Bio Final Exam TTK

Population density formula

# indviduals / unit area

Triassic event

(201 MYA) - Paved the way for the dinosaurs. Increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide, increase global temperatures, calcification crisis in oceans

Permian event

(252 MYA) - Siberian volcanic explosions, global warming, and anoxic marine waters and ocean acidification, elevated H2S, and carbon dioxide. 96% of marine life lost and 70% of land life loss. Called the Great dying

Devonian event

(375 to 360 MYA) - Global cooling, widespread Deepwater anoxia, some evidence of asteroid or comet impact

Ordovician event

(450 to 440 MYA) - alternating glacial and interglacial episodes, changes to atmospheric and ocean chemistry, decrease global temperature due to CO2 sequestrations

Cretaceous event

(66 MYA) - Asteroid impact led to a period of rapid cooling, volcanism in India increased carbon dioxide causing global warming, altering biogeography contributed to ocean eutrophication and anoxia

Distance matrix

(neighbor joining) clusters of taxa based on genetic distance

Landscape legacy

-Agriculture, loging, and other disturbances continue to affect current biodiversity and ecosystem processes (even when people have left) -When a landscape is disturbed -Roman settlements used lime mortar for their buildings and farming. Near these ruins today there is increased soil pH, phosphorus, and plant species richness

Hypothesis for female mate choice

-Direct benefits: Benefit females directly, food, parental care -Indirect benefits: Benefits that affect the genetic quality of the female's offspring, "sexy sons hypothesis" -Sexual conflict: Fitness traits that benefit one sex but cost the other. For example, male cockroaches have a chemical in pheromones that make the male more attractive but also less likely to be dominant

Punctuated equilibrium

-Evolutionary change is not continuous -Speciation often occurs during mass extinction when populations are fragmented, small, and isolated. For example, cheetah spots

Intersexual selection

-Individuals of one sex are choosy in selecting their mates from the other sex -Mate Choice - females often choose mates on the "attractiveness" of their appearance or behavior

Operational sex ratio

-The ratio of males to females capable of reproducing at a given time -Asymmetrical parental care alters the operational sex ratio -A slower rate of reproduction by females tend to a male-biased OSR

Taxonomic homogenization

-The spread of introduced species and native generalists, coupled with decline of native specialists, is leading to taxonomic homogenization of Earth's biota. -Non-natives have negative effects on biodiversity --Generalists outcompete specialists -Interspecific genetic homogenization is occurring through hybridization between native and non-native species -Overall reduce genetic variation

Parsimony

-tells us to choose the simplest scientific explanation-so the tree that requires the fewest evolutionary changes is correct -Principle of parsimony used to find the tree that is most likely correct -Model free method -Implicit model: evolutionary events are rare and occur independently in different lineages -assumes : changes are rare, independent among sites, same site would not change multiple times (the more this happens, the more trouble there is), everything is equal, simplest is better

Earliest eukaryotes

1.8 BYA

Flowering plants emerged

132 MYA

First mammals and birds

150 MYA

"Rules of moving species"

1st: less harmful if moved within the biotic province 2nd: moving a species into a new biome from a different biotic province is likely to be harmful 3rd: local moves less likely to be harmful than global move

Multicellular life found

2.1 BYA

Dominant vertebrates

280 MYA

Oldest stromatolite fossils to date

3.5 BYA

Oldest evidence of life, found graphite associated with living organisms

3.9 BYA

Oldest human fossils

315 KYA

First "reptiles"

315 MYA

Oldest tetrapod fossil

370 MYA

Oldest trackway of vertebrate appear

390 MYA

Earth is born

4.5 BYA

Fungi appear, insects emerged

400 MYA

Oldest fossil of fully terrestrial animal

428 MYA

Oldest terrestrial plants

475 MYA

Invertebrate trackways

480 MYA

Whales, bats and primates

50 MYA

Cambrian explosion

541 MYA

Mammals diversified after dinos went extinct

65 MYA

Early animal life earliest fossils, found in limestone rock in Australia and inhabited ocean reefs

650 MYA

Synapomorphy

A character present in an ancestor and shared by its descendants

Extinction vortex

A cyclic chain of events causes a small population to decline even further and become ever more vulnerable to processes that lead to extinction

Adaptation

A feature that enhances an organism's survival and reproduction in specific environment

Allelopathy

A form of interference competition in which individuals of one species release toxins that harm other species Example: Spotted knapweed, an invasive plant in N. America, not eaten by cattle, release catechin into soil that reduces the growth of native grasses

Frameshift mutation

A genetic mutation caused by a deletion or insertion in a DNA sequence that shifts the way the sequence is read

The garter snake is resistant against TTX which is a serious poison in the rough-skinned newt. However, even though the snake is resistant, when it eats a newt, the snake is paralyzed almost of 7 hours

A great example of a predatory relationship and adaptation is the rough-skinned newt and the garter snake. Be able to example this interaction, including the adaptations in each organism.

Exploitation

A relationship where one organism benefits feeding on, and thus harming, another organism

Environmental interactions

A species may be able to get to a community but be unable to tolerate the environmental conditions

Estuaries

A transition area between river and sea, includes a complex network of tidal channels, islands, natural levees, and mudflats Salinity varies with the tides but is nutrient-rich and highly productive An abundant supply of food attracts marine invertebrates, fish, waterfowl, and marine mammals

Phylogeny

A visual representation of the evolutionary history of populations, genes or species

Metamorphosis

Abrupt transition in form from the larval to the juvenile stage

Acclimatization

Adjusting to stress through behavior or physiology change

Jean Baptiste Lamarck

Adopted through use and disuse, theories of inheritance, animals improved themselves in the environment. Natural history/diversity

A: Increased genetic variation, ability to adapt to a changing environment, faster evolution (sexual selection results in genetic recombination and acts more quickly than the mutation alone), remove harmful alleles (asexual reproduction/inbreeding can increase the retention of disadvantageous alleles), combine beneficial mutations and create novel genotypes (alleles from different individuals increases the likelihood of beneficial combinations) D: Twofold cost of sex (females are only ones contributing to the production of offspring, search cost (males/females must find each other), reduced relatedness (you have to share your jeans/alleles with someone else), STDs (pathogens/parasites transferred)

Advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction

Ecosystem

All components of an ecological system (biotic and abiotic) that influence the flow of energy and elements.

Nitrogen cycle

Although nitrogen is very abundant in the atmosphere as dinitrogen gas (N2), it is largely inaccessible in this form to most organisms, making nitrogen a scarce resource and often limiting primary productivity in many ecosystems. Only when nitrogen is converted from dinitrogen gas into ammonia (NH3) does it become available to primary producers, such as plants. In addition to N2 and NH3, nitrogen exists in many different forms, including both inorganic (e.g., ammonia, nitrate) and organic (e.g., amino and nucleic acids) forms. Thus, nitrogen undergoes many different transformations in the ecosystem, changing from one form to another as organisms use it for growth and, in some cases, energy. The major transformations of nitrogen are nitrogen fixation, nitrification, denitrification, and ammonification. Human activities, such as making fertilizers and burning fossil fuels, have significantly altered the amount of fixed nitrogen in the Earth's ecosystems. Nitrogen moves slowly through the cycle and is stored in reservoirs such as the atmosphere, living organisms, soils, and oceans along its way. Nitrification, denitrification, ammonification,

Trophic efficiency

Amount of energy at one trophic level divided by amount of energy at the trophic level immediately below it

Landscape

An area in which at least one element is spatially heterogeneous; often includes multiple ecosystems Landscape ecologists look at the spatial arrangement of different landscape elements across earth's surface, and how those patterns affect, and are affected by, ecological processes.

Interspecific competition

An interaction between two species in which each is harmed when they both use the same limiting resource

Dead zones

Anoxic conditions over large areas caused by excess nutrients and eutrophication

Food webs are static descriptions of energy flow and trophic interactions. Actual trophic interactions can change over time (i.e. some organisms change feeding patterns over their lifetime) Example: Frogs shift from omnivorous aquatic tadpoles to carnivorous adults

Are food webs always realistic - why or why not?

Buffer zone

Areas with less stringent controls on land use but still provide habitat for many species. Core biological receive areas are usually augmented by buffer zones

Yes! We have symbionts in our stomachs that break down and digest our food. There are more cells on our body from other things than we have of our own cells!

As humans, do we have symbiotic relationships? Explain

How solar radiation differs over Earth's surface: more NRG at the equator because radiation is not spread out over a larger area like at the poles Uplift: warm air rises and cooler air sinks and pinches in Differential heating: causes an imbalance of air pressure and the circulation through warm air vs cold air

Atmospheric circulation is driven by solar radiation. Be able to explain:

Trophic level

Based on the number of feeding steps by which it is separated from autotrophs Detritivores are part of the 2nd level

Why predators with short handling times should be generalists. A short handling time means there are scarce resources and this means " take what you can, quick to process." A predator does not have the energy to be expending in order to be picky. Why predators with long handling time should be specialists. A long handling time means there are abundant resources so "take what's best, quality over quantity" this means the predator can take more time, spend more energy, because there is a good chance a really rewarding prey is available. Why predators should be generalists in unproductive environments. Unproductive env. means scare resources - see a. Why predators should be specialists in productive environments. Productive env means abundant resources - see b

Based on the optimal foraging theory, be able to explain:

λ = Nt+1/Nt

Be able to calculate population growth rate.

Proportion of a population in different age classes, influences how fast a pop will grow, life table data can be used to predict age structure

Be able to describe and analyze the age structure of a population.

-Interphase = chromatin, loose, genes are able to be transcribed -Division = tight chromatin, DNA condensed in chromosome, aligned in middle of celll and separated during division. (tight condensation helps prevent errors from occuring) -Meiosis = replication of chromosomes and crossing over, leads to genetic diversity, paired chromosomes come together to form diploid zygote

Be able to describe the organization of DNA and how it relates to the cell cycle.

Natural fluctuations are short term and things can recover since it goes back to normal relatively fast.

Be able to explain how natural fluctuations are different from current climate change issues.

-Maintain the largest possible populations -Provide habitat for species throughout their area of distribution -Have enough area to maintain natural disturbance regimes

Be able to list and describe the primary objective of designing a biological reserve

Take pop #, multiply by survival, then # of offspring

Be able to use the Two-Step Method to project a hypothetical population's size, using a life table.

Optimal foraging theory

Behavioral ecology model that help predict how animals behave when searching for food. Animals will maximize the amount of energy gained from the food with the energy and risk required for obtaining that food. It considers the profitability of the food, search time, and handling time

Neighbor joining method

Bottom up clustering method for the creation of phylogenetic trees. Keeps track of nodes on a tree rather than taxa or clusters of taxa. The raw data are provided as distance matrix and the initial tree is a star tree

Complex life cycle example

Butterflies: start as caterpillars, grow and molt four times, build cocoons and become pupae, emerge as butterflies.

Intraspecific species

Can occur between individuals of a single species

Dispersal and migration

Cases of non-native species invasion

Point mutation

Change in a single nucleotide of DNA

Environmental stochasticity

Changes in average birth or death rates that occur from year to year because of random changes in environmental conditions

Chromosomal mutation

Changes in chromosome structure or number

Homoplasy

Character state similarity not due to common descent. Due to convergent evolution (analogy) and evolutionary reversal

Primary production

Chemical energy generated by autotrophs during photosynthesis and chemosynthesis Energy is assimilated by autotrophs is stored as carbon compounds in tissues, the carbon is the currency used to measure primary production

Inversion

Chromosome rearrangement in which a segment of a chromosome is reversed end to end. An inversion occurs when a single chromosome undergoes breakage and rearrangement within itself

Changes in rain and snow patterns: As temperatures rise and the air becomes warmer, more moisture evaporates from land and water into the atmosphere. More moisture in the air generally means we can expect more rain and snow (called precipitation) and more heavy downpours. Places that normally don't have rain or snow are now getting some, dry plants drowning, floods, etc. Stronger storms: higher temps inc storm intensity, more flooding, hurricanes, etc. Damaged corals: higher temps cause bleaching, ecologically important areas for fisheries, etc. Rising sea level: ice melting, floods, erosion of beaches, loss of marshes and wetlands, lose ecologically important areas, loss of coastal cities Changes in animal migration/dispersal and life cycles: temps causing change in migration patterns and when they give birth, etc. Increased droughts and wildfires: higher temps and dryer conditions, animal die off and home loss Decrease in snow and ice cover: polar conditions changing and endangering animals Thawing permafrost: release of methane Changes in plant life cycles: higher temps and inconsistent precipitation, flowering earlier in season

Climate change effects on the following and their impacts

Species interactions (biotic filter)

Coexistence required for community membership, cant get along, then cant survive

Bayesian methods

Combines the information in the prior and the data likelihood to create the so-called posterior probability of trees, which is the probability that the tree is correct give the data.

Marine benthic zone

Consists of the seafloor below the surface waters of the coastal zone and the offshore pelagic zone Organisms in the very deep benthic(abyssal) zone are adapted to continuous cold and extremely high water pressure The substrate is mainly soft sediments; some areas are rocky contents

Oceanic pelagic zone

Constantly mixed by wind-driven oceanic currents Covers approximately 70% of the earth's surface Phytoplankton and zooplankton are the dominant organisms in this biome and support other animals

Predators source of energy

Consume the whole prey

Detrivores

Consume the whole prey item

Anthropocene period

Current geological time nested with the Holocene (10 kya - present) when human activity started to have an impact on ecosystems and climate

Weather

Current state of atmosphere at any given time, short term

New diversity equation

D1 (diversity) + originations - extinctions = D2 (new diversity)

Species whose populations fluctuate at or near carrying capacity; elephants

Define K-selection and provide an example

Coastal areas have a maritime climate with little daily and seasonal variation of temperature and high humidity. Areas in the middle of continents have a continental climate that has much greater variation in daily and seasonal temps.

Define and differentiate between maritime and continental climates.

process by which information from a gene is transformed into product

Define gene expression.

-selection in which there is direct competition between individuals of the same sex -Traits that make a male more successful in reproduction will be favored -help males attract females (ornaments) -Help males win contest for more mates (armaments) -Can lead to extreme variance in reproductive success, alternative mating strategies, and males competing for territory

Define intrasexual selection. What types of traits are favored?

Species governed by their maximum biotic potential; spiders

Define r-selection and provide an example.

-Difference between two sexes in secondary sexual characteristics -Traits: larger and smaller bodies based on sex, brighter colors/duller colors, bigger canines/appendages

Define sexual dimorphism and explain what traits are commonly observed

Transcription is the first stage of the expression of genes into proteins. Trasncirption produces RNA from DNA. This copy, called a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule, leaves the cell nucleus and enters the cytoplasm, where it directs the synthesis of the protein, which it encodes. RNA polymerase and cofactors (general transcription factors) bind to DNA and unwind it, creating an initiation bubble. The initiation of transcription in bacteria begins with the binding of RNA polymerase to the promoter in DNA. RNA polymerase must clear the promoter once the first bond has been synthesized. The promoter is a DNA sequence that signals which DNA strand is transcribed and the direction transcription proceeds. One strand of DNA serves as the template for RNA synthesis, but multiple rounds of transcription may occur so that many copies of a gene can be produced. Termination is the final step of transcription. Termination results in the release of the newly synthesized mRNA from the elongation complex.

Define transcription and describe the process.

-process of translating the sequence of a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule to a sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis. The genetic code describes the relationship between the sequence of base pairs in a gene and the corresponding amino acid sequence that it encodes. -mRNA leaves the nucleus and migrates to ribosome -mRNA binds to small ribosomal subunit -tRNA brings an amino acid to the ribosome, where anticodon on the tRNA binds to the codon of the mRNA The amino acid bonds to its adjoining amino acid to form a growing polypeptide molecule -The tRNA without the amino acid is released from the ribosome -Other tRNA's bring amino acids to the ribosome to complete the protein molecule

Define translation and describe the process.

Arctic ozone dent

Depletion of ozone over the arctic resulting in a hole.

-Use and disuse: a more frequent and continuous use of any organ gradually strengthens, develops and enlarges that organ, and gives it a power proportional to the length of time it has been so used; while the permanent disuse of any organ imperceptibly weakens and deteriorates it, and progressively diminishes its functional capacity, until it finally disappears. -Inheritance of acquired characteristics: first proposed mechanism to explain biological diversity observed on the planet. The theory proposed that characteristics acquired throughout an organisms life were passed onto offspring. For example, as displayed in the image above, a giraffe needed to feed on higher and higher foliage to avoid competition in the savannah. The end result was as the giraffe grew and stretched more that "stretching" was passed onto their offspring, which would also stretch and pass it off to their offspring.

Describe Lamarck's principles of: -Use and disuse -Inheritance of acquired characteristics

Primitive stone tools used by early hominids, significant because it suggested increased intelligence, specialization, and bipedalism

Describe Oldowan tools and their significance

Life history strategy correlates with an organism's reproductive strategy, life history, demographic variables, generation time and life span, population parameters , population density, and population dynamics. Where individual species fall on the r-k continuum is largely determined by the environment in which they live.

Describe a life history strategy

Alternating periods of high and low abundance at regular intervals Hare population rises and falls in synchrony across broad regions of canada. Hare reproductive rates reach highest levels several years before hare density reaches maximum. Then they decrease, reaching lowest levels 2-3 years after hare density peaks. Lynx movement and population cycles work in synchrony with the hares. As the hare population is increasing, the lynx population will start to increase. The hares then begin being preyed upon more and their population numbers drop. In response, the lynx population numbers drop because the food source is dropping. As the predator numbers go down, the prey takes advantage of this and reproduces more.

Describe a population cycle and provide an example.

Many plants are adapted to going through fires. Some pines will not open seed cones to disperse seeds until they are put through fire disturbance.

Describe an ecological disturbance and provide an example.

distensible jaws and recurved teeth (mainly snakes) Use of venom, use of mimicry, detoxify or tolerate prey defenses, digestive enzymes that tolerate plant toxins

Describe and provide examples of predator adaptations.

Vigilance, use "sentinels", decreased foraging/in open spaces, alarm calls Example - kangaroo rats forage in open spaces and reduce their activity outside of their burrows in response to moonlight

Describe anti-predator behavior and provide at least one example.

Birth, death, and dispersal rates change as population density changes Competition for resources, toxic wasters, predation

Describe density-dependent factors and list examples

Effects on birth and death rates are independent of the population size Weather conditions or catastrophes, intrinsic factors, territoriality, disease

Describe density-independent factors and list examples

Species compete indirectly through their mutual effects on the availability of a shared resource Occurs simply because individuals reduce the availability of a resource as they use it Plants competing for sunlight

Describe exploitation competition and provide an example.

Females are "choosy" and males are "cheap" Females invest lots of energy to produce a few eggs so they must be choosy to ensure she mates with a good mate (limited by fecundity) Males produce large amounts of sperms for a low energy requirement so their goal is to obtain as many mates as possible (limited by the number of mates they obtain)

Describe how anisogamy explains the difference in female and male reproductive strategies

Colder and dense water sinks down deep while warmer, less dense water is on top. The deeper waters are more saline. Shallow waters are not stratified since they are heated all the way through.

Describe how bodies of water are stratified.

Primarily regulate body temperature through energy exchange with the external environment

Describe how ectotherms regulate their body temperature.

Rely primarily on internal heat generation, mostly birds and mammals

Describe how endotherm regulate their body temperature

Because of shading, the incremental gain in photosynthesis for each added leaf layer decrease. Eventually, the respiratory costs associated with adding leaf layers outweigh the photosynthetic benefits.

Describe how the number of leaf layers affects GPP.

-species compete directly for access to a resource -Individuals may perform antagonistic actions -when two predators fight over a prey item or voles aggressively exclude other voles from their preferred habitat

Describe interference competition and provide an example.

-Small, highly conserved non-coding RNA molecules involved in the regulation of gene expression -The binding and inhibition by the miRNA influences the production of proteins by inhibiting translation and preventing protein production. -More miRNA in a system means less proteins will be produced. -Influences to proteins, influence genotype, cause mutations, which can be expressed in phenotype

Describe microRNA and how it can affect the phenotype.

Toxic compounds are stored in channels/veins so that it squirts with high pressure when munched on to kill a bug or knock it off. Bark and impermeable layer, hard shells, thorns, and spines

Describe plant adaptations to herbivory

A technique that is used to date materials such as rocks or carbon, in which trace radioactive impurities were selectively incorporated when they were formed. The method compares the abundance of a naturally occurring radioactive isotope within the material to the abundance of its decay products, which form at a known constant rate of decay.

Describe radiometric dating and how it is used to determine age.

-An irregularly periodic variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean, affecting the climate of much of the tropics and subtropics. A warming of the ocean surface, or above-average sea surface temperatures (SST), in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. Over Indonesia, rainfall tends to become reduced while rainfall increases over the tropical Pacific Ocean. The low-level surface winds, which normally blow from east to west along the equator ("easterly winds"), instead weaken or, in some cases, start blowing the other direction (from west to east or "westerly winds"). -Severe drought and associated food insecurity, flooding, rains, and temperature rises

Describe the El Nino Southern Oscillation and how it impacts the physical environment.

The debate over whether a single large reserve or multiple smaller reserves would be better Why do we need nature reserves? Protecting specific species of interest Preserving functional communities Preserving the most species in an area - biodiversity

Describe the SLOSS debate

Moisture, temp, sunlight, pH, nutrients

Describe the abiotic factors that affect population distribution.

Herbivores, predators, competitors, parasites, and pathogens

Describe the biotic factors that affect population distribution.

-Conditions that do contribute to fossil formation are: trapping dead organisms and burying them, those dead orgs fall into rivers or sink to the ocean floor where they are covered by layers of sediment. The sediment sinks as it is buried by more layers. While this is happening, minerals recrystallized decomposed parts. The whole skeleton can be dissolved and then minerals will fill in those areas. The pressure then turns the sediment into rock. This rock may then rise to the surface through erosion and earthquakes. Conditions that wouldn't contribute would be high levels of erosion, high oxygen levels would lead to more decay, etc. -Conditions that help: deposits, rapid preservation event -Conditions that don't help: no deposits, fully decomposable, no bones

Describe the conditions that do and do not contribute to the process of fossil formation.

A protective outer coating like skin or exoskeleton and immune systems that kill parasites that enter Vertebrates have memory cells that recognize micro-parasites they've already had Other immune system cells digestive, destroy, or Mark with chemicals to target parasites regulate biochemistry to deter parasite plants have secondary compounds (chemical weapons) Some animals eats specific plants to treat or prevent infection

Describe the defenses against parasites that are utilized by plants and animals.

Evolutionary change tips balance back and forth, first in favor of the host, then in favor of the parasite. Parasitism can change trophic interactions, manipulate food webs and species richness/evenness, can influence biodiversity when they alter the outcome of competitive interactions between host species, can also positively contribute to biodiversity by allowing a competitively inferior species to coexist with a dominant species, can really mess up an ecosystem if the hosts are keystone species.

Describe the ecological effects of parasites.

Harvest technique: above group Minirhizotrons: underground NPP Remote sensing: chlorophyll concentrations

Describe the following techniques used to measure NPP:

100-1000x higher in the 20th century, mostly due to habitat loss. Other factors are hunting, loss of resources. Creates an extinction vortex.

Describe the human impacts of global extinction rates

Modern synthesis combines genetics, natural history, paleontology, systematics, and other sciences to explain evolution

Describe the modern synthesis

-Balancing act with sexual reproduction. -Organisms must constantly adapt and pass on those adaptive genes -Organisms must constantly adapt and evolve not only to reproduce but to survive against other organisms that are constantly evolving and a changing environment -Also explains the importance of sexual reproduction in generating genetic diversity in the speed of evolution

Describe the red queen effect

Determines the geographical distribution of orgs

Describe the relationship between the physical environment and the climate.

Transcription factors, Histone acetylation, DNA methylation

Describe the ways in which gene expression is regulated.

Not all trophic connections are equally important The measure of the effect of one species on the population size of another species. When the starfish was removed, bivalves populations grew unchecked.

Describe what is meant by interaction strength and provide an example.

Climate change

Directional change of climate over a period of time of at least 3 decades

William Smith

Discovered that strata could be mapped and that the same type of fossils appeared in some strata, predict where mineral may be found, strata, strata contained sea creatures so we knew the sea had order and regularity of strata, geology

Pathogen

Disease causing parasite

-For a cell to function properly, necessary proteins must be synthesized at the proper time. All cells control or regulate the synthesis of proteins from information encoded in their DNA. The process of turning on a gene to produce RNA and protein is called gene expression. Each cell controls when and how its genes are expressed. For this to occur, there must be a mechanism to control when a gene is expressed to make RNA and protein, how much of the protein is made, and when it is time to stop making that protein because it is no longer needed. -The regulation of gene expression conserves energy and space. It would require a significant amount of energy for an organism to express every gene at all times, so it is more energy efficient to turn on the genes only when they are required. In addition, only expressing a subset of genes in each cell saves space because DNA must be unwound from its tightly coiled structure to transcribe and translate the DNA. Cells would have to be enormous if every protein were expressed in every cell all the time.

Do all cells express every gene? Explain.

-Most variation in size due to differences in mobilegenetic elements -With selection, evolution can also produce more complex organisms. Complexity often arises in the co-evolution of hosts and pathogens, with each side developing ever more sophisticated adaptations, such as the immune system and the many techniques pathogens have developed to evade it. -Rather, what correlates with organismal complexity is the size of an organism's non-coding genome, or the part of the DNA that doesn't have the ability to become protein.

Does genome size/gene number relate to the complexity of an organism? If not, what does?

Polyphyly

Does not include common ancestor of all descendants

Temporate deciduous forest

Dominant vegetation: Tall deciduous trees (maple, beech, oak, hickory, and chestnut). Tall evergreen trees (Pinusspp.) Dominant animals: Tend to be small mammals, birds, and insects Few undisturbed stands of forest left

Lithosphere

Earth's crust and upper mantle

-Impacts largely related to degradation of habitats -Humans are super predators and are removing apex predators which affect the food webs. -Because most biodiversity being lost from hotspots, its thought that we dont even know the full extent of our impact -Anthropogenic emissions of N have inc threefold since 1860 and have altered cycles. N came back to Earth via wet/dry deposition after having been transported long distances in atm -Human influences on Phosphorus cycle include fertilizers, sewage and industrial wastes, and inc terrestrial erosion -Air pollution has increased with industrial centers, oil/gas refineries, cars/smokestacks -Acid precipitation and N deposition, tree mortality N export to nearshore marine ecosystems contribute to eutrophication and oxygen depletion resulting in dead zones -Anthropogenic release of C to the atm from terrestrial pool results from land-use change (20%) and burning fossil fuels (80%) -Ocean acidification - shelled organisms cannot make shells and existing shells will dissolve

Ecological changes that human activities are causing

Edge effects

Edges: total length of habitat boundary, increases as fragmentation increases Edge effects: biotic and abiotic changes associated with this boundary

Secondary production

Energy derived from consuming organic compounds produced by other organisms

Symbiosis

Energy exchange between two individuals

Macroevolution

Evolution above the species level (origination, diversification, and extinction)

Phyletic gradualism

Evolutionary change occurs slowly through a gradual accumulation of genetic changes within populations Occurs in large populations Expect intermediate forms in the fossil record Ex. elephant ears

Paraphyly

Excludes some individuals of a clade

Produce toxins, rapid growth to replace lost tissues

Explain compensation in response to herbivory in plants.

Plasmodium has mosquito and human hosts. In the human host, red blood cells do not divide or grow and thus cannot import nutrients. So plasmodium parasites must have a way to get nutrients. 24 to 48 hours after infection, plasmodium causes red blood cells to have an abnormal shape that's detected by the spleen where they will be destroyed Plasmodium has some genes that cause transport proteins to be placed on red blood cells surface so nutrients can be brought into the host cell Other genes direct the production of special antigens on the red blood cell surface that caused the red blood cells to stick together, preventing them from reaching the spleen where they would be destroyed Proteins produced vary greatly from one parasite to the next, making it difficult for the human immune system to detect them

Explain counter defenses by parasites, using Plasmodium as an example

Two species live in the Arctic by tropical origin Over winter in Shallow Burrows, in a semi Frozen state No heartbeat, no blood circulation, and no breathing Low water amount and increase glucose prevents them from freezing over completely

Explain how North American wood frogs and boreal chorus frogs cope with environmental variation.

Aquatic: phytoplankton are primary photosynthesizers and have short life spans so biomass at any given time is low compared to NPP Terrestrial: biomass is great for more photosynthesis, but because of shading, every layer decreased incremental gain in photosynthesis. Eventually, the respiratory costs associated with adding leaf layers outweigh the photosynthetic benefits. Aquatic ecosystems have an inverted pyramid

Explain how biomass and NPP are related. Compare that relationship between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

Connell (1961) examined factors that influenced the distribution, survival, and reproduction of two barnacle species, Chthamalus stellatus and Semibalanus balanoides, on the coast of Scotland Distribution of larvae overlapped throughout upper and middle intertidal zones No overlap in adult distribution: Chthamalus found only near upper intertidal; Semibalanus found throughout Using removal experiments, Connell found that competition with Semibalanus excluded Chthamalus from all but the upper intertidal zone Semibalanus smothered, removed, or crushed the other species However, Semibalanus dried out and survived poorly at the upper intertidal Competition can also affect the broader geographic distribution Chipmunk species living alone on a mountain range occupied a broader range of habitats/elevations than when it lived with a competitor (Patterson 1980, 1981)

Explain how competition relates to species distribution and abundance. Provide an example

-Plants - They absorb water from the soil through their roots (if they have roots), use this water to maintain homeostasis, and whatever is left evaporates from open stomata across the epidermis of the plant. This evaporation of water from plant tissues is called transpiration -Osmotic potential - energy associated with dissolved solute. Gravitational potential - energy associated with gravity. Turgor pressure - exertion of water pressure on plants -Marine teleosts - salt concentration of the sea is high compared to the salt concentration in the cells of marine fish. Marine fish tend to lose water by osmosis and tend to gain salt. Marine fish need to prevent water loss from the cells to the salt water surrounding them. They drink water continuously, produce small amounts of concentrated urine, and excrete excess salts from the gills by active transport. They have small kidneys and high levels of urea. -Freshwater teleosts - Freshwater fish need to move water entering the body by osmosis, water enters through the gills and skin, excreting large amounts of dilute urine, excrete salts from water pass through the gills through active transport. Have large kidneys and slimy coating -Terrestrial amphibians - Thick skin or cocoon of mucus that secretes proteins and fats that lower their rates of water loss -Desert invertebrates - outer exoskeleton of chitin covered by a waxy hydrocarbons that are impervious to water, have the highest resistance to water loss

Explain how each of the following work to maintain water balance:

Sum of water loss through transpiration by plants and evaporation from soil. Shift precipitation levels.

Explain how evapotranspiration affects regional climate?

Patches may become smaller and more isolated, reducing colonization and increasing extinction. The farther away a patch is from a main patch, the less likely to get colonizers. Less and less colonizers results in extinction eventually If too much habitat is removed, e/c may shift to > 1 and the metapopulation may go extinct even if some suitable habitat remains. Small patches may be hard to find and have a higher extinction rate

Explain how habitat fragmentation affects isolation, colonization, and extinction.

Positive interactions affect the distributions and abundances of organisms as well as the composition of ecological communities. Mutualism can influence demographic factors Positive interactions can also influence community composition and ecosystem properties Many coral reef fish have service mutualisms with smaller organisms (cleaners) that remove parasites from the fish (clients) The benefit the client receives is greater than the energy benefit it could gain by eating the cleaner

Explain how mutualisms (or commensalisms) can impact ecology.

Ocean water circulates from warmer, shallower tropics and goes into the poles which bring warmer water to the colder areas.

Explain how ocean currents act as heat pumps or thermal conveyors.

Plants can adjust energy inputs and outputs Transpiration rates to be controlled by specialized guard cells surrounding a pore, called a stomata. If air temperature is lower than leaf temperature, heat is lost by convection, depending on the speed of air moving across the leaf surface. Moving air encounters more resistance close to the surface of an object; the flow becomes more turbulent, forming eddies. The zone of turbulent flow is the boundary layer

Explain how plants regulate internal temperatures.

Competing species are more likely to coexist when they use resources in different ways. Warblers use different parts of the tree and coexist in a way to avoid competitive exclusion principles.

Explain how resource partitioning relates to species diversity in a community. Provide an example.

Zoonotic diseases are hosted by wildlife and are infectious to humans. Factors that affect emergence may include climate change, species invasions, pollution, and land-use conversion. Declining species diversity may also facilitate the emergence and transmission of zoonotic diseases. Reducing species diversity had increased the number of host individuals, which increases the number of infections. If the species that are lost compete with or prey on the host species, the population density of the host and the pathogen could increase. Hosts in more species diverse situations are more likely to come into contact with individuals of other species than with their own species, reducing the probability of transmission (dilution effect).

Explain how species diversity in a community affects the transmission of zoonotic diseases.

R-selected species typically fall under type III, while K-selected species fall under type I. R spp has lots of offspring, smaller in size, less parental care. K spp have fewer offspring, more parental care, usually bigger

Explain how survivorship curves relate to r- and K-selection

States that during energy transfer, some is lost or becomes unstable (entropy) and energy will decrease with each trophic level.

Explain how the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics relates to the trophic levels.

NPP varies over space and time (mostly climate - direct impact through temps and moisture, indirect through nutrient availability)

Explain how the environment controls NPP.

Fungi increase SA for soil nutrient extraction, water uptake, and may protect the plants from pathogens and conduct nitrogen fixation Plants supply the fungi with carbohydrates

Explain how the relationship between plants and mycorrhizal fungi is mutualistic.

The RQH posits that parasites adapt to specifically infect the most common host genotypes in a population. Parasites thereby exert negative frequency-dependent selection on their hosts, with the most common host genotypes having low fitness and declining in frequency as parasites infect them. Rare host genotypes escape infection and increase in frequency. This rare advantage drives continual oscillations through time in the frequency of host genotypes and their matching parasite genotypes. Thus coevolution is proposed to maintain genetic diversity in host and parasite populations Example: snails and trematodes

Explain the Red Queen hypothesis and frequency-dependency as it relates to parasitism. Provide an example.

A fundamental niche is the entire set of conditions under which an animal (population, species) can survive and reproduce itself. Realized niche is the set of conditions actually used by a given animal (pop, species), after interactions with other species (predation and especially competition) have been taken into account.

Explain the difference between a fundamental and a realized niche.

Most of the input of detritus into aquatic systems is from terrestrial organic matter (these external energy inputs are called allochthonous). The energy produced by autotrophs within the system is autochthonous.

Explain the difference between allochthonous and autochthonous inputs for aquatic ecosystems.

The potential distribution is the estimated distribution of a species based on the number of predicted resources available and predicted environmental factors. The actual distribution is what the species occupies in reality with environmental factors included and concerning environmental disasters, other things that cannot be accounted for or that flux.

Explain the difference between potential and actual distribution.

All exploitative interactions have the potential to reduce the growth, survival, or reproduction of the organism that is being eaten Predators can decrease the distribution and abundance of their prey Schoener and Spiller (1996) study observed the effects of anolis lizard on spider prey in the Bahamas They found with the lizard can drive the spider to extinction Golden apple snails were introduced to Taiwan in 1980 Some escaped, some spread rapidly throughout Southeast Asia Snail eats aquatic plants, algae, and detritus Wetlands with high snail, few plants, High nutrient, High algae densities Shift from Wetland (Clearwater with many plants) to turbid Wetlands (few plants, high nutrients, high algae)

Explain the effects that predation and herbivory can have on a community and provide an example.

Resource partitioning occurs when two species coexist in spite of apparent competition for the same resources. Selection of these characteristics reduces competition with individuals in other partitions and leads to a divergence of features. This is called character displacement or niche shift.

Explain the relationship between resource partitioning and character displacement.

Nitrogen is limiting factor in terrestrial that control NPP P is limiting nutrient in lakes In rivers and streams, NPP is often low-most energy is derived from terrestrial organic matter. Water flow limits phytoplankton growth so most NPP is from macrophytes/attached algae. Suspended sediment in rivers can limit light penetration, thus water clarity often controls NPP In marine ecosystems, the limiting nutrients vary. Estuaries are nutrient-rich; variation in NPP is correlated with N inputs from rivers. In the open ocean, NPP is mainly from phytoplankton so NPP is mostly N-limited Highest NPP is found in tropics. Oceanic NPP peaks at mid-lats in zones of upwelling where nutrient-rich deep water comes to the surface Variation in NPP in terrestrial biomes is associated with LAI and length of growing season while in marine biomes NPP is related to variation in nutrient inputs.

Explain the variation in NPP across the different biomes.

Depends on food quality (digestibility and nutrient content) and heterotroph's physiology Animals with high respiration rates (endotherms) have less energy left to allocate to growth

Explain what factors affect net secondary production and why.

For an ectotherm they will usually get their temperature from their environment so this means basking in the sun to get warmer or trying to get cooler by staying in the shade, use camouflage bc basking leaves them visible to predators

Explain what it means for an animal to be an ectotherm.

An endotherm can maintain their internal body heat without relying on other environmental factors. They don't have to rely on the sun to warm up. They use metabolism and other bodily functions to maintain their internal heat. Use feather, fur, and fat

Explain what it means for an animal to be an endotherm.

The larger an organism's investment is in each individual offspring, the fewer offspring produced.

Explain why a common trade-off in nature is between the size and number of offspring.

Not all the habitat within the range is suitable. Some areas could have not enough resources or have competitors that do not allow the population to be established in that area.

Explain why a species may have a patchy distribution.

The physical environment changes over a certain distance into the fragment, and thus biological interactions and ecological processes change as well.

Explain why an increased edge is detrimental

Birth and death rates must be constant over time at any given density. However, natural disasters, proliferation of food sources, reduction in predators, increase in predation, etc. all affect the birth and death rates. These fluctuate and that is why the carrying capacity fluctuates

Explain why carrying capacity in nature is rarely constant.

Heterotrophs cannot make their own energy, they have to rely on consuming energy from other living organisms. Living organisms need organic material to live and autotrophs are the ones that convert inorganic material into organic material.

Explain why heterotrophs are reliant on autotrophs.

Biomes are described by their vegetation because plants that grow in an area determine the other organisms that can live there. Plants in a particular biome have characteristics, specialized structures, or adaptations that allow the plants to survive in that biome.

Explain why terrestrial biomes are classified by vegetation.

A landscape may be heterogeneous at a scale, which is important to a tiger beetle, but homogenous to a warbler or a moose. The scale chosen for a study determines the outcomes Scale: spatial or temporal dimension of an object or process, characterized by: Grain: size of the smallest homogenous unit of study (ex-a pixel in a digital image) it determines resolution Extent: boundary of the area or time period encompassed by the study

Explain why the scale is important when studying a landscape

Patch shape and orientation could alter what species actually recognize the patch as a suitable habitat

Explain why the shape and orientation of a patch is important.

Greenhouse gases causing global warming that is melting ice caps and releasing methane that will cause more global warming Water and plastic pollution Habitat destruction and deforestation Unsustainable harvesting or nonrenewable sources like phosphorus and oils

Factors contributing to current, 6th mass extinction

the freeing of the hands to use and carry tools, threat displays, sexual dimorphism in food gathering, and changes in climate and habitat (from jungle to savanna).

Factors that promoted bipedalism

Nicolas Steno

Father of geology and stratigraphy, used empirical evidence, discovered Earth's crust contained chronological history of geological events, studied organs across species, geology groundwork

Polyandrous

Female with multiple males

Charles Lyell

Formation of earth's crust took place through countless small changes over vast periods of time, earth not fixed, geology

Coral reefs

Formed from the calcium carbonate skeletons of coral Shallow reef-building corals lie in the photic zone in clearwater and deep-sea corals live at 200-1,500 m Fish and invertebrate diversity is exceptionally high

Haploid

Gamete

Anisogamy

Gamete dimorphism (especially concerning size)

Missense

Genetic alteration in which a single base pair substitution alters the genetic code in a way that produces an amino acid that is different from the usual amino acid at that position

Nonsense mutation

Genetic mutation in a DNA sequence that results in a shorter, unfinished protein product (codes for a stop too soon)

James Hutton

Geology, changes in earth's crust have resulted from the continuous and uniform processes (process now also shaped the past), constant cycle of destruction and renewal

Georges Cuvier

Geology, theory of catastrophe, mass extinctions creates niches, studied/compared bones

Parasites and herbivore energy source

Get energy from 10% of plant material

Direct development

Go from fertilized egg to juvenile without passing through a larval stage

Population

Group of individuals of same species that live within a specific area and interact with one another

Streams and rivers

Headwaters are generally cold, clear, turbulent, swift, and oxygen-rich and downstream waters from rivers and are generally warmer and more turbid Diversity of fishes, invertebrates, plankton, and aquatic plants inhabit unpolluted rivers and streams

Out of Africa Hypothesis

Homo sapiens developed first in Africa and then spread around the world between 100 and 200,000 years ago, superseding all other hominid species. The implication of this argument is that all modern people are ultimately of African descent. a model for the origin and dispersal of modern humans. The hypothesis contends that humans evolved in East Africa, dispersing to populate the rest of the world from c. 70,000 years ago, replacing, rather than interbreeding with, the archaic hominins that were resident outside of Africa

Diluation effect

Hosts in more species diverse situations are more likely to come into contact with individuals of other species than with their own species, reducing the probability of transmission

Uncertain paternity can explain why male parental care is rare The needs of the young are an important factor constraining the evolution of mating systems Certainty of paternity influences parental care in mating behavior Parental care is relatively low in species with internal fertilization because mating and birth are separated over time and males cannot be sure that those are their offspring Certainty of paternity is higher when egg-laying and mating occur together, as in external fertilization

How are paternity, parental care, and reproduction-related?

Electron microscopes, X rays, CT scans, radar imaging

How can we use modern technology to study fossils?

Farming and overgrazing on marginal lands, tilling up topsoil and leaving it bare then a drought-hit and strong winds blew dust.

How did human activities result in the Dust Bowl of the 1930s?

The brain increased in size and new connections formed in the frontal cortex/other regions

How did the human brain evolve in response to sociality and other selective pressures?

Evolve through vicariance and dispersal Vicariance: fragmentation of the environment (as by splitting of a tectonic plate) in contrast to dispersal as a factor in promoting biological evolution by division of large populations into isolated subpopulations.

How do clades evolve?

Slope aspect (the direction a slope faces) can influence regional climate. The side of the mountain facing the water has lots of greenery and life, with that precipitation but the rain cannot get over the mountain so the other side is not as lively.

How do mountain ranges affect regional climate?

A cooling of the ocean surface, or below-average sea surface temperatures (SST), in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. Over Indonesia, rainfall tends to increase while rainfall decreases over the central tropical Pacific Ocean. The normal easterly winds along the equator become even stronger. upwellings

How does La Nina compare to El Nino?

Provide an example of analogy: similar structures in unrelated species because they were both put under the same environmental pressure. Caribbean island anoles are similar in their ecomorphs but this is due to convergent evolution and the pressures from their habitat.

How does an analogous structure arise?

Provide at least one example: Anatomical structures are modified for different functions but often have a common ancestry. Homology refers to similarity due to common ancestry. Homologous structures: structures in different species that are similar due to common ancestry. Forelimbs in humans, bats, whales, and cats, all have the same bone parts and show common ancestry even though functions have changed. Some homologous structures have become reduced overtime due to non-use. Vestigial structures: remnants of features that served afunction in the organism's ancestors

How does anatomy provide evidence of evolution?

By holding different sperm and deciding which sperm to be eventually let in, the female is using cryptic female choice

How does cryptic female choice relate to sperm competition

Protects humans from harmful UV-B radiation - cancer and eye problems

How does ozone relate to human health?

Life is organized in a nest hierarchy and these phylogenetic trees showcase that hierarchy. Trees show shared trait and what that ancestor most likely had. The nest hierarchy can also be used to superimpose the taxonomic rankings of these different groups

How does phylogenetics relate to the hierarchical organization of life?

Scientists can look at the succession of life forms from simple to complex and can document the appearance of new species or even new groups of organisms. Transitional fossils are particularly important because they represent an intermediate between an ancestral form and its descendants

How does the fossil record provide evidence for evolution.

High altitude adaptation, selection for malaria resistance, bottleneck effects, transition to grassland environment, diet changing brain size,

How have humans adapted to recent environmental change

Better technology and land use mean we do not always have to be so alert for predators, we have slower reflexes, smaller eyes, slower bodies. We don't need to climb trees anymore so we don't have tails, we walk on two legs.

How have humans modified environments in ways the relaxes selection on some traits

It is usually short-term, reversible process while adaptation is a more long-term and part of evolutionary process

How is acclimatization different from adaptation?

Analogous structures: characteristics that are similar due to convergent evolution, not homology. Convergent evolution means that features evolved independently in separate lineages due to similar environmental pressure

How is an analogous structure different from a homologous structure?

Organisms fall 'naturally' into the 'groups-within-groups' that Linnaeus described. The phylogenetic analysis of organisms. Sorted by looking at similar morphologies but paired with our current understanding of evolution and molecular data.

How is the hierarchical organization of life evidence for evolution?

at an exponential rate. Factors include living longer, more people surviving to reproductive age, increased migration, more resources

How is the human pop growing?

Population size, or density of pop

Identify and describe the two ways that the abundance of a population is reported.

Age and size at sexual maturity, amount and timing of reproduction, survival and mortality rates

Identify the characteristics that define life history

-Unity of life - Attributed it to the descent of all organisms from an ancestor in the remote past -Diversity of life - As the descendants of an ancestor lived in various habitats, they acquired diverse modifications (adaptations) -The match between organisms and their environment - These adaptations fit them to specific ways of life

In The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, Darwin made 3 broad observations of nature. Describe each:

Monophyly

Include most common recent ancestor and all of its descendants

Acid and nitrogen deposition

Increasing emissions of N and S have resulted in Acid Precipitation and N deposition. Sulfuric acid originated from SO2, and nitric acid from NOx. Acid rain will degrade architectural sites and reduce tree mortality. Nitrogen is deposited as wet or dry and can lead to euthrophication/dead zones.

Uniform dispersion

Individuals are evenly spaced

ABCs

Institutional context, Socioeconomic context, ecological context

Wetland

Inundated by water at least some of the time and supports plants adapted to water-saturated soil (ex. cypress, spruce) Can develop in shallow basins, along flooded riverbanks, or on the coasts of large lakes and seas Among the most productive biomes on Earth Home to diverse invertebrates and birds, as well as otters, frogs, and alligators

R - selection, lots of offspring

Is exponential growth associated with r- or K-selection? Provide an example.

K-selection, lower amounts of offspring, around carrying capacity

Is logistic growth associated with r- or K-selection? Provide an example.

Recombination

It increases the genetic diversity among gametes produced by an organism. It yields chromosomes taht contain both maternal and paternal DNA. DNA segments are exchanged between chromosomes during cross over. Produces recombinant chromosomes

Landscape composition

Kinds of elements or patches in a landscape, and amount of each kind present The elements are defined by the investigator and influenced by the source of the data used

Biome

Large biological communities shaped by the physical environment, particularly climatic variation

Habitat fragmentation

Large tracts of habitat are converted to spatially isolated habitat fragments by human activities, resulting in a metapopulation structure

Atmospheric ozone

Layer that protects the earth from UV-B radiation. O3

Habitat corridor

Linear patches the connect blocks of habitat Connectivity can reduce the effects of fragmentation by preventing isolation of populations

Ectoparasitism

Live on outer body surface of host and feed on host tissues or body fluid; Fleas, lice

Chromosome

Long DNA molecule with part or all parts of genetic material for organisms

Chromatin

Loose material that composes chromosomes

Polygynous

Male with multiple females

Carrying capacity

Maximum population size that can be supported indefinitely by the environment

Foundation species

Millions of species form +/0 relationships with organisms that provide habitat Lichens benefit from structural support and light availability (remember lichens photosynthesize). Do not extract any nutrients from the tree, so the tree is neither harmed nor benefited

Host specificity

Most parasites only feed on one or a few individual host organisms

Hyperparasitism

Most species are affected by more than one kind of parasite and even some parasites have parasites

Alteration of generations

Multicellular diploid sporophyte alternates with a haploid gametophyte

Population size with mark-recapture formula

N = (M*C)/R

Net ecosystem exchange

NEE = GPP - (Autotrophic respiration + Heterotrophic respiration) -Net change in CO2

Net secondary production

NSP= ingestion - Respiration - Egestion

Birth, death, immigration, emigration

Name the four processes the can change population size

Georges Buffon

Natural history/diversity, comparative anatomy, species change over time (earth was older than we thought)

Ecosystem services

Natural process that sustain life Water purification, soil formation, pollination of crops, climate regulation, and flood control

Promiscuous

No strong parabens or lasting relationships

Autosome

Not a sex chromosome

Ploidy

Number of copies of unique chromosomes in a cell. Selection plays a role

Species diversity

Number of species in a community and their relative abundance

Sperm competition

Observed in species where females mate with multiple males and may contain sperm from multiple males at the same time Can be costly to the mail because he does not want to invest in another meets offspring - avoid this by having a copulatory plug or remaining attached

Tropical savannas

Occur at low latitudes, where average temperature is high and relatively constant throughout the year and rainfall is abundant but very seasonal Plant and animal diversity high Large mammals of East Africa Disturbance important to maintain grassland

Temperate grasslands

Occur in regions too dry for forests and too moist for deserts. Dominant vegetation: Grasses and flowering plants. Many converted to agriculture due to deep, rich soils Highest abundance and greatest diversity of large mammal

Deserts

Occur in the driest regions where rainfall is less than 50 cm/year Specialized vegetation, vertebrates, and invertebrates (water conservers) Soils have low organic matter but abundant nutrients Need only water to become productive

Character displacement

Occurs when competition causes the phenotypes of competing species to evolve to become different over time Example: Geospiza fuliginosa and G. fortis -When not competing, beak size is similar When competing, beak sizes diverge and birds eat different size seeds

When carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed by seawater, chemical reactions occur that reduce seawater pH, carbonate ion concentration, and saturation states of biologically important calcium carbonate minerals. lower environmental calcium carbonate saturation states can have a dramatic effect on some calcifying species, including oysters, clams, sea urchins, shallow water corals, deep-sea corals, and calcareous plankton. Today, more than a billion people worldwide rely on food from the ocean as their primary source of protein. Thus, both jobs and food security in the U.S. and around the world depend on the fish and shellfish in our oceans. Low pH may be a factor in the current oyster reproductive failure.

Ocean acidification and its impacts

Lakes

Oligotrophic lakes are nutrient-poor/generally oxygen-rich Eutrophic lakes are nutrient-rich/often depleted of oxygen Littoral zone: shallow, well-lit area close to shore Rooted and floating aquatic plants live here Limnetic zone: deep water Zooplankton and phytoplankton live here

Phenotypic plasticity

One genotype may produce different phenotypes under different environmental conditions -Daphnia develop horns whether in the absence or presence of a predator

Monogamous

One male mates with one female

Marginal value theorem

Optimality model that usually describes the behavior of an optimally foraging individual in a system where resources are located in discrete patches separated by areas with no resources.

Parasite

Organism that has an intimate relationship with its host at some point in parasite life cycle in may harm the host. Macro- large enough to see, micro-have to use a microscope to see

Parasitoid

Organism whose larvae feed on a single host, almost always kills it

Trade off

Organisms allocate limited NRG or resources to one structure or function at the expense of another

Symbionts

Orgs that live in or on other orgs, ½ of all species are symbionts, can be mutualistic or parasitic (most)

Anthropogenic

Originating in human activity

Source-sink dynamics

Patch boundaries, connections between patches, and the matrix between patches can also affect population dynamics An ecological model that is used to describe population changes in two habitats, both occupied by the same species. One habitat is of high quality and allows a population to increase (i.e. births + immigration > deaths + emigration), leading to a surplus. This is the source. The other habitat is of low quality (i.e. deaths + emigration > births + immigration), leading to a deficit that ordinarily would lead to the habitat being abandoned. This is the sink. If the surplus population from the source moves into the sink, however, the sink population can be sustained indefinitely. Ecologists assume that organisms are able to distinguish between high- and low-quality habitats and will prefer those of high quality, but ecological trap theory offers an explanation for why organisms might choose a low-quality habitat Example: plants disperse passively, relying on other agents like wind or water currents to move seeds to another patch. Passive dispersal can result in source sink dynamics whenever the seed lands in a patch that cannot support the plant's growth/reproduction

Intertidal zone

Periodically submerged and exposed by the tides Intertidal organisms are challenged by variations in temperature and salinity and by the mechanical forces of wave action (contributes to high oxygen and nutrients) Substrate varies from rocky to sandy and contains abroad array of organisms

Homologous chromosome

Pertains to one of a pair of chromosomes with the same gene sequence, loci, chromosomal length, and centromere location

Ecological niche

Physical and biological conditions that a spp needs to grow, survive and reproduce

Logistic growth

Population increases rapidly, then stabilizes at the carrying capacity Growth rate decreases as pop nears (k) bc resources begin to run short At carrying capacity, growth rate = 0 so pop size doesn't change

Demographic stochasticity

Population-level birth and death rates are constant within a given year, but the actual fates of individuals differ based on chance events

Trophic pyramid

Portrays the relative amounts of energy/biomass in each trophic level

Survivorship

Proportion of inds that survive from birth to age x

Intermediate disturbance hypothesis

Proposed by Connell 1978, species diversity should be highest at intermediate levels of disturbance. At low levels of disturbance, competition would determine the diversity and at high disturbance levels, many species would not be able to survive.

Surrogate species

Protecting habitat for one species, such as a red cockaded woodpecker, can result in protection of other species This can be a shortcut when there is a lack of info about many species in an area

Food, Water in terrestrial habitats, Light for plants, Space (especially for sessile organisms), space for refuge, nesting, etc.(for mobile orgs)

Provide examples of resources that organisms will compete for.

Regional species pool

Provides an upper limit on the number/types of species present in a community

Morph

Range of growth rates or discrete types through phenotypic plasticity -Spadefoot toad tadpoles in Arizona ponds have carnivorous tadpoles that grow faster and metamorphose earlier. They are favored in the ponds that dry up. There are also omnivore tadpoles that are more favored in persisting ponds since they metamorphose in better conditions and have better chances of surviving as a juvenile.

Life history

Record of events relating to an organism's growth, development, reproduction, and survival.

Polygamous

Relationships with an individual of one sex mating with individuals of another sex

Phylogenetic tree

Root: The root of the phylogenetic tree is inferred to be the oldest point in the tree and corresponds to the theoretical last common ancestor of all taxonomic units included in the tree. The root gives directionality to evolution within the tree Branch: how species or other groups evolved from a series of common ancestors. Node: two branches coming together, represents a branching point from the ancestral population.

Conservation biology

Scientific study of biodiversity, how human activities impact it, and how to maintain it and prevent its loss, Successful management plans often involve working with farmers, landowners, military, and business communities

Trophic cascade

Series of trophic interactions that result in changes in biomass and species composition

Food web

Shows the connections between orgs and their food, shows energy flow from one component of an ecosystem to another

Homology

Similarity due to common ancestor

Could blow in excess nutrients causing algal blooms and possible eutrophication

Similarly, should Floridians be concerned about Saharan dust storms? What ecological impacts might these storms have?

Maximum parsimony

Simplest explanation favored, character based approach that infers a phylogenetic tree by minimizing the total number of evolutionary steps required to explain a given set of data assigned on the leaves

Polyphenic trait

Single genotype produces multiple phenotypes depending on environment

Rain shadow effect

Slope facing the prevailing (windward) receives high precipitation, while the leeward slope gets little precipitation.

Biological reserve

Smaller reserves with conservation of a single species or ecological community as the main objective

Salinization

Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil; the process of increasing the salt content is known as salinization. Salts occur naturally within soils and water. Salination can be caused by natural processes such as mineral weathering or by the gradual withdrawal of an ocean

Metapopulation

Spatially isolated populations that are linked by the dispersal of individuals or gametes e/c < 1 to persist

Resource ratio hypothesis

Species coexist by using resources in different proportions, preventing competitive exclusion.

Diploid

Sporo-

Homologous structures

Structures in different species that are similar due to common ancestry

Life table

Summary of how survival and reproductive rates vary with age

Chaparral

Summers are dry and hot (30C+) while fall, winter, spring are rainy and cool (10-12C) Dominant vegetation: Fire-adapted shrubs, small trees, grasses, and herbs Dominant animals: Amphibians, birds, reptiles, insects, small and burrowing mammals Humans have reduced chaparral areas through agriculture and urbanization

Biomagnification

Takes place as chemicals transfer from lower trophic levels to higher trophic levels within a food web, resulting in a higher concentration in apex predators.

Carolus Linnaeus

Taxonomy system, binomial nomenclature, natural history/diversity

Tropical forests

Temperature (25-29C) and precipitation is high year-round with little seasonal variation Vertically layered and competition for light is intense Home to 2/3 of plant spp. And millions of animal spp Soil is low in nutrients

Relative neighbor effect

The "relative neighbor effect" (RNE) = target species' performance with neighbors present minus its performance when neighbors were removed

Sex chromosome

The 23rd pair, differ between males and females. Females have 2 copies of the X chromosome, while males have 1 X and 1 Y chromosome. Differs from an ordinary autosome in form, size and behavior. Determine sex of organisms

Subsidence

The air descends when it cools and forms a high-pressure zone @ about 30 degrees N and S

Genotype

The allele that an organism has and codes for phenotype. The genetic makeup of an ind

Mark-recapture methods

The basic idea is that you capture a small number of individuals, put a harmless mark on them, and release them back into the population. At a later date, you catch another small group and record how many have a mark. In a small population, you are more likely to recapture marked individuals, whereas, in a large population, you are less likely.

Albedo

The capacity of a land surface to reflect solar radiation, is influenced by vegetation, soil, and topography.

Survival rate

The chance that an individual of age x will survive to age x+1

Geographic range

The entire geographic region over which a specie is found

Distribution

The geographic area over which individuals of a species occur

Bioaccumulation

The gradual buildup of a chemical over time in a living organism

Troposphere

The lowest layer of the atmosphere

Abundance

The number of individuals in a specific area

Phenotype

The observable measurable characteristic of an organism

Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)

The region that circles the Earth, near the equator, where the trade winds of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres come together. The intense sun and warm water of the equator heats the air in the ITCZ, raising its humidity and making it buoyant, responsible for the wet and dry seasons in the tropics.

Milankovitch cycle

The shape of Earth's orbit, known as eccentricity; The angle Earth's axis is tilted with respect to Earth's orbital plane, known as obliquity; and. The direction Earth's axis of rotation is pointed, known as precession. These cycles affect the amount of sunlight and therefore, energy, that Earth absorbs from the Sun. They provide a strong framework for understanding long-term changes in Earth's climate, including the beginning and end of Ice Ages throughout Earth's history.

Dispersion

The spatial arrangement of individuals in a population

Gross primary production

The total amount of carbon fixed by autotrophs Factors are solar energy input, temperature and moisture levels, carbon dioxide levels, nutrient availability, and community interactions (e.g., grazing by herbivores)

Fugitive species

These species that benefit from disturbances are called fugitive species - they have to disperse to new areas of disturbance after an area is recolonized in order to prevent competitive exclusion Sea palm (brown alga) coexists with mussels, a competitively dominant species, in the rocky intertidal zone because large waves will remove mussels, creating temporary openings. On shorelines with low disturbance rates, competition runs its course, and mussels drive sea palms to extinction

Maximum likelihood

To determine the tree topology, branch lengths and parameters of the evolutionary model that maximize the probability of observing the sequences at hand

Tundra

Treeless plains that occur in harsh climates of low rainfall and low average temperature Dominant vegetation: Grasses, sedges, mosses, lichens, dwarf shrubs, and mat-forming plants Permafrost-permanently frozen ground

Competitive exclusion principle

Two species that use a limiting resource, in the same way, can not coexist

Area based counts

Using counts in a smaller "sample area" to estimate the size of the total population based on the total area that the population covers

Charles Darwin collected thousands of species while observing diversity. The Galapagos Islands had birds that looked similar but were of different species and they differed from the mainland birds. Hypothesized birds from the mainland colonized the islands and diversified somehow and that diversity probability related to something on the island. Convinced darwin that life evolved

Voyage of the Beagle

Greenhouse effect

Warming of Earth by atmospheric absorption and reradiation of infrared radiation emitted by Eath's surface due to greenhouse gases in atm (h2o, CO2, CH4, N2O)

-Usually have larger cells, have heterosis or hybrid vigour, gene redundancy, ecological differentiation of cytotopes and sometimes results in instant speciation. Can be advantageous or disadvantageous. -Larger nuclei and this larger cell size or volume, which increases with policy level. Flowers and fruits tend to be larger as a result and may produce more pollen or seeds. -Heterosis/ hybrid vigour- This refers to the increase in performance in hybrids due to increased heterozygosity for loci at which the heterozygote is superior to both homozygotes. e.g. Triticale which combines the high yield potential and grain quality of wheat with the disease and stress tolerance of tye. -As there is more than one copy of each allele, one can change in function or become redundant as the second copy is free from selective pressure and so accumulate mutations faster and may develop a new and different function. -Consequences of polyploidy - ecological differentiation of cytotopes - The ploidy number may change the sexual system of the plant and can often give rise to morphological and physiological changes. Diploid M. annum are dioecious, tetraploid are monoecious, hexaploid (6x) are monoecious or androdioecious.

What are potential consequences of polyploidy?

Ecto- A: Ease of dispersal, safe from the host's immune system D: Vulnerable to natural enemies, exposed to natural environment, difficulty feeding Endo- A: Ease of feeding, protected from the environment, safer from enemies D: Vulnerable to host immune system, difficult dispersal

What are the advantages and disadvantages of ectoparasitism and endoparasitism?

-Reduction of habitat available for other species, contributed to the decline of thousands of species -Fragmentation results in increasing degradation and edge effects, results in spatial isolation of pops

What are the consequences of habitat fragmentation?

Dispersal, environmental conditions, coexistence with other species

What are the factors that control species diversity within communities?

-Animal behavior: how they interacted with their environment, like if they were nesting and what other species they interacted with probably -Animal development: compare younger fossils to older fossils of same species

What can fossils tell us about:

When extinction rates increase and/or origination rates decrease

What can lead to decline of diversity?

When chlorine and bromine atoms come into contact with ozone in the stratosphere, they destroy ozone molecules. manufactured halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and foam- blowing agents (chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), HCFCs, halons)

What causes decreased ozone concentration?

Give up time is the interval of time between when the animal last feeds and when it leaves the patch (referring to marginal value theorem) Residency in the patch increases with the quality of the patch.

What determines "giving up time" and why?

The environmental gradient determines the geographic range of a species. This includes temperature, precipitation, Salinity, nutrients available, other environmental factors

What determines the geographic range of a species?

Provide at least one example: Allele frequencies and genotypes of a population can be tracked and compared over time. Changes in traits can be measured and compared. Dragonbeards were introduced to the US and were able to interact with other dragonbeard species and previous geographic barriers were broken down. Hybrids were formed (sterile) but we could see the genetic recombination result in different genotypes and we can determine that these different species were the result of these different genotypes. A polyploidy species was presented and is a great example of new species being formed and can observe evolution just from hybridization.

What do we do by direct observation as evidence for evolution?

-Points where genes split to become organized -In the simplest case, coalescent theory assumes no recombination, no natural selection, and no gene flow or population structure, meaning that each variant is equally likely to have been passed from one generation to the next.

What does it mean when alleles in a population coalesce?

-Many mutualisms and commensalisms are facultative (not obligate) and show few signs of coevolution Example: Desert ironwood serves as a nurse plant for 165 different species -One species of nurse plant may protect the seedlings of many other species. In deserts, the shade of adult plants creates cooler, moister conditions -Seeds of many plants can only germinate in this shade - the adult is called a nurse plant The nurse plant and the beneficiary species may evolve little in response to one another.

What does it mean when an ecological interaction is facultative. Provide an example.

Some positive interactions are highly species-specific, and obligate (not optional for either species) Example: The leafcutter ants and fungus cannot survive without each other, and the interaction has led both to evolve unique features that benefit the other species

What does it mean when an ecological interaction is obligate. Provide an example.

Landscapes they live in are patchy (making dispersal between populations difficult) Environmental conditions often change in a rapid and unpredictable manner

What factors can make some populations prone to extinction?

Originations, extinctions, speciation, adaptive radiation

What factors contribute to macroevolution?

It represents the earliest known assemblage of complex multicellular organisms. Soft bodied, tubular and frond-shaped, mostly sessile, organisms

What is Ediacaran fauna?

-basically what's the smallest number of individuals in a population that can resist extinction with a high probability -The factors that affect MVP are the same factors that influence abundance and distribution --Intrinsic factors ---Demographic stochasticity ----Random fluctuations in population size --Genetic deterioration ---Erosion of genetic variation ---Increase disease alleles ---Reduces capacity of the population to respond to a changing environment ---Reduces overall fitness --Social dysfunction/maladaptive behavior -Extrinsic --Disease, Human impacts, Natural disturbances (a large volcano erupts), Introduced species -It's dependent on the taxon and the context. It's always difficult to calculate. --In a nutshell → a few hundred to several thousand at least --Bigger organisms need more space, in general

What is MVP? How is it determined?

Transitional fossils are particularly important because they represent an intermediate between an ancestral form and its descendants

What is a transitional fossil and why are they particularly important?

Structures that have no apparent function and appear to be residual parts from a past ancestor. Ex = appendix

What is a vestigial structure? Provide an example

-removal of introns and rejoining of exons in different combinations to create collection of mRNAs with different functions -allows for production of many gene products with only a single gene

What is alternative RNA splicing?

Forelimbs

What is an example of a homologous structure?

Biogeography: the geographic distribution of species. The distribution of organisms is consistent with the hypothesis that related organisms evolved in one location and then dispersed over time

What is biogeography and how does it provide evidence for evolution

RNA genes, Pseudogenes, Mobile genetic elements

What is found in non-coding regions of the genome?

-the ratio between the water assimilated into the body and that lost from the body also : the condition of the body when this ratio approximates equilibrium. -Water is the medium in which all biochemical reactions necessary for life occur (universal solvent) -The water balance of organisms is determined by exchanges of water and solutes with the external environment

What is meant by "water balance"?

Complex life cycle more common since that includes insects, parasites, etc while direct happens with mammals

What is more common in nature, a complex life cycle or direct development? Provide an example of each.

One of the most diverse/well-preserved fossil locations in the world. Contains organisms from the Cambrian Explosion (~525 MYA). 65,000 specimens of about 93 species

What is the Burgess Shale and why is it important?

-Unparalleled emergence of organisms, the time when most of the major groups of animals first appear in the fossil record. Increase of oxygen led to explosion of diversity. Sponges, cnidarians, mollusks, worms -Predators with near features to get prey: claws, sharp teeth -Conditions: In the early Cambrian, Earth was generally cold but was gradually warming as the glaciers of the late Proterozoic Eon receded. Tectonic evidence suggests that the single supercontinent Rodinia broke apart and by the early to mid-Cambrian there were two continents

What is the Cambrian explosion?

-Somatic mutations: affect cells in the body of an organism; not heritable -Germ-line mutations: affect gametes; heritable and relevant to evolution

What is the difference between a somatic and germ-line mutation?

Conduction is the process of losing heat through physical contact with another object or body. Convection is the process of losing heat through the movement of air or water molecules across the skin.

What is the difference between conductive and convective heat loss.

Repeated colonization and extinctions

What two factors characterize metapopulations?

Coding and non-coding Coding region (i.e.exons-genes that are expressed). Non-coding region (i.e.introns-genes not expressed)

What two regions make up the genome?

Provide at least one example: Can compare similarities in DNA sequences. Molecular biology provides strong evidence that all life forms are related. Comparing amount of cytochrome c amino acid sequence in species to humans. Monkeys have more similar amounts than a moth and monkeys are closer related to humans than moths are.

What type of molecular information provides evidence for evolution?

Translocation

When a piece of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome

Independent assortment

When cells divide during meiosis, homologous chromosomes are randomly distributed to daughter cells and different chromosomes segregate independently of each other. Results in gametes that have unique combinations of chromosomes

Glacial maxima

When ice sheets reached their maximum total mass

Exponential growth

When individuals reproduce continuously and generations overlap and the pop changes in size by a constant proportion at each instant in time

Silent mutation

When the change of the DNA sequence within a protein-coding portion of a gene does not affect the sequence of amino acids that make up the protein

Cultural, political, and economic factors weigh heavily on which sites can be conserved. Does the site have optimal habitat? Does the site have high biodiversity? Does the site have a larger proportion of endemic--found in one location--species? Does the site have long-term security?

Where should we place reserves?

Backpacker of a sort that went on many expeditions, collecting and observing many species and noting their diversity. Realized species changed into one another through time. Constant death and struggle in natural world and the competition for resources is a mechanism driving evolution. He introduced the idea of natural selection and corresponded with Darwin.

Who is Alfred Russel Wallace and what is his contribution to science?

Identify keystone species, determine the minimum # of individuals in a pop to guarantee a high probability of survival Using known densities, estimate the area needed to sustain the minimum #

Why do we need baseline ecological data before we create a reserve?

People rely on biodiversity for food, fuel, fiber, medicines, building materials, spices, and decorative items. People are also dependent on ecosystem services

Why is it important to conserve biodiversity?

Changing the chemical composition of natural water resources (lakes, rivers, and groundwater), degrading the quality of water supply to the domestic and agriculture sectors, contribution to loss of biodiversity, taxonomic replacement by halotolerant species, loss of fertile soil, collapse of agricultural and fishery industries, changing of local climatic conditions, and creating severe health problems

Why is salinization an environmental problem?

Determines where orgs live, and the resources that are available to them

Why is the physical environment important?

Easterlies

Wind blowing from the east

Westerlies

Wind blowing from the west. Originate from high pressure areas in the horse latitudes and trend towards the poles and steer extratropical cyclones in this general manner

Northern coniferous forest (taiga)

Winters are cold/long while summers can be hot and precipitation is variable Dominant vegetation: Conifers (ex. pine, spruce, fir) Dominant animals: Migratory and resident birds and large mammals

Biosphere

Zone of life on earth. Lies between the lithosphere and troposphere

Flagship species

a charismatic org that people want to give protection to, "cute factor", giant panda

cryptic female choice

a form of mate choice which occurs both in pre and post-copulatory circumstances when females in certain species use physical or chemical mechanisms to control a male's success of fertilizing their ova or ovum; i.e. by selecting whether sperm is successful in fertilizing their eggs or not.

Niche modeling

a predictive tool that models that environment condition occupied by a species based on the conditions at localities it is known to occupy.

Service mutualism

a relationship where both parties receive a service from the other, pollination

Keystone species

a species on which other species in an ecosystem largely depend on, such that if they were removed the ecosystem would change drastically. Ex: otters and gopher tortoises

Homo erectus

among first recognizable members of genus Homo, earliest occurrence about 2 MYA, oldest known human-like

Fecundity

avg # of offspring a female will have at age x

Camouflage

blending into environment to avoid being seen

Habitat fragmentation

breaking up of continuous habitat into habitat patches amid a human-dominated landscape Ex: dams breaking up a river

Type II survivorship curve

chance of survival is consistent, ex = some birds

Habitat degradation

changes that reduce quality of the habitat for many, but not all species Ex: woody plants invading a grassland, pollution

Habitat loss

conversion of an ecosystem to another use Ex: bulldozer clearing land for construction

Disrupt

doing something to avoid being eaten, puffer fish blowing up after capture to avoid being eaten since the predator cannot fit fish in mount

Australopithecus sediba

earliest evidence of genus from 4.3 MYA, discovered in S. Africa and dates to about 2 MYA, features more similarities to early Homo than any other Australopithecus

Homo sapiens

early modern humans, bigger brains, highly intelligent, extended tool use

Herbivore feeding strategy

eats tissues and internal fluids of living plants or algae

Equilibrium theory

ecological and evolutionary compromises lead to resource partitioning (niches)

"Top down" view

energy flow is governed by rates of consumption/interactions at the highest trophic level, which influences trophic levels below.

Hadley cells

equatorial uplift cause a large scale, 3-D pattern of atmospheric circulation

Ferrell cell

exist at mid latitudes

Homo neanderthalensis

extant human species that lives in Eurasia until about 40,000 years ago, long and low skulls with a prominent brow, bigger bodies than modern day humans, separate monophyletic group from modern humans, some interbreeding

Nonequilibrium

fluctuating conditions keep dominant species from monopolizing resources

Cohort life table

follows the fate of a group of individuals all born at the same time, mostly used for sessile organisms

Fine filter

genes/population/species Focusing on a specific species or population. "Save the turtles" Example: by early 1990s, there were only 25 wild Florida panthers. Compared to other puma pops, they had lower genetic diversity and more health problems. Models predicted a 90% chance of extinction w/in 20 yrs.

Interglacial period

geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separate consecutive glacial periods within an ice age.

Autotroph

get energy from non-organic sources and turn it into organic molecules that are used as energy. Sun and chemicals

Heterotroph

get energy from other living organisms

Type III survivorship curve

high death rates for young; those that reach adulthood survive well (turtles, things that have high # of offspring)

Clumped dispersion

individuals grouped together (most common)

Commensalism

individuals of one species benefit, while individuals of the other species do not benefit and are not harmed (+/0)

Predator feeding strategies

kills and eat other organisms

Coarse filter

landscape/ecosystem/habitat, emphasis on maintaining ecosystem processes; protects many species at once (think SLOSS) Focuses on a whole ecosystem, that will in turn save many spp if they are threatened by habitat loss. Think "save the seas"

Endoparasitism

live within a host, in alimentary canal, or within cells/tissues; tapeworm

Parasite feeding strategies

lives in or on another organism (host), feeding on parts of it (don't always kill host. Some cause disease, called pathogens

Climate

long-term description of weather including avg. conditions and full range of variation

Coriolis effect

makes things (like planes or currents of air) traveling long distances around the Earth appear to move at a curve as opposed to a straight line, wind deflected to the right in Northern hemisphere and to the left in southern hemisphere.

Warn

mimicking poisonous/threatening organisms to deter predators. something being used to warn predator not to attack

Type I survivorship curve

most individuals survive to old age, few born, ex = humans

Trophic mutualism

mutualist receives energy/nutrients from its partner, plant+mycorrhizae

Mutualism

mutually beneficial interaction between individuals of two species (+/+)

Polar cell

occurs at N and S poles - high pressure zones with little precipitation (polar deserts)

Coevolution

occurs when two or more species reciprocally affect each other's evolution through the process of natural selection. The term sometimes is used for two traits in the same species affecting each other's evolution coevolution of flowering plants and associated pollinators

Habitat mutualism

one partner provides shelter/favorable habitat, pistol shrimp and "seeing eye gobies"; the pistol shrimp digs a burrow, which is shares with the goby; when outside of the burrow, the nearly blind shrimp keeps an antennae on the goby whose movements warn it of danger

Phosphorus cycle

phosphorus is the scarcest and therefore the one most limiting in any given ecological system. Much of the phosphorus on Earth is tied up in rock and sedimentary deposits, from which it is released by weathering, leaching, and mining. Some of it passes through freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems via plants, grazers, predators, and parasites, to be returned to those ecosystems by death and decay. Much of it, however, is deposited in the sea, in shallow sediments, where it circulates readily, or in ocean deeps, whence it wells up only occasionally. Phosphorus is brought back to the land through fish harvests and through the collection of guano deposited by seabirds. Although there are seasonal pulses of availability, there appears to be a steady loss of phosphorus to the ocean deeps. The phosphates are utilized by algae and terrestrial green plants, which in turn pass into the bodies of animal consumers. Upon death and decay of organisms, phosphates are released for recycling. Humans have altered the cycle through the use of fertilizer, the distribution of food products, and artificial eutrophication.

Focal (indicator) species

plant or animals that provide essential ecological function or indicative of essential habitat condition (ex. Ecosystem engineers - beavers)

Production efficiency

proportion of assimilated food that goes into new consumer biomass

Consumption efficiency

proportion of available energy ingested

Assimilation efficiency

proportion of ingested food that is assimilated

Random dispersion

randomly scattered throughout with no pattern

Calvin cycle

reactions of photosynthesis in which energy from ATP and NADPH is used to build high-energy compounds such as sugars

"Bottom up" view

resources that limit NPP determine energy flow

Umbrella species

selected with the assumption that protection of its habitat will serve as an umbrella to protect many other species with similar habitat requirements

Resource partitioning

species use a limited resource in different ways Schoener (1974) found that the lizards used the space in different ways, resulting in a reduction in competition -Green anoles higher in the canopy, twig anoles, grass anoles, ground anoles

Carbon cycle

the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth. The amount of carbon in the system does not change but the locations flux. most carbon is stored in rocks and sediments, while the rest is located in the ocean, atmosphere, and in living organisms. These are the reservoirs, or sinks, through which carbon cycles. Carbon is released back into the atmosphere when organisms die, volcanoes erupt, fires blaze, fossil fuels are burned, and through a variety of other mechanisms. The deep ocean is a carbon sink. Humans have increased the amount of carbon in the atmosphere rapidly due to burning fossil fuels and land degradation. Most carbon is stored in rocks and sediments, the rest located in the ocean, atmosphere, and living orgs.

Relative density

the density of one population relative to that of another population

Net primary production

the gross primary production of an ecosystem minus the energy used by the producers for respiration

Absolute density

the number of organisms per unit area or volume

Static life table

the survival and reproduction of individuals of different ages during a single time period, and requires estimating the age of individuals

Startle

using threatening patterns or unexpected movements to startle the predator to buy enough time to escape

Driven by surface winds and modified by the Coriolis Effect, the speed of ocean currents is about 2-3% of wind speed

what drives oceanic circulation?

Overexploitation

when a species has a market value, its likely to be overharvested/overhunted. As desirable species become more rare, increased economic value drives even more aggressive searches and harvest Ex: overfishing of cod

Prevailing winds

winds that blow consistently in a given direction over a particular region on Earth., also determine rainfall.

Trade winds

winds that reliably blow east to west just north and south of the equator. The winds help ships travel west, and they can also steer storms such as hurricanes, too. ... The trade winds are air currents closer to Earth's surface that blows from east to west near the equator.