonization 3.mass extinction

what types of conditions may lead to adaptive radiation (pg 446)

70 (MYO)

when did Australia separate from other continents

centuries and millennia ago

when did humans begin to utilize artificial selection (pg 422)

evolutionary change

when fossils are arranged and compared according to their age, from oldest to youngest, successive ________ change becomes apparent

species

when members of two populations are completely reproductively isolated they will remain distinct ________ species when they come into physical contact

throughout eurasia and North America

where has industrial melanism been observed

fossils

which if the following is the most direct evidence for evolution (pg 424)

species in geographically separated areas = allopatric speciation

which is a correct description of geography and speciation

1.they are also known as fossil genes 2. they are the sites where mutations can occur 3. they are made inactive by mutations

which is correct about pseudogenes

climatic variation impacts seed size which is a selective force on beak size

which is the correct statement about the evolutionary changes in the medium ground finch

1.connections between different population of the same species 2.distinctiveness of species that occur together in a single location

which must be accounted for in any species concept

1.early embryonic similarities 2.vestigial structures 3.homologous structures

which of the following anatomical features that provide evidence for evolution

1.evolution has not been demonstrated 2.complex organs can be explained by intelligent design

which of the following are common misconceptions about evolution

1.evolutionary change is constant through time 2.natural selection is a progressive guiding force pushing evolution in one direction

which of the following are common misconceptions about the evolution of horses

1.wings in birds 2.lungs in fish 3.wings in insects

which of the following are considered to be key innovations in the course of animal evolution

1. Reinforcement: increases differences between populations 2. Gene flow: decreases differences between populations

which of the following are correctly matched

1.bony tail 2.pharyngeal pouches 3.a fine fur

which of the following are developmental features observed in humans embryos, but not in adults

1.appearance of hooves 2.increase in size of molars 3.increase in body size

which of the following are predominate adaptive changes that occurred between the first members of the horse family and its modern representatives

1.light moths in some areas increased in frequency long before lichens re-appeared 2.in some areas, evidence suggests that moths rest on leaves in the treetops, not trunks 3.in some areas, lichens never changed even though dark moths become predominant

which of the following are recent observations that have challenged Tutts hypothesis about peppered moths

distinct populations of the same species that inhabit different areas

which of the following best defines subspecies

1.toxic effects of pollution on light coloured moths 2.surfaces in polluted areas get darker due to soot deposition 3.lichens decline due to pollution

which of the following have been suggested as hypothesis that may explain industrial melanism

the hemoglobin gene in the icefish

which of the following is a pseudogene

the human coccyx

which of the following is not an example of an imperfect adaption

lipids and proteins

which of the following macromolecules may have composed a vesicle (or bubble) from which living cells arose?

1.memebers of a species of fish are separated when a lake dries into a series of small ponds 2.a population of big horn sheep are separated by a glacier 3.the emergence of a mountain range prevents 2 populations of Elk from reproducing with one another

which of the following may lead to allotropic speciation

1.mitochondria 2.chloroplasts

which of the following organelles found in eukaryotic cells are involved in producing or providing energy for the cell? (pg 518)

reductive version of the Krebs cycle

which of the following pathways for carbon fixation is used by archaea and some lithotrophic bacteria (pg 514)

1.an oscillating environment 2.an unchanging environment

which of the following promotes stasis within a species?

interbreeding between two populations that are incompletely reproductively isolated

which of the following situation will result in homogenization of two populations

convergent evolution is frequently documented

which of the following statements about convergent evolution is true

1.they are tall and have tough covering 2.they are members of families that typically exist as flowers or shrubs

which of the following statements about island trees are true

it originated 55 million years ago and over that time many of its members have become extinct

which of the following statements about the horse family is true

members of different species maybe able to hybridize under artifical conditions but not in the wild

which of the following statements is true in regard to how scientists define species based on the biological species concept

speciation may occur through random or non random processes

which of the following statements is true regarding speciation

miller -urey

which scientists demonstrated that prebiotic synthesis of organic molecules is possible

for many types of placental mammals found throughout the world, there is a strikingly similar marsupial in Au

which statement is true about Australian marsupials (pg 431)

1.a species occurs in an environment with few other species and many resources 2.mass extinctions 3.formation of islands through volcanic activity and subsequent colonization

which types of conditions may lead to adaptive radiation

like all mammals giraffes only have 7 vertebrae in their necks which limits their flexibility

why are giraffe necks not perfectly suited for their function?

polyploid individuals cannot mate with normal diploid individuals

why does polyploidy lead to sympatric speciation

1. because it is supported by a large body of evidence 2. because it helps explain a very wide range of observations

why is evolution considered a theory

1.these genes are like a database for genetic changes 2.the trait coded for by the gene is no longer present

why is fossil gene an appropriate name for a pseudogene

because natural selection can only work on the variation present in a population

why is it that some organisms do not appear to be perfectly adapted to their environments

probability cannot be used to argue backwards

why is the argument "proteins are to improbable" invalid? (pg 433)