Bio L 152 Final Review - SELU Jennifer White

__________ refers to breathing or the exchange of gases between an organism and the environment. However, scientists use respiration (cellular respiration) to describe how food molecules are converted into useable energy within cells.

Respiration

What is the relationship between gas exchange and cellular respiration?

Respiration refers to breathing or the exchange of gases between an organism and the environment. Cellular respiration is dependent upon gas exchange (breathing).

What kind of cells does meiosis produce?

Sex Cells

What type of cells undergoes mitosis?

Somatic Cells- Any cell of a living organism other than the reproductive cells

What is happening in the second step/stage?

The ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions are used to convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrate (i.e. glucose). The hydrogen atoms shifted from the light-dependent reactions by NADPH are combined with carbon dioxide through a series of reactions to eventually form carbohydrate. Some of these reactions require the input of ATP. This conversion of carbon dioxide into organic compounds is known as carbon fixation. These reactions occur in the light because they require the products of the "light-dependent reactions" (ATP and NADPH) to reduce carbon dioxide into carbohydrate. -Carbon fixed into glucose

Incomplete Dominance

The heterozygous phenotype is a combination of the two homozygous phenotypes (red and white flowers producing pink offspring, for example).

Genotype

The particular alleles present for a single trait (i.e. YY, Yy, or yy).

Phenotype

The physical expression of a trait. The phenotype for the genotypes YY and Yy would be yellow. The phenotype yy would be green.

What is happening in the first step/stage?

The pigments of the thylakoid membrane absorb light energy to help produce ATP that will be used in the second stage of photosynthesis. This light energy is also used to split water (photolysis). As a result, oxygen (O2) is released and the hydrogen atoms, which are split into electrons and hydrogen ions, are shuttled into the second stage of photosynthesis by the coenzyme NADPH. -Light excites electrons -Breaks/splits water -Produces O2

Genetics

The study of patterns of inheritance-how information is transferred from parents to offspring

Redox (oxidation-reduction) reactions are critical to cellular respiration. Why?

They make food/energy.

G1 Phase of Interphase

This is the period of growth of the cell including an increase in cellular organelles During this phase normal metabolism occurs, as does preparation for DNA synthesis. This is generally the longest part of the cell cycle.

The region of the enzyme to which the substrate binds is called the __________ _____.

active site

Electrophoresis methods rely on the fact that positive and negative charges __________. DNA contains phosphate groups that have negative charges. When an electric current is applied to buffer surrounding a gel containing DNA, the DNA will migrate toward the positive electrode.

attract

DNA is found in the form of __________-long pieces of double-stranded DNA with attached proteins. Humans have 46 individual ones (1 from mom and 1 from dad) and 23 pairs.

chromosomes

Interphase can be recognized by the lack of visible __________, and also by the presence of a nuclear organelle known as the nucleolus.

chromosomes

During interphase, the DNA that makes up the chromosomes is spread out in the cell for easier use and replication. Toward the end of interphase the chromosomes begin to coil up tightly or __________, so they become visible in a light microscope. As the chromosomes become visible, interphase ends, and the mitosis phase begins.

condense

Our brain cells, on the other hand, require huge amounts of energy, and they cannot use the fermentation pathway. Without an almost constant supply of O2 to allow aerobic respiration, the brain cells quickly begin to _____.

die

Mitosis produces two __________ daughter cells.

diploid (A cell that contains two sets of chromosomes)

These haploid cells contain only one from each pair of chromosomes. The haploid egg and the haploid sperm can the fuse to make a __________ __________. In the zygote, half of the genetic material (one chromosome from each homologous pair) comes from the father (sperm) and half of the genetic material comes from the mother (egg). The zygote then goes into the mitotic cell cycle to form the rest of the cells of the organism, each of which will be diploid (until eggs or sperm are made in the next generation).

diploid zygote

Note that while mitosis produces two __________ cells from one __________ cell, meiosis produces four __________ cells from one __________ cell.

diploid, diploid, haploid, diploid

Prophase can be __________ into early and late prophase or into prophase and prometaphase.

divided

Cell division in __________ involves two separate processes-the first is __________, which is actually nuclear division, and the second is __________, the division of the cell cytoplasm.

eukaryotes, mitosis, cytokinesis

There are genes controlling your _____ color, _____ color, __________, _____ color, etc.

hair, eye, height, skin

In Anaphase I, the __________ chromosomes split and each moves toward opposite ends of the cell.

homologous

The chromosomes occur in pairs, called __________ pairs, one chromosome of which originally came from the egg and one from the sperm.

homologous

Almost all of the cells in your body contain pairs of chromosomes known as __________ _____. These body cells are called __________ _____, and they are said to be __________ because they contain two of each chromosome (di=2). One member of each homologous pair originally came from your mother and one came from your father during the process of __________.

homologous pairs, somatic cells, diploid, fertilization

In cells, DNA is found as a double-stranded molecule. The two stands are held together by __________ bonds between the nitrogenous bases. The pairing is specific: A only bonds with T, and G only bonds with C. This is known as __________ __________ __________. The two strands of DNA twist around each other to form the familiar double helix first postulated by Watson and Crick.

hydrogen, complementary base pairing

You should be able to write specific __________ and __________ results from a simple experiment.

hypothesis, interpret

Many of the chemical reactions of a cell require biological catalysts known as enzymes. Enzymes enormously __________ the rate of chemical reactions.

increase

Anaphase follows metaphase. The __________ of the chromosomes split and the __________ chromatids begin to move away from each other toward opposite ends of the cell. The spindle is responsible for the movement of the chromatids.

kinetochores, sister

Our muscles have the ability to survive for a while on the small amount of energy produced by glycolysis alone, shunting the pyruvate from glycolysis to __________ __________ __________ when O2 is in short supply.

lactic acid fermentation

Without __________ energy, photosynthesis would not occur.

light

Enzymes function best with a __________ temperature and PH.

limited

Small organic molecules bond together to form large __________.

macromolecules

The macromolecules are made of repeating units known as __________ (single units) to form chains or branched structures known as __________ (many units).

monomers, polymers

During interphase, a cell is performing its __________ tasks, as well as __________ and __________ new cellular components.

normal, growing, synthesizing

When a molecule loses electrons, it is __________. The molecule that receives the electrons is then __________.

oxidized, reduced

Glycolysis does not require __________ and is therefore an anaerobic pathway.

oxygen

The __________ released by the photosynthetic process is also used by many organisms (including the photosynthetic organisms themselves) during cellular respiration.

oxygen

The disrupted cells are treated with a _________, to chew up the chromosomal proteins. Often detergents are added to help remove the cell and nuclear membranes.

protease

Most enzymes are made up of __________, although there are some RNA-based enzymes.

proteins

Proteases break down __________ thats binding DNA.

proteins

RNA is generally single-stranded rather than double-stranded. RNA is important in the process that uses information encoded in DNA to make __________, which are the main working molecules of the cell.

proteins

Recall that __________ come in many shapes and sizes, and that they are polymers of 20 different amino acids. DNA on the other hand, is composed of only 4 different types of __________.

proteins, nucleotides

Genes code for the enzymes that allow all of the chemical reactions that your body needs to __________.

survive

Prophase I is similar to prophase of mitosis. There is a major difference, however. In meiosis I, homologous chromosomes pair, a process known as __________. When the chromosomes attach to the spindle they attach pairs (two homologous chromosomes, for a total of four chromatids) rather than individually. This forms a __________ (tetra=four). During this time, __________ _____ can occur, where pieces of DNA are exchanged between chromatids of two homologous chromosomes. This is form of genetic recombination and leads to genetic variation.

synapsis, tetrad, crossing over

The light-dependent reactions take place in the __________ membranes of chloroplasts and are considered the first stage of photosynthesis.

thylakoid

The mitotic cell cycle is essentially the same in all type of eukaryotic cells, but there are differences in __________.

timing

In diploid cells, each gene is present in _____ copies. One copy is located on each pair of homologous chromosomes; therefore, one copy was originally inherited from the mother and one from the father. Two homologous chromosomes sometimes have the same genes, but they can have different forms of the genes.

two

In monohybrid crosses there are _____ possible allelic combinations for each parent.

two

The precipitated DNA is generally __________ and __________ looking. It can be isolated from the cellular soup by a number of methods, including __________ on a glass rod. The isolated DNA can then be subjected to additional methods of purification or analysis.

white, stringy, spooling

We start out as a single cell called a __________. The zygote is formed in the fusion of an egg cell and a sperm cell.

zygote

Why did fresh pineapple juice prevent JELL-O from setting?

- JELL-O contains gelatin which partially consists of protein molecules. Pineapples contain an enzyme called bromelain that breaks up the gelatin because bromelain breaks down proteins; therefore, the collagen fibers in the gelatin cannot interact to form solid JELL-O. -There are enzymes in the fresh juice. Enzymes aren't in the canned juice because its a preservative and it's been heated so it's denatured.

Why is oxygen important?

- Most cells cannot survive very long without oxygen; cells starve to death when deprived of oxygen - Oxygen is very effective in helping many organisms like animals obtain energy from food (accomplished through redox reactions) -Oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor in cellular respiration

4. Anaphase

- Sister chromatids split -Chromosomes migrate to opposite ends

3. Metaphase 1

- Tetrads line up - Independent assortment

Polygenic Trait

-A trait that is encoded by more than one pair of genes. This generally results in a continuous range of phenotypes. Examples in humans are hair color, skin color, and height. -Traits that are influences by multiple genes.

Mitosis

-Cell division -Make exact copies -Somatic cells -2n/diploid -Growth, maintenance, and repair

2. Prophase

-Chromatin condenses into chromosomes -Sister chromatids appear -46 pairs -Joined by centromere -Chromatin condenses into sister chromatids -Nuclear envelope dissolves -Spindle fibers form -Kinetochores form -Proteins at centromeres -Spindle fibers attach to kinetochores

2. Prophase 1

-Chromatin condenses into chromosomes -Nuclear envelope dissolves -Spindle fibers form -Kinetochores form -Proteins at centromeres -Spindle fibers attach to kinetochores -Crossing over can occur

5. Telophase

-Chromosome reach poles -Spindle fibers break down -Nuclear envelope reforms -Chromosome uncoil back into chromatin

5. Telophase 1

-Chromosomes reach poles -Spindle fibers break down

S-Synthesis Phase: DNA Synthesis of Interphase

-DNA replication occurs. In other words, chromosomes are duplicated. -This results in two copies, called sister chromatids that are attached at the region known as the centromere of the chromosome. -In humans, after S phase there would be 46 chromosomes, each consisting of two sister chromatids.

6. Cytokinesis

-Division of cytoplasm

6. Cytokinesis

-Division of cytoplasm -2 identical cells

-Identify Genotypes and Phenotypes. -Understand the logic behind the crosses (What do they tell us? and How are they associated with meiosis?)

-Identify Genotypes and Phenotypes. -Understand the logic behind the crosses (What do they tell us? and How are they associated with meiosis?)

Meiosis

-Occurs in reproductive organs -Produces sex cells -1n/haploid -Half the genetic material -Genetically diverse -2 stages -Meiosis I -Meiosis II

Independent Variable

-Researcher manipulates -Ex. Ant B Gone

3. Metaphase

-Sister chromatids line up along metaphase plate - 46 pairs

4. Anaphase

-Tetrades separate

Alternative Hypothesis (HA)

-The independent variable will have a direct effect on the dependent variable. There may be different possible alternative hypotheses. -Ex. As the ink type remains the same, the path/track of the termites is not altered. It follows the lines drawn with that ink.

Null Hypothesis (H0)

-The independent variable will have no direct effect on the dependent variable. -Ex. Color does not affect the track of the termites. -Ex. Diet does not affect size of dogs.

Dependent Variable

-What we measure -The outcome you're measuring -Ex. Percentage of dead ants

All enzymes have 4 characteristics in common:

1. Enzymes do not allow otherwise impossible chemical reactions to occur. They simply speed up the rate of reactions, often by a million times or more. (Do not get consumed) 2. Enzymes are generally specific-they can act only on one or a few very similar substrates (or on a class of substrates) due to the shape of the active site where the substrate binds. (Bring reactants closer) 3. Enzyme reactions are often reversible-enzymes can catalyze the same reaction in the forward or reverse direction. 4. Although enzymes bind to the substrates, they are not themselves changed by the chemical reaction. Enzymes can be reused to catalyze the same chemical reaction over and over again.

What are the variables within an experiment (Experimental Design)?

1. Experiments should be designed such that there is only a single explanation for the results; in other words, experiments should have only a single variable (Sometimes called the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE). 2. Experiments should include a CONTROL to ensure that your results are actually the result of the treatment rather than some external factor (The control is whatever remains the same in an experiment) (Ex. Time, temperature) 3. Experiments always require REPLICATION.

Steps of Cellular Respiration

1. Glycolysis (Get 2 molecules of ATP) (No oxygen) -Glucose>Pyruvate 2. Kreb's Cycle (2 ATP) (No oxygen) -Break down pyruvate>Electrons 3. Electron Transport Chain (34 ATP) (Oxygen is present) -Electrons>ATP

Meiosis 1

1. Interphase -G1= Cell growth, organelle duplication -Synthesis= DNA is replicated -G2= Preparation for meiosis

Mitotic Cell Cycle

1. Interphase of the cell cycle is divided into three parts. -G1= Cell growth, organelle duplication -S (Synthesis-DNA Synthesis)= DNA is replicated -G2= Preparation for mitosis

Miescher first isolated an acidic substance he termed "nuclein" from pus he obtained on bandages from a nearby surgical clinic. By the early 1900s, it was known that:

1. Nuclein (DNA) and proteins were the major components of the chromosomes seen in eukaryotic cells and 2. The separation of these chromosomes during meiosis correlated with the inheritance of the genetic information

Meiosis II

1. Prophase II 2. Metaphase II -Sister chromatids 3. Anaphase II 4. Telophase II 5. Cytokinesis = Mitosis -Genetically diverse

What are the two strategies when temperature gets low?

1. Slow down -Respiration decreased= Less energy= Less O2 2. Increase activity/respiration to maintain more energy= More O2

What are the four characteristics of an enzyme?

1. Speed up the rate of reactions 2. Generally specific 3. Reversibile 4. Reusable

Prophase is the first phase of mitosis. A number of important events occur during mitotic prophase:

1. The DNA of the chromosomes finishes coiling up and is now tightly wound into visible chromosomes. 2. The mitotic apparatus or spindle forms. The spindle is a protein apparatus made of cytoskeletal protein fibers called microtubules. It forms around microtubule-organizing centers, which in animal cells are known as centrosomes and contain centrioles. The spindle extends across the cell. Radiating from the spindle are the asters. 3. The nuclear membrane breaks down, so there is now no visible nucleus. 4. The chromosomes attach to the spindle by specialized structures on their centromeres called kinetochores. The spindle will assist in pulling the two sister chromatids apart.

Telophase is the final phase of mitosis. A number of events occur during telophase. Several of these reverse the events that occurred during prophase. The major events of telophase are as follows:

1. The chromosomes (formerly chromatids) arrive at opposite ends of the cell. Each side gets one of the two sister chromatids, so each side receives an identical set of chromosomes. 2. The spindle apparatus begins to break down and disappear. 3. Nuclear membranes form around each set of chromosomes so that there are now two nuclei, each with identical chromosomes. 4. The chromosomes begin to uncoil or decondense and are no longer visible in the light microscope.

Stages of Mitosis (Divided into 4 or 5 phases)

2. Prophase 3. Metaphase 4. Anaphase 5. Telophase 6. Cytokinesis

Homologous Chromosomes

A pair of similar chromosomes in a diploid cell. One of the pair is donated by the mother (the egg) and the other is from the father (the sperm). Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes.

What do the light dependent reactions provide for the light independent reactions?

ATP and NADPH

Mendel's 2nd Law (Law of Independent Assortment)

Alleles of a gene for one trait segregate independently from the alleles of a gene for another trait during meiosis

Alleles

Alternate forms of a gene, i.e. red or white flower color

Dominant

An allele that is expressed in both the homozygote and the heterozygote.

Recessive

An allele that is not expressed in the heterozygote (not expressed when a dominant allele is present).

What is an enzyme?

Biological catalyst; made up of proteins (Some RNA based enzymes)

Endotherms include:

Birds and mammals, humans

What is carbon fixation and when does it occur?

Carbon fixation is the conversion of carbon dioxide into organic compounds (carbohydrate). This occurs during the light-independent reactions.

Organic Molecules

Carbon-based molecules that are made by living things and make up much of the dry weight of living things

In lab 7, the enzyme we studied was an example of a protease and these enzymes are responsible for breaking down proteins. What specific protein was the enzyme breaking down in jello?

Collagen

Photosynthesis

Converts light energy into chemical energy that is stored in the bonds of a carbohydrate such as glucose

Each eukaryotic chromosome contains a single long, very thin piece of double stranded _____. It is almost impossible to isolate intact DNA from these chromosomes, because the thin DNA is very fragile when separated from chromosomal proteins. The DNA will shear at random locations during isolation. Typical DNA isolation procedures result in a recovery of random-sized pieces, giving a smear of DNA following separation by agarose gel electrophoresis.

DNA

In the 1860s, when Mendel was performing his pea plant experiments, _____ had not even been discovered.

DNA

_____ and __________ were considered to be the major candidates for genetic information.

DNA, proteins

Since the early experiments of Friedrich Miescher, many procedures have been used to isolate _____. The most common methods behind with __________ of cells or tissues in a buffered liquid, followed by mechanical disruption of the cells using __________ __________, __________ __________, or __________.

DNA, suspension, rapid shaking, vortex mixing, ultrasound

__________ catalyze/speed up reactions.

Enzymes

Mitosis

Exact copies

Mendel's 1st Law (Law of Segregation)

For every trait in an individual there are 2 factors (alleles), during meiosis they separate and recombine randomly during inheritance/fertilization

Mendel's "from-building elements" or "genes" are responsible for many of our visible and not-so visible characteristics. As we now know, these genes are made up of DNA, our genetic material. DNA was discovered in 1869 by __________ __________, a Swiss physician and chemist.

Friedrich Miescher

A cell enters the meiosis from interphase (after _____), so the DNA has already been replicated. In other words, each chromosome consists of two copies (sister chromatids). Meiosis is composed of two cell divisions, referred to as Meiosis I and Meiosis II, each of which is divided into four phases.

G2

Diploid

Have two complete sets of chromosomes (2N). The body tissues (somatic cells) of animals are generally diploid.

Heterozygous

Having different alleles for a particular gene on each of the homologous chromosomes. Ex. Yy

Homozygous

Having the same allele for a particular gene on each homologous chromosomes (two copies of the same allele). Ex. YY or yy

G2 Phase of Interphase

In this phase, final preparation for mitosis and cell division occur.

During what stage of cellular division does a cell spend most of its time?

Interphase

What is the importance of meiosis in terms of genetics?

It is a source of genetic variation.

__________ __________ and __________ __________ published their model for the double helical structure of DNA, and the modern era of molecular biology began.

James Watson, Francis Crick

Which two pathways of cellular respiration occur in the mitochondria?

Kreb's Cycle and Electron Transport Chain

Examples of Meiosis

Meiosis is the production of sperm and egg cells. These cells are "Gamete" or "Sex" cells. Each cell has to go through the division process twice in order for the cell to end up with half the number of chromosomes. The cells pass on genetic information to the offspring. This is a form of "Sexual" reproduction, where one organism or cells reproduces by crossing with another organism or cell. Types of organisms that reproduce sexually are; plants, animals, and insects.

Examples of Mitosis

Mitosis is the reproduction of skin, heart, stomach, cheek, hair etc. cells. These cells are "Autosomal" cells. This is also a form of "Asexual" reproduction, where one organism or cell reproduces itself. Some organisms that reproduce asexually are hydra, bacteria, and single celled organisms.

Ectotherms include:

Most invertebrates, fish, amphibians, and reptiles

Meiosis

One cell becomes 4 cells

Mitosis

One cell becomes two cells

__________ has a high tendency to pull electrons away from other molecules. For this reason oxygen is very effective in helping many organisms like animals obtain energy from food. This is accomplished through oxidation-reduction reactions (redox reactions).

Oxygen

__________ is important in the process of cellular respiration.

Oxygen

What is photolysis and when does it occur?

Photolysis is when light energy is used to split water. Photolysis occurs during the light-dependent reactions.

__________ absorb green and yellow light and appear blue or purple in color.

Phycocyanins

During what stage do the chromosomes become visible under a microscope?

Prophase

_____ is also an information molecule in our cells. The structure of RNA is similar to the structure of DNA with a few differences. Nucleotides of RNA contain the sugar _____, rather than deoxyribose. RNA does not contain nucleotides with the nitrogenous base __________ (T) but rather has nucleotides with the nitrogenous base __________ (U) along with A, C, and G.

RNA, thymine, uracil

What were the independent and dependent variables for Ex III? Null Hypothesis?

-Ind= PH -Dep= Setting/state of jello -PH does not affect the setting of the liquid/juice (jello).

Fermentation

-Lactic acid (Step 1 only) -Alcoholic

What are the two steps/stages of photosynthesis?

-Light Dependent -Light Independent

Haploid

Having a single set of chromosomes (1N). The sex cells of animals are generally haploid.

All living things depend on some source of food for __________. Even photosynthetic organisms such as plants will use food they produced (such as carbohydrates) as an energy source. However, in order to efficiently obtain energy from food, living organisms must be able to exchange _____ with the environment.

energy, gases

In dyhybrid crosses there are _____ possible combinations for each parent rather than two, so a large punnet square is required.

four

The end result of meiosis II is _____ haploid cells from the _____ haploid cells form in meiosis I.

four, two

Cellular respiration is the process that converts __________ to a form of energy usable by cells. That energy is known by the three letter abbreviation _____.

glucose, ATP

Why is the shape of an enzyme important?

-An enzyme is specific to reactions. The specific substrate of an enzyme has the same shape as the active site on the enzyme. The substrate and enzyme fit together like a lock and key. -Enzymes function by lock and key-each enzyme has to fit the molecules that it joins together or it breaks apart; if it does not fit, it cannot function.

What are ectotherms?

-Animals in which the body temperature depends mainly on the environmental temperature -Body temperature fluctuates -Use external heat source

What are endotherms?

-Animals that use physiological means to maintain a relatively constant body temperature -Constant body temperature -Use internal heat

Gregor Mendel

-Austrian monk -Working with inheritance in pea plants in the 1850s and 1860s -Formed two basic laws that underline what we now refer to as Mendelian genetics

Codominance

-Both homozygous phenotypes are expressed completely in the heterozygote. An example of found in ABO blood types where A and B are codominant. -A person with type AB blood expresses the traits of both Type A and Type B blood.

Proteases

-Break down proteins -Proteins are made up of long chains of amino acids connected together by a specific type of covalent bond know a peptide bond. Proteolytic enzymes work through hydrolysis reactions, in which water is used to break peptide bonds, leaving individual amino acids or short chains of amino acids .

Genes

-Form building elements that caused the physical characteristics or, units of inheritance -Made up of DNA and are found arranged at specific locations on chromosomes -Many genes code for the proteins that control the appearance of your body and how it functions -There are also genes encoding the proteins that make your muscles function correctly (or incorrectly) and the ones that carry oxygen through your bloodstream

What were the independent and dependent variables for Ex II? Null Hypothesis?

-Ind= Temperature -Dep= Setting/state of jello -Temperature does not affect the setting of the liquid/juice (jello).

What were the independent and dependent variables for Ex I? Null Hypothesis?

-Ind= Type of liquid/juice -Dep= Setting/state of jello -The type of liquid/juice will not affect the setting of the liquid/juice (jello).

What is the purpose of electrophoresis and what does it do?

-It attracts positive and negative charges. -It helps to separate DNA. -Typically, a DNA molecule is digested with restriction enzymes, and the agarose gel electrophoresis is used as a diagnostic tool to visualize the fragments. An electric current is used to move the DNA molecules across an agarose gel, which is a polysaccharide matrix that functions as a sort of sieve.

What are the 4 organic molecules?

-Lipids (Not true macromolecules because they are not made up of repeating units)- Fats and fat like molecules composed mainly of carbon and hydrogen -Carbohydrates- Made of sugars (monomer) and polymers of sugar -Proteins- Major working molecules of the cell; Made of amino acids (monomer) -Nucleic Acids- Responsible for carrying and transmitting genetic information in cells; Made of nucleotides (monomer)

How does/Two ways an enzyme accelerate chemical reactions?

-Lower activation energy -The enzyme lowers the activation energy of the reaction. The lower the activation energy for a reaction, the faster the rate. -Bring reactants closer

What kind of cells do mitosis and meiosis produce (i.e. what is the difference)?

-Mitosis produces identical cells. -Meiosis produces mixed cells.

What are the three pathways of aerobic respiration?

1. Glycolysis- The breaking down of glucose; takes 6C glucose molecules are and splits it into 3C pyruvate molecules 2. Kreb's Cycle/Citric Acid Cycle- Provides coenzymes which go to the electron transport chain 3. Electron Transport Chain- Oxygen accepts the electrons and is reduced to water

Scientific Method

1. Make many OBSERVATIONS using the senses, instruments, and the work of others to gather knowledge about nature. 2. ANALYZE the information gathered and develop one or more HYPOTHESES, which are tentative explanations to account for observations. 3. Use hypothesis as a guide to collect additional observations, or perhaps to perform EXPERIMENTS to test the hypothesis. The results may support the hypothesis, in which case further testing can occur, or it may refute the hypothesis. 4. If the hypothesis is supported by many different types of observations and experiments, it. may be elevated to a THEORY. As long as there is NO valid evidence that the theory is false, it is retained. 5. Hypotheses and theories have predictive value. When a generalization is strongly supported, it can be used to make testable predictions about similar phenomena. However, keep in mind that just because a generalization was supported in the past does not mean that it will be correct for every circumstance in the future.

What was the name of the protease enzyme we studied in lab 7 that can be found in pineapple juice?

Bromelain

What is bromelain?

Bromelain is a protease that breaks down proteins. It is found in fresh pineapple juice.

In animals, O2 is taken into the body and transported (often via a circulatory system) to all of the cells of the body for the final step of aerobic respiration. However, a byproduct of aerobic respiration is _____, which must be released back into the environment. An excess of carbon dioxide is harmful to animals. Thus cellular respiration is dependent upon gas exchange (breathing). Keep in mind that the more energy an aerobic organism needs, the more glucose it will have to break down.

CO2

Other pigments such as carotenoids and phycocyanins are also contained within the thylakoids. __________ absorb blue and green light and thus appear yellow, orange, or red.

Carotenoids

What is the process where an organism exchanges gases with their environment to turn food molecules into useable energy within cells?

Cellular Respiration

__________ is the key light-capturing molecule and is usually the most abundant pigment in the thylakoids. It is responsible for absorbing violet, blue, and red light but reflects green. Therefore, it appears green.

Chlorophyll

Where does photosynthesis occur in plant cells?

Chloroplasts are membrane-bound organelles that are the sites of photosynthesis.

What is the effect of temperature on the metabolic rate of aquatic ectotherms?

Low temperature leads to lower metabolic rates. The ectotherm needs less oxygen and food/energy which makes them sluggish. Other ectotherms maintain active lifestyles in freezing weather by increasing their metabolic enzymes. This allows the animals to maintain a high rate of metabolism, but it requires increased oxygen and food consumption.

__________ __________ are an integral part of cellular respiration. These reactions occur in a series during cellular respiration and can be analogous to a relay race where the electrons are the batons being passed from one relay racer to the next. During the race, energy is released from the electrons of food molecules such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. This energy is eventually used to produce _____ molecules, which serve as the necessary energy currency that powers all cells. The final relay of electrons is made to oxygen, which is reduced to become water. __________ serves as the final acceptor in cellular respiration. This is why most multicellular organisms such as humans and many unicellular ones need oxygen!

Redox reactions, ATP, oxygen

The substrate binds to the __________ _____ of the __________.

active site, enzyme

Cellular respiration using oxygen is called __________ __________.

aerobic respiration

Cells switch to __________ respiration or fermentation when __________ is not present/available.

anaerobic, oxygen

Dividing cells are in what is known as the _____ __________, a regular sequence of growth and division. The cell cycle consists of two parts:

cell cycle 1. interphase and 2. mitosis, including cytokinesis

Plants use a different form of cytokinesis, in which a _____ __________ forms between the two sets of chromosomes to divide the __________. This is necessary because of the presence of a cell wall in plant cells.

cell plate, cytoplasm

One of the most remarkable things about Gregor Mendel's discovery of the basic principles of genetics is that he did his work without any knowledge of the __________ nature of __________ information or its __________.

chemical, genetic, inheritance

As telophase is occurring, the process of __________ begins to occur as well. In animal cells, the cell membrane constricts forming a cleavage furrow, and eventually pinches off, causing two cells to be formed. This is due to the action of cytoskeletal proteins called actin filaments, which make up a contracting ring.

cytokinesis

If conditions are too extreme, the enzyme may become __________, and cease to function entirely. In some cases, __________ is not reversible.

denatured, denaturation

Most animals begin life as a single cell-the fertilized egg. The single cell undergoes repeated cell __________ to make all of the cells that comprise the multicellular organism.

divison

DNA contained phosphate groups that have negative charges. When an __________ __________ is applied to buffer surrounds a gel containing DNA, the DNA will migrate toward the positive electrode. If the DNA is loaded into wells formed into an agarose gel, the DNA will move through the solid agarose toward the positive charge. __________ pieces of DNA will be able to move more easily and rapidly through the agarose. Thus the gel electrophoresis will separate the DNA by _____. Generally pieces of DNA of known size are loaded into one well of an electrophoretic gel so that the sizes of isolated DNA can be determined.

electric current, smaller, size

Oxygen is the final __________ acceptor in the last step of aerobic respiration, which is the ONLY reason organisms such as humans need oxygen.

electron

Redox reactions occur when __________ are transferred from one molecule to another.

electrons

DNA is often analyzed using a method known as gen __________.

electrophoresis

In animals, all cells are diploid except the sex cells or __________. Sexual reproduction requires a genetic contribution from two different gametes-the egg and the sperm.

gametes

The process of _____ __________ and obtaining __________ from food are two fundamental processes of life that are vital to the survival of organisms.

gas exchange, energy

Further experiments with bacteria and viruses in the 1940s and 1950s finally confirmed DNA's role as the carrier of __________ __________.

genetic information

Although glycolysis, the anaerobic pathway, generates a small amount of useable energy from the splitting of __________, by adding the aerobic pathways (Kreb's Cycle and the ETC) organisms can generate 16 to 19 times more useable energy from that very same glucose.

glucose

In cellular respiration cells are converting __________ to __________.

glucose, energy

Chloroplasts contain stacks of membranous sacks called __________. The individual membranous sacks are __________, which contain pigments necessary for absorbing light energy used to initiate photosynthesis.

grana, thylakoids

The object of the mitotic cell cycle is to produce two genetically __________ daughter cells from the starting mother cell. For this to occur, it is necessary to make an exact copy of the __________ __________ (DNA) and to have a means for dividing that material equally between two new cells.

identical, genetic material

The sex cells are formed through __________, a process that separates the homologous chromosomes to form haploid cells.

meiosis

All cells must be able to break down food to obtain energy for vital cellular processes. The cells energy-generating and energy-using chemical reactions are collectively known as __________.

metabolism

Metaphase is the second phase of mitosis. Due to the action of the spindle, the sister chromatids line up in the middle of the spindle. This is known as the __________ __________.

metaphase plate

Kreb's Cycle and Electron Transport Chain occur in the __________.

mitochondria

In __________, you start with one cell and end up with two genetically identical daughter cells. Each cell has a copy of all of the genetic material and each has the same number of chromosomes. Most of the trillions of cells in your body are produced by this mitotic cell cycle.

mitosis

The second division of meiosis is considered to be __________-like because sister chromatids, rather than homologous chromosomes, will separate.

mitosis

Animal cells undergo two major types of cell divisions known as __________ and __________.

mitosis, meiosis

DNA is a polymer of __________. There are four different types nucleotides in DNA, each consisting of a nitrogenous base, a deoxyribose sugar, and a phosphate group. The nucleotides are identified by the letter representing their nitrogenous bases: A for adenine, C for cytosine, G for guanine, and T for thymine.

nucleotides

Remember that the chromosomes are in the __________ of the cell during interphase.

nucleus

Telophase I is the final phase of the first meiotic division. The homologous chromosomes arrive at __________ end of the cell, the __________ breaks down, and __________ occurs to divide the cell in two. The cells are now considered to be haploid since they no longer have homologous pairs, even though there are still sister chromatids present in each cell.

opposite, spindle, cytokinesis

The rate of the enzyme-mediated reaction is fastest when conditions are closest to __________ (best; favorable outcome) for that enzyme. As the conditions move away from the optimum (for example, an increase or decrease in PH) the rate of the reaction will __________.

optimum, decline

Although some animals may survive weeks or even months without food, most cells cannot survive very long without __________. Without oxygen available to obtain energy from food, cells such as those of the brain will quickly __________ to death.

oxygen, starve

The color of light absorbed by the plants has an effect on the __________ rate.

photosynthetic

The first division of meiosis is considered the __________ division, because it reduces the number of chromosomes in the cell from the diploid number to the haploid number.

reduction

The addition of _____ and __________ to the disrupted cell solution will cause the DNA to __________ out of solution.

salt, alcohol, precipitate

The overall process of meiosis gives four haploid cells from one diploid cell. These haploid cells will then differentiate into eggs or sperm, depending on the _____ of the organism in which they are produced. The haploid sex cells can fuse with the opposite type to make the diploid zygote.

sex

In lab 7 we studied the ability of jello to __________.

solidify

Metaphase I follows prophase I. The chromosomes line up in the middle of the __________, but again it is _____ of duplicated chromosomes (tetrodes), rather than single duplicated chromosomes.

spindle, pairs

Th light-independent reactions occur in the __________ of chloroplasts and are considered the second stage of photosynthesis.

stroma

The fluid filled space is called the __________. It contains enzymes responsible for driving the photosynthetic reactions that reduce carbon dioxide into carbohydrates.

stroma

The molecules with which enzymes react are called __________. Enzymes bind briefly to them , modify them, and then release the altered products.

substrates

Most living organisms depend upon the __________ produced by photosynthetic organisms as an energy source.

sugar

A single stand of DNA is said to have a __________-__________ __________. Adjacent nucleotides are joined together by a condensation reaction (dehydration synthesis) that forms a covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of the next one.

sugar-phosphate backbone

Enzymes are made of proteins, and the three-dimensional structure of the proteins is the result of different types of weak bonds such as ionic and hydrogen bonds. This three-dimensional structure, which is necessary for proper enzyme function, can be altered by a number of conditions such as __________ and __________.

temperature, PH