BIO Final Exam, BIO Unit Exam 4

environmental contributors to cancer

-Uv energy can cause DNA damage -radiation from X-ray machines Carcinogens: --smoking --asbestos --chemicals found in pesticides and herbicides --nitrates -viruses- HPV and Hepatitis C virus

cancer prevention

-foods high in fiber -increases of vegetables high in vitamin A and C -drink alcohol in moderation -Maintain a healthy weight -get vaccinated against HPV and Hep C.

cystic fibrosis

-genetically inherited gene -recessive --2 copies of every gene --inherited two copies of the mutated gene - think music in the airways -mucus can block bronchioles - sticky mucus blocks the ducts of the pancreas. which prevents digestive enzymes to be released into the small intestine -undigested food causes pain bloating and prevents absorption of nutrients

risk factors for type 2 diabetes

-having high levels of insulin, which promotes obesity -obesity -Hispanic and african american ethnic groups are at higher risk -over the age of 45 -physically active less than 3x per week

signal transmission at the synapse

-neurotransmitters can be excitatory or inhibitory -they return to presynaptic neurons via re-uptake pumps

cellulose

-produced by plants - helps the immune system, and vitamin production slows down the absorption of sugars and reduces constipation and colon caner

starch

-produced by plants - used by humans as immediate energy use

glycogen

-produced by plants -used by humans as immediate energy use

glucagon

-secreted when blood glucose levels are low -stimulates the liver to break down glycogen into glucose - in this way, glucagon raises blood glucose levels

the synapse

-the events at the synapse: --nerve signals travel along an axon and reach an axon terminal --neurotransmitter (housed in vesicles in axon terminal) are released into the synaptic cleft and diffuse across to the receiving membrane and bind to receptors

cells divide

60-70 times and eventually undergo apoptosis. cancer cels are immortal and keep on dividing for an unlimited number of times -cancer cells are undifferentiated

What occurs in S?

A copy is made of all the DNA in the cell. DNA replication occurs, so each chromosome consists of two identical DNA double helix molecules. These molecules occur in the strands called sister chromatids.

What is the difference between a polypeptide and a protein?

A polypeptide is a chain of many amino acids where a protein is made up of many polypeptides together

What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?

A saturated fatty acid has no carbon-to-carbon double bonds whereas an unsaturated fatty acid has carbon-to-carbon double bonds

What does a traditional vaccine contain and what does it do to the recipient's immune system?

A traditional vaccine contains weakened antigens that are no longer able to cause disease which makes the immune system go through the process of clonal selection and make more antibodies and memory cells to fight the pathogens in the future

Explain the structure of the virus. For each component, including the biomolecule that it is made of.

A virus has two parts an outer capsid composed of protein units and an inner core of nucleic acids. The nucleic acid contains genetic information needed for viral reproduction.

What mechanism would be used to join single amino acids for a polypeptide?

Amino acids are joined together by a dehydration reaction

Distinguish between epidemic and pandemic.

An epidemic is a spike in cases of a certain virus in one centrally located area whereas a pandemic is a spike in cases of a virus all over the world.

type 1 diabetes

Diabetes of a form that usually develops during childhood or adolescence and is characterized by a severe deficiency of insulin, leading to high blood glucose levels. -insulin dependent

How do action potentials move (or propagate) along the axon and how does this change when the axon is myelinated and unmyelinated?

If an axon is unmyelinated an action potential at one locale stimulates an adjacent part of the axon membrane to produce an action potential, in myelinated fibers, an action potential at one node of ravier causes an action potential at the next node.

How does integration in neurons work?

If there are more excitatory signals overall, then it is an excitatory response, which can lead to a signal being transmitted and if there are more inhibitory signals then it is an inhibitory response.

What are homologous chromosomes?

Member of a pair of chromosomes that are alike and come together in synapsis during prophase of the first meiotic division.

G2- what occurs during this checkpoint?

Mitosis checkpoint. Mitosis will occur if DNA has replicated properly. Apoptosis will occur if the DNA is damaged and cannot be repaired.

What are neurotransmitters?

Molecules that transmit the neuron impulses

What is hypertension?

Occurs when blood moves through the arteries at a higher pressure than normal. Is known as high blood pressure

After the threshold is reached, the rising phase (or depolarization) begins. What is happening during this phase?

Positively charged Na+ suddenly rushes through open voltage-gated sodium channels into the neuron.

We say that one becomes cancerous when it is 'turned on' and one becomes cancerous when it is 'turned off', which is which?

Proto-oncogenes become cancerous when they are turned on whereas tumor suppressor genes become cancerous when they are turned on.

What are the roles of sensory, inter, and motor neurons? In your explanation, please include in which division of the nervous system, CNS or PNS, they are found. Is the structure of sensory, inter, and motor neurons alike? Explain.

Sensory neurons take nerve signals from sensory receptors to the CNS, they are special structures that detect changes in the environment. An interneuron lies in the CNS and can receive input from sensory and other interneurons in the CNS. A motor neuron takes nerve impulses away from the CNS to an effector that carries out our responses to environmental changes. All sensory neurons have a cell body, dendrites, and an axon so they are very similar in structure but vary in appearance.

How can viruses that infect animals change to infect humans? Use antigenic shift, mutations, and page 152 in your explanation.

The antigenic shift causes mutations over time which allows for new combinations to form and for the virus to be able to jump from animals to humans.

Explain how genes on a pair of homologous chromosomes are for the same traits but can be of different types.

The chromosomes in a homologous pair each have the same genes in the same order, but there may be variations between them, resulting in different alleles

What divides during cytokinesis?

The cytoplasm and organelles divide during cytokinesis.

Triglycerides - what are their structure and function?

The functions of lipids are long-term energy storage, insulating against heat loss, and forming a protective cushion around major organs

What is the ideal state for a red blood cell (meaning what type of environment is ideal for it)? What occurs to a red blood cell in a hypertonic vs. hypotonic environment? Should IVs in hospitals be pure water? Why or why not?

The ideal state for a red blood cell is for it to be in an isotonic solution when it is a hypertonic solution water would move out of the cell and that cell would die, whereas if the blood cell is in a hypotonic environment the water would come into the cell leaving other cells to die. A hospital bag should not be all water because you would be causing too much water to go into the bloodstream.

What is myelin sheath? Where is it found and what is its function?

The myelin sheath is Schwann cells found along that axon of sensory and motor neurons that help transmit nerve signals.

what divides in mitosis?

The nucleus divides into a parent cell and a daughter cell

Describe the plasma membrane and how the phospholipids form a bilayer (how do they orient themselves, which parts are exposed to outside and inside, why this orientation occurs, and which parts are hydrophobic vs hydrophilic).

The plasma membrane is selectively permeable with proteins in the cell membrane for channels. The phospholipids form a bilayer by the hydrophilic head facing towards the outside where the water is and the hydrophobic tail faces the inside keeping the inside of the plasma membrane waterless.

What is the role of stimulus, depolarization, and threshold in initiating an action potential?

The stimulus opens some Na channels and the Na+ moves in, depolarization causes all the Na+ channels to open, and the threshold is the minimum voltage that is required to trigger an action potential. (-55 mV)

Phospholipids - what is their structure and function? Explain how phospholipids form a bilayer. Which portion of phospholipids are hydrophobic and which are hydrophilic?

They have two fatty acids and a phosphate group that contains both phosphate and nitrogen, their function is that they are a primary component for the plasma membrane in the cells that helps protect the cell from their environment. They form a bilayer by the hydrophilic barrier facing outwards towards watery solutions while the hydrophobic tail forms the interior. The head is hydrophilic, and the tail is hydrophobic.

Which types of fatty acids are bad for your health?

Trans fats because they increase disease risks

Why are viruses not self-sufficient?

Viruses are not made of cells, and they lack the metabolic machinery needed to acquire and use nutrients.

What triggers the rising phase to end and the falling phase (or repolarization) to begin? What is happening during this phase?

What causes the repolarization phase to begin is the slow closing of sodium channels and the opening of voltage-gated potassium channels. In the repolarization phase, the process of restoring the polarized condition across the plasma membrane of the cell takes place.

What happens when a proto-oncogene becomes oncogenes?

When a proto-oncogene becomes oncogenes it becomes a cancer-causing mutation.

If a proto-oncogene is like a gas petal in the cell cycle, what happens to this gas petal when an oncogene is formed? How does this promote cancer?

When an oncogene is formed the mutation becomes very dominant which causes the cell to lose control of the cell cycle causing cancer, and since it acts as a gas pedal that means there is no brake to slow the mutation down.

1. What is denaturation?

When proteins are exposed to extreme heat, they undergo an irreversible shape change.

inhibitory

activates K+ channels

excitatory

activates Na+ channels

HA Spike

allows the virus to bind to the receptor

G0

an adult neuron would most likely be in what stage of the cell cycle

NA spike

attacks the host plasma membranes that allow mature viruses to exit the cell

disaccharide

based on the following nutrition label, which molecule would not be consumed if you ate a serving of this food?

mitosis

body cell -the timing of cell division is tightly regulated -errors in cell division can lead to cancer

water entered the cells causing them to burst

brad placed a drop of blood in distilled water. what likely happened to the red blood cells

tumor suppressor gene

brake

malignant tumors

can invade surrounding tissues and their cells don't resemble normal cells. the tumor can spread throughout the body by traveling in blood or lymphatic vessels.

lymphomas

cancers of lymph tissue

leukemias

cancers of the blood

Arteries

carry blood away from the heart, thickest walls- a lot of smooth muscles, connective tissues- elastin. When the fibers contract the vessels constrict; when these muscle fibers relax the vessel dilates. The contraction of the dilation of arterioles controls blood pressure. When arterioles constrict blood pressure rises. Dilation of arterioles causes blood pressure to fall.

veins

carry blood towards the heart, thick walls, fighting gravity valves. The veins act as a blood reservoir, if blood is lost due to hemorrhaging, nervous stimulation causes the veins to constrict providing more blood to the rest of the body

Radiation

cell cycle disruption

What is atherosclerosis?

condition in which fatty substances accumulate abnormally beneath the inner linings of the arteries.

cytokinesis

division of the cytoplasm and the cell membrane

nerve signals

electrochemical changes that convey information within the nervous system

reactant (substrate)

enzymes active site is suited for a specific ________ to fit inside

carcinomas

epithelial tissue (skin, lung, breast)

Immunotherapy

expose immune cells to antigen on cancer cells

proto-oncogene

gas petal

types of neurotranmitters

inhibitory- GABA, Serotonin (Mood) excitatory- acetylcholine both- Dopamine (Mood) -all thoughts, feelings, and actions are dependent on neurotransmitters -drugs control transmission of neurotransmitters thus, can alter mood, emotional state, behavior and personaility

five excitatory and one inhibitory neurotransmitters

integration also known as summation refers to a neuron taking in stimuli from different types of neurotransmitters. in which of the following scenarios would and action potential in the receiving cell be most likely

What is the resting potential of a neuron and how is it achieved

is the potential energy that builds up by having sodium outside the plasma membrane and potassium inside -there ends up being a positive charge to the outside and a negative on the inside

diastole

is the resting phase refers to the relaxation of the chambers the lub occurs when increasing pressure if blood inside the ventricles forces the cups of the AV valves shut the dub occurs when the ventricles relax and blood in the arteries flows backward momentarily causing the semilunar valves to close.

cancer

is the result of multiple mutations progression from a single mutation to a tumor

systole

is the working phase which refers to the contraction of the chambers

they block the reuptake pump of neurotransmitters involved in mood, thereby increasing their levels in the synaptic cleft

medications, such as SSRIs are used to treat depression because they

what are neurotransmitters

molecules that transmit the neuron impulses

What is the building block of carbohydrates?

monosaccharides

what is a monosaccharide?

monosaccharides consist only of a single sugar molecule, and example being glucose

sarcoma

muscle and connective (bone)

G0

nondividing cells

contact inhibition

normal cells stop dividing when neighboring cells are senses -cancer cells have lost contact inhibiton, they pile up on one another and grow in multiple layers forming tumors

what are polysaccharides?

polysaccharides are long chains containing many glucose units

meiosis

produces gamates

turns on

proto-oncogene

movement of potassium (K+) out of the axon

repolarization (the falling stage of an action potential is caused by

mitosis

separation of the duplicated DNA and division of the necleus

what is a common term we can use to describe mono and disaccharides

simple carbohydrates

What are the different innate physical and chemical barriers that the body has against pathogens?

some physical barriers in the skin prevent infection, and the mucus membranes lining the respiratory, digestive, reproductive, and urinary tracts prevent pathogens. Some chemical barriers are lysozyme, the acidic Ph of the stomach, and the flora that is in the mouth.

the stimuli did not cause our sensory neurons to reach threshold

sometimes there are changes in the environment that we do not perceive such as light, noise, and touch. focusing on what we've learned this unit what is a biological explanation for this

benign tumor

surrounded by a connective tissue capsule, which prevents the tumor from invading adjacent tissue, resemble normal cells

What do antibodies do to the virus (be specific)?

they attach to the antigen and remove it from your body.

B

this is a building block of starch

fatty acid

this molecule above is a

D

this molecule is can be found in the cell membrane and is a lipid

neurons

transmit nerve impulses

turns off

tumor suppressor gene

Be able to use the words hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic to describe the solute concentration in different fluids that are separated by a cell membrane.

water will move from the hypotonic solution to the hypertonic solution until both solutions are isotonic

more positive (less negative)

when an action potential begins, sodium gates open, allowing sodium to cross the membrane. this causes then charge on the inside of the neuron to become

capillaries

where exchange occurs with body cells, thinnest walls. They are present in all regions of the body and help with gas exchange.

it increases fiber consumption, which slows down the absorption of glucose and makes you feel full

which best describes the benefit of consuming whole grain vs. refined grains

opening of more sodium (NA+) channels

which best describes what happens immediately after threshold has been reached

it is a type of oncogene

which of the following is not true about the BRCA 1 gene

if threshold is reached the action potential will not occur

which of the following is not true of the threshold

neurotransmitter

which of the following is the chemical that allows the transmission of an action potential from across a synapse to another neuron

Glycogen

which polysaccharide is produced by animals and used for energy storage in animals

type 2 diabetes

- a metabolic disorder in which cells don't respond correctly to insulin. it is characterized by an excess of glucose in the blood - as blood glucose levels, rise, glucose along with water, is excreted through the urine - symptoms, fatigue, sugar, weight loss, thirst, frequent urination -if left untreated can cause serious fetal complications: --blood circulation problems --sores that don't heal and lead to dangerous infections --blood vessel damage causes kidney failure, nerve destruction, heart attack, and stroke

CFTR- cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator protein

- has a unique shape that allows chloride ions to exit the cell - CF is due to inherited mutations in the CFTR gene

Explain the mechanism of Alcohol, Nicotine, and Ecstasy (what do they do to the nervous system).

Alcohol acts as a depressant on the brain by increasing the action of GABA. Ecstasy is a surge in serotonin and epinephrine which causes a rush of euphoria, energy, alertness, and elevated mood.

Antibody: what is it (include what type of biomolecule), what does it do, and what is its structure (be specific)?

Antibodies are protein biomolecules that are made by our immune cells to recognize and destroy harmful antigens. The structure of an antibody is a Y-shaped protein molecule with two arms each arm has a heavy or long polypeptide chain and a light or short polypeptide chain. These chains have constant regions located at the truck of the Y where the sequence of amino acids is fixed.

Antigens: what are they (include what type of biomolecules), where are they found, and how does the body respond to them?

Antigens are protein biomolecule that tells our immune system whether something in our body is harmful or not. Antigens are found in pathogen cells and normal cells in our body, when an antigen enters our body our B cells use their receptors to test if the antigen fits together, and if it does it creates antibodies

Other than pathogens, what else can trigger the inflammatory response?

Bacteria, trauma, toxins, and heat

Why should humans be cautious when colonizing new habitats that house wild animals or when mass-producing animals?

Because humans colonizing wild areas continues the threat of emerging viruses.

How does a vaccine help prevent illness?

Because it helps expose the body to illness which makes the body create antibodies and memory cells

Water - How is water an example of a molecule that is polar? You may use a picture to add to your explanation.

Because oxygen has a greater ability to attract electrons than hydrogen, the negatively charged electrons are closer to the oxygen atoms which makes oxygen a slightly negative charge which makes it polar

Why is the inflammatory response component of the innate defense system?

Because the inflammatory response acts rapidly to detect and respond to pathogens that the body has not experienced in the past.

1. Proteins, of all the macromolecules, are the most diverse in both form and function. Why can proteins come in so many different forms and therefore have so many different functions (hint, this has to do with amino acids)?

Because the order of amino acids and the number of amino acids in each protein determines their shape and function.

What is different about what is inside a COVID vaccine compared to traditional ones? How does the COVID vaccine accomplish the same goal? What did pharmaceutical companies produce the COVID vaccine in this alternative manner? (this is from the lecture, not your text)

COVID vaccines have mRNA instead of antigens. mRNA vaccines have instructions on how to make the viral antigen.

G1- what occurs during this checkpoint?

Cell cycle main checkpoint. If DNA is damaged apoptosis will occur. Otherwise, the cell is committed to dividing when growth signals as present and nutrients are available.

what is a tumor?

Cells derived from a single mutated cell that has repeatedly undergone cell division

G0- when would the cell go into G0?

Cells go into Go if the cell is damaged, and G0 acts as a holding phase; if the DNA can be repaired, the cell may reenter the cell cycle if not then the internal mechanism cause the cell to undergo apoptosis.

why are checkpoints important?

Checkpoints are important because cells can't move through them until they meet certain conditions, failure of the cell cycle control mechanism may result in unrestricted cell growth or cancer

Cholesterol - What is different about this type of lipid compared to the others? Where is it found?

Cholesterol is formed of four fused carbon rings, and it is found mainly in the liver.

Tumor suppressor genes: what do these genes do regarding the cell cycle?

Code for proteins that inhibit the cycle and promotes apoptosis.

Proto-oncogenes: what do these genes do regarding the cell cycle?

Code from proteins that promote the cell cycle and prevent apoptosis from occurring.

Normal cells exhibit contact inhibition, explain what this means. Do cancer cells exhibit contact inhibition?

Contact inhibition means that when the cell comes in contact with a neighbor, they stop dividing. Cancer cells do not have contact inhibition they pile on top of one another.

Chemotherapy

DNA synthesis disruption

In your own words, explain the process of clonal selection. You should use B-cell receptors, activation, antigens, primary exposure, plasma cells, memory cells, secondary exposure, and antibodies.

Each B cell receptor has a designated shape that fits perfectly with an antigen which causes the activation of the B cells. The B cells then divide and produce plasma cells and memory cells, plasma cells create antibodies that defend your body from getting infected with that pathogen again in the future. Memory cells immediately recognize the antigen in the future which makes your body react and heal faster.

What is the difference between Fats and Oils?

Fats are usually of animal origin and are solid at room temperature, and oils are of plant origin and liquid at room temperature

What is the function of lipids in our bodies?

Function well as energy storage molecules. Some also forma. A membrane so that the cell can separate from its outside environment

interphase

G1 phase- the cell grows larger, prepares for DNA replication S- DNA replication (synthesis0 -G2 phase- Growth, final preparations for cell divison

What are gametes? Do gametes have homologous chromosomes? What type of cell division produces gametes?

Gametes are haploid sex cells that join in fertilization to form a zygote. Haploid cells containing a single copy of each homologous chromosome are found only within games. Gametes are produced by meiotic cell division.

What is glycogen? Does insulin, potentially, increase or decrease glycogen reserves

Glycogen is produced by animals and is a storage form of glucose that is stored in the muscles and liver for later use. Insulin increases glycogen reserves.

How many chromosomes are there in human cells? How many pairs of chromosomes? How many pairs of autosomes versus how many pairs of sex chromosomes?

Humans have 46 chromosomes which are in 23 pairs. There are 22 pairs of autosomes verses and one pair of sex chromosomes.

What is the difference between molecules that are hydrophobic and molecules that are hydrophilic?

Hydrophobic molecules are water-fearing as hydrophilic molecules are water-loving

Does having hypertension automatically mean you have atherosclerosis?

Hypertension is often seen in people who have atherosclerosis because the plaque on the inside of the blood vessels narrows blood vessel diameter choking off blood and oxygen supply to the tissues.

Explain the inflammatory response and include the following: mast cells, histamine, macrophages, neutrophils, monocytes, and cytokines.

Injured mast cells release histamine which causes capillaries to dilate and increase blood flow. Macrophages release cytokines that stimulate the inflammatory response. Neutrophils and monocytes squeeze through the capillary wall and phagocytize pathogens.

What is meant by the innate immune system?

Innate immune systems are non-specific which means it is fully functional without previous exposure to certain pathogens

What two hormones does the pancreas produce and release into the bloodstream?

Insulin and glucagon

When is insulin released

Insulin is released when the blood glucose level is high which usually occurs just after eating.

what is cancer?

Is a disease characterized by uncontrolled cell growth.

Explain the different steps of the life cycle of a virus. Use SARS-CoV-2 for your example (pg. 154 green page). Please include: how it infects a host cell, what its genome is used for, why it needs a host cell, where its components come from, and how it exits the cell.

It infects the host cell by first using its S protein to attach itself to the host cell, then it uses the M protein to assemble the virus and then it uses E proteins to exit the virus from the host cell. Its genome is used to code for S, M, and E proteins. It needs a host cell because it doesn't contain ribosomes.

What is meant by stating the cell membrane is selectively permeable?

It means that small uncharged molecules are able to pass through the membrane but large or charged molecules cannot.

Explain the history of SARS-CoV-2

It was first identified in 2019 in Wuhan China and affected people who worked in food markets with wild animals. It then started to quickly spread through China causing an epidemic and then moved to other countries. In 2020 they designed the COVID-19 disease and SARS-CoV- 2 virus. Finally, in the summer of 2020, the pandemic was declared.

Using what you have learned about polarity, describe why lipids do not dissolve in water.

Lipids do not dissolve in water because they contain little oxygen and consist mostly of carbon and hydrogen atoms, which lack hydrophilic polar groups

malignancy, primary tumor, and metastatic tumor

Malignancy occurs when cancer cells are found in nearby lymph nodes, the primary tumor is where the tumors point of origin, and a tumor has metastasized when nee tumors are found far from the primary tumor.

Do all cells move from G1 to s?

Not all cells move from G1 to S, some cells such as nerve and muscle cells typically do not complete the cell cycle and are permanently arrested in G1 because in neurons there is no cell cycle.

What are two reasons that we cannot use the same flu vaccine every year?

One reason is that each type of spike can occur in different varieties called subtypes. Another reason is each of the influence viruses is assigned specific codes based on the type of spike.

What is passive immunity? What are some examples of passive immunity?

Passive immunity occurs when an individual is given prepared antibodies or immune cells to combat a disease. Examples of this are when a mother gets sick while pregnant or breastfeeding or antibodies can be injected through a shot by a doctor.

What are the roles/functions of phospholipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and cholesterol in the plasma membrane?

Phospholipids protect the plasma membrane from the outside environment and make the inner system stable, proteins let things in and out of the cell membrane, and at like a gate with its protein channels, carbohydrates help our body recognize bacteria, and cholesterol helps regulate the fluidity of the membrane.

What is the building block of a protein?

Proteins are made up of amino acid building blocks

What are some environmental carcinogens?

Radiation, organic chemicals, smoking, pollutants, viruses, and dietary choices

Why does the inflammatory response produce red, warm, painful, and tender areas?

Redness and heat are caused by increased blood flow. Swelling is caused by the increased movement of fluid and white blood cells into the area. And pain is caused by the compression of nerves due to swelling.

What is G0?

Represents a holding stage outside the cell cycle where nondividing cells like neurons and muscles live.

Why do some molecules require facilitated transport to cross a membrane? What types of molecules require this?

Some molecules require facilitated transports because they can not diffuse through the phospholipid bilayer. For example glucose.

What are the risk factors for atherosclerosis?

Stroke, heart attacks, and aneurysms

What is meant by diastolic and systolic pressure? Look at table 5.1. Be able to identify that numbers above 120/80 indicate high blood pressure or hypertension and the number below indicates hypotension.

Systolic pressure is the highest arterial pressure and is reached during the ejection of blood from the heart. Diastolic pressure is the lowest arterial pressure which occurs when the heart ventricles are relaxing. Hypertension stage 1 is 130-139 over 80- 89. Stage two hypertension is 140 or higher over 90 or higher. And hypertension crisis is 180 or higher over 120 or higher.

Explain how blood flows throughout the body.

The blood flows in two circuits the pulmonary circuit, which circulates blood through the lungs, and the systematic circuit which serves the needs of the body tissue. Blood comes into the right atrium from the body, moves into the right ventricle, and is pushed into the pulmonary arteries in the lungs. After picking up oxygen, the blood travels back to the heart through the pulmonary veins into the left atrium, to the left ventricle, and out the body's tissues through the aorta.

What are the building blocks of triglycerides?

The building blocks for triglycerides are a glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acid tails

What occurs in G1?

The cell returns to normal size and resumes its function in the body. A cell doubles its organelles, and it accumulates the materials needed for DNA synthesis.

What occurs in G2?

The cell synthesizes the protein needed for cell division, such as the protein found in microtubules.

Describe the structure of an amino acid. How many different ones are there?

The center carbon in the amino acid bonds with a hydrogen atom and 3 other groups of atoms, they each also have an R group depending on the type of amino acid. There are 20 different types of amino acids

Depression and Anxiety - What are some medications used to treat depression and anxiety? What is the mode of action of these medications (include, if possible, the level of neurotransmitter they alter)?

The medications used to treat depression are SSRIs' selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors like sertraline (Zoloft) and the medications used to treat anxiety are GABA mimics like diazepam and alprazolam.

What occurs when an action potential reaches the axon terminal?

The part of the axon has a refractory period where it restores to its original levels of sodium and potassium and during that time it cannot send more impulses.

Once a virus exits a host cell, what does it do?

The virus will slowly use up the cell membrane of the host cell to grow itself until the host cell eventually dies off.

What happens to the neurotransmitters after they are released into the synaptic cleft?

They bind with specific receptors and have either an inhibitory or excitatory response.

hat is the mode of action of drugs (legal like medications and illegal) that act on the nervous system (hint: there are common ways drugs act to modify levels of neurotransmitters)?

They can mimic or inhibit neurotransmitters

What occurs when a tumor suppressor gene is mutated? Think of this as losing the brake on a car. What does this imply in terms of the cell cycle?

When an oncogene is formed the mutation becomes very dominant which causes the cell to lose control of the cell cycle causing cancer, and since it acts as a gas pedal that means there is no brake to slow the mutation down.

Having too much sodium increases blood pressure. Explain the basis for this. In your answer use hyper or hypotonic to explain what adding salt to your blood does.

When you have high blood pressure there is too much sodium in your blood meaning your blood cells are hypertonic which makes water come into the bloodstream pushing on the walls of the vessel making your blood pressure high.

If cells are damaged your body programs them to go into apoptosis. Why would your body intentionally cause your cells to go into apoptosis?

Your body would intentionally cause apoptosis if the cell was damaged or mutated so that it could not divide and take over.

Does glucagon increase or decrease glycogen stores? Why?

it decreases glycogen stores, preventing blood glucose levels from dropping too low.