Bio possible essay

Lecture 5: What is the different between ecosystem functions and process?

An ecosystem process: is a complex interaction among physical and chemical elements that regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment. Ecosystems process are ultimately what create energy in an environment. 1. Photosythesis 2. Decomposition 3. Pollination 4. Transpiration ecosystem functions: are the primary ecosystem process of capturing storing and transferring energy, carbon dioxide, nutrients and water. examples of the main ecosystem functions include: 1. Energy transfer (relies on ecological processes such as carnivory, photosynthesis and decomposition. 2. Nutrient transfer 3. water transfer 4. C02 transfer

Lecture 7: Describe the elements associated with animal behavior

Animal behavior is broken down into learning and instinct. Instinct is the adaptive behavior learned during the history of the species. And learning is the adaptive behavior from learning during the history of the Individual. -To test to see is a behavior involves learning or instinct, need to test how animals respond to stimuli and see how animals react normally.

Lecture 8: what are biomes provide some examples

Biomes are areas that share a similar climate, terrain, soil conditions and have comparable communities. There are many biomes such as 1. Savanna: too little rainfall to support forests, dry season prone to fire. Grazing, plants with deep roots. 2.Desert: characterized by low moisture and low levels of precipitation. Soils are easily distributed by activities. Plants have water conservation characteristics. 3. Temperate grassland: communities of grasses and flowering plants. Few trees do to poor rainfall. Large temperature fluctuations. Thick soils, land is converted to farmland and grazing land. 4.Tropical forest: More than 200 cm of annual rainfall, hot temperatures year round, has many species, rapid decomposition and nutrient cycling. 5.Tundra: treeless, very short growing season with cold winters. Arctic tundra has low diversity and resilience. Alpine tundra receives intense solar radiation, hot daytime and potential draughts. 6.Temperate Deciduous Forest: support lush summer plant growth, leaves are adapted to freezing temps. Areas in the USA were heavily forested for timber. 7. Conifer Forests: broad mix of coniferous and deciduous tree. Moist cool climates with abundant trees and wetlands. 8.Aquatic Biomes: Aquatic systems also show patterns of variations and therefore can be categorized like biomes. Aquatic systems are shaped by water temperature, salinity, dissolved nutrients currents, waves, etc.

Lecture 5: . what was the biotic interchange.

Biotic interchange: the exchange of species resulting after the abolishment of a barrier that used to separate two distinct types of flora and fauna. Example would be the great american biotic exchange, which occurred over 2.5 million years. In which in which the North and South America boundaries became attached with the volcanic isthmus of panama rose up from the sea floor. Therefore there was a lot of species mixing, gradually there was species extinctions due to competition and predation.

Lecture 9: Body cavities?

Body cavities (evolutionary branch point) -Coelom: Have a space for separating digestive tract from outer body wall. Cushion internal organs. Allows internal organs to grow and move independent of outer body wall. Lead to more complex animals. Soft bodied animals.

Lecture 8: what is co-evolution

Co-evolution is a long term evolutionary adjustments of species in relation to one another. Pretty much Co-evolution is when one organisms revolve in response to specific characteristics. Co evolution involves different symbiotic relationships. ex. the moth and the Yucca plant. Yucca flower has certain shape in which only tiny months can pollinate. Moths lay their eggs in the flower and the larvae eat on the yucca seeds.

Lecture 5: Define what a community, assemblage and Guild is.

Community: a community is based on geography. A community can be characterized by the dominant plant or the species that forms the substrate for the community to grow on or the type of biotype. Pretty much in ecology a community is a group of two or different species occupying the same geographical area. Ex. The fish community of lake whatever Assemblages: based on both geography and phylogeny. Examples would the beetle assemblage of the amazon rainforest, as it combines the geography which is the amazon rainforest and the phylogeny which is the taxon beetle species. Guild: A group of species that exploit the same resources in a similar manner. Example saprotrophs are organism that obtain nutrients from both dead organic matter (fungi, bacteria etc.) Another example of trophic guilds are piscivores which are carnivorous animals that primarily consume fish such as birds, mammal, etc. Filter feeders are another example of a trophic guild as species that feed by straining suspended matter and food particles from water (example whales, krill, sponges). Overall guilds are organism that perform similar functions in an ecosystems.

Lecture 8: Plant adaptation in different environments

Do to the variety of different biomes, plants have needed to come up with a way to adapt to the certain climates and weather. Mesophytes: plants that have neither adapted to dry or particularly wet environments. (most flowering plants). Xerophytes: Adapted to survive in an environment that lack sufficient amounts of water Hydrophytes: plants adapted to survive in wet habitats. Plant adaptation in the desert: Cactus family has a shallow roots system to collect water, enlarged stems to store water, leaves reduced to thorns (reduce surface area and therefore minimize water loss). Stomata remain shut during the day but open at night to collect C02 and C02 is stored during the day and used for photosynthesis. Plant adaptations for coastal environments: sandy conditions drain water quickly and windy conditions increase loss of water. Hairs on the leafs stop or slow air movement. Rolled leaves reduce water loss. Xerophyte plant adaptations: Thick cuticle, small leaf surface area, rolled leaves, extensive roots, sunken stomata. Hydrophyte plant adaptations: extremely high number of stomata per unit area open all the time. Have plants with drip tips to help them shed the water from the rainfall, this is seen in plants in the tropical rainforest Cold adaptations: Deciduous: perennial plants that lose their foliate during harsh season Frost Hardening: chemical changes resulting in biological antifreeze Hairs on the plants that trap heat

Lecture 4: What is the biggest threat to islands? give examples

Due to the islands small size the biggest threat to islands is the loss of genetic diversity. Genetic diversity can be lost several ways. 1. Founder effect: when a population already has a limited number of genes, natural selection can only work on the genes in the existing population making it harder to survive. 2. Demographic Bottleneck: Sharp reduction in the size of a population due to chance such as an earthquake, hurricane. therefore the gene pool is reduced dramatically. 3. Genetic drift: Change in frequency of an allele population due to random mating. 4. Inbreeding: reproduction from mating pairs who are closely related genetically.

Lecture 5: What is the difference between fundamental and realized niche

Ecological Niche: all the abiotic and biotic parameters necessary to sustain organism. Fundamental Niche: is the set of biotic and abiotic parameters than an organism can potentially utilize Realized Niche: is the set of biotic and abiotic parameters than an organism actually utilizes after interacting/competing with other species.

Lecture 7: . what are the three ecological approaches.

Ecology is the study of the biotic and abiotic interactions within a ecosystem. There are several ecological approaches when it comes to this field of study. 1. Descriptive: from a point of view of history. Describes vegetation groups and studies the interaction between plants and animals. 2. Functional: looks at dynamics and relationships. Identifies the general problems common in all ecosystems. -----Proximate causes: responses to immediate factors of the environment ------Ultimate causes: historical reasons why natural selection has favored the adaptations we see. 3. Evolutionary : Considers organism and relationships. Asks why natural selection favors a particular solution

Lecture 5: what are the different types of diversity?

Genetic Diversity: the variation of alleles, entire genes or chromosomal structure within a species population. Species diversity: the number of different species encountered in a community. There are two major components of species diversity 1. Species richness 2. evenness Phylogenetic diversity: a measure of biodiversity which incorporates phylogenetic difference between species. Compare the taxonomic levels of species to see how related species are Functional Diversity: the range of functions that species perform within a community A functional trait is a phenotype or characteristic of an organism (defined by its niche) that many influence its survival. Such as a different feeding or swimming strategy. Ecosystem Diversity: the variation of habitats and communities within a landscape Biodiversity is necessary for ecosystem to function: species within ecosystem are directly or indirectly interdependent and constitute the trophic web. They participate in a multitude of ecological processes (production, decomposition, pollination). Overall these processes are crucial for the survival of an ecosystem and if one of these disappears it could be fatal to the ecosystem

Lecture 4: What are some problems arising from industrialized agriculture?

Industrialized agriculture does severe harm to the environment. As this human activity results in biodiversity loss, soil erosion, pollution of air and water. 1. Biodiversity loss: loss of genetic diversity of wild crop strains, organisms are killed by pesticide runoff. 2. Soil: Erosion, trampling by cattle, water-logging from excess irrigation 3. Water: Sediment pollution and flooding, Depletion of aquifers. 4. Air Pollution: Co2 emission from the burning of fossil fiels and methane emission from cattle 5. Human Health: livestock contamination of drinking water, pesticides residues in water food, bacterial contamination of meat.

Lecture 6: compare an contrast intertidal zones with open oceans.

Intertidal zones: Mixture of fresh and salty water. This environment is both physiologically and ecologically challenging for organism. Organism have specialized features to cope with the changing salinity. For example they exude sale from skin, transport ion across gill, control urine volume, and have a mucous layer to prevent salt transport. The intertidal zone close proximity to the shore, have organisms the have adapted to the harsh environments. The combination of the waves, the changing salinity and water being intermittent makes it hard for organism to live in this environment. Oceanic Zones: -Pelagic zone: whole body of water. This area is further broken down into the epipelagic zone, mesopelagic zone, bathypelagic zone, abyssal zone and hadal zone. -Benthic Zone: Botton zone -Photic Zone: Light penetrates -Aphotic Zone: NO LIGHT

Lecture 5: what was the LGM (last glacier movement)

LGM: occurred 18,000 years ago, more glacier ice due to the lows temps, ice sheets reached a maximum. Most of northern europe was covered and the sea level was low. The sea level dropped 120 meters below the present level during the LGM

Lecture 5: why are there so many species (species rich) near the trophics.

Latitude Gradients: idea that there are more species near the trophics than the poles. There are several reasons/ theories behind why the tropics are species rich 1. Chance 2. Historical perturbation: the tropics have been existed for a long time uninterrupted unlike temperate climates, therefore the tropics have been an at ecological equilibrium for a while. 3. Climate Stability Hypothesis: More stable environments such as the tropics allow time for species to specialize in exploiting resources by occupying smaller niches and thus favoring speciation 4. Spatial Heterogeneity: tropics are diverse environments and therefore can accommodate extra species they have a greater variety of microhabitats, microclimates and places to hide from predators.

Lecture 2: the Nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen Cycle in Soils: For Nitrogen to be used by different life-forms on earth, it must change into different states. The bacteria in the soil help the nitrogen change states so that it can be used from different life forms. 1. Fixation: this is the first step in the process of making nitrogen usable by plants, Here bacteria change nitrogen to ammonium. 2. Nitrification: this is the process by which ammonium gets changed into nitrates by bacteria, plants can absorb nitrites 3. Assimilation: this is how the plants get nitrogen. They absorb nitrates from the soil in their roots. 4. Ammonification: this is part of the decaying process. When a plant or animal dies, decomposers such as fungi and bacteria turn the nitrogen back into ammonium so that it can renter. 5. Denitrification: extra nitrogen in the soil gets put back out into the air. Special bacteria perform this task Overall plants and animals cannot live without nitrogen which is why it is an important part of many cells. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dmuhc0zVFI8

Lecture 6: compare the pelagic, Benthic and abyssal communities.

Pelagic communities -Phytoplankton, nanoplankton and herbivorous zooplankton dominate open oceans. -Food chain begins with smaller organisms besides phytoplankton such as bacteria and protists. Benthic Communities: This is the floor of the sea, so there is darkness and therefore no photosynthesis. The community here is strictly heterotrophic (can not make its own food) -Despite the lack of light and high pressure there is actually a lot of species diversity in these regions. -There are two modes of life in these communities, they either burrow into the sediment or live on surface. -Organisms in the benthic community consist of -Macrobenthos: Polychaete worms and mollusks most abundant -Meiobenthos Nematodes worms and small crustaceans -Microbenthos :Bacteria, fungi protozoans. Abyssal Communities -Deep ocean floor, cold dark and subject to crushing pressures. Have thermal vents which provide some life.

Lecture 8: What is photosynthesis and respiration?

Photosynthesis: The plants use carbon dioxide and sunlight and releasing oxygen. The leaves are the food making part of the plant, as the chloroplasts in the leaves capture energy from the sun. Together the water and C02 are converted into sugar and starch, while at the same time releasing oxygen Respiration: Take up oxygen and release carbon dioxide. is the process by which sugars are oxidized and energy is derived from the molecular bonds that are broken. Cellular respiration occurs in mitochondria. Overall respiration releases energy that is used for normal cell maintenance. http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_ocr_gateway/green_world/photosynthesisrev1.shtml

Lecture 9: what are annelida and provide some examples

Phylum :Annelida: Segmented worms -Found in marine, freshwater and damp soil -body is divided into segments -True coelom (hydrostatic skeleton) -Have chaetae which help with motion -Three main groups: oligochaetes, leeches and polychaetes

Lecture 9: What are cnidarian and provide details

Phylum Cnidaria (Jellyfish, Corals) -Have true tissues, radial symmetry, no body cavity (basic body plan a sac with a central digestive compartment) single opening functions as mouth and anus. -have an two germ layers Exoderm and Endoderm -predators-tentacles with stinging cells -Have two variations in body form: Polyp forms: attached to substrate and extend tentacles (no free moving) (coral) Medusa form Flattened mouth downwards Free moving (jellyfish) -Use tentacles to catch prey -Have cnidocytes to capture prey and defence.

Lecture 9: what are flatworms and provide details?

Phylum: Platyhelminthes: Flatworms -Simplest animal with bilateral symmetry. Two forms: free living and parasitic. Flatwoms lack a body cavity. Have a large surface area for gas exchange. Free living species. Has a pharynx for the elimination of waste. Parasitic Tapeworms, long ribbon like body Flukes

Lecture 8: What are Brophytes and how do they reproduce

Plants that include mosses, have a waxy cuticle to help prevent dehydration. Most lack vascular tissues (helps with water retention) and therefore require wet/damp environments. No lignin and therefore lack support. Plants grow closely together. Bryophytes produce with spores not seeds. Reproduction: Alternation of generations. Gameotophyte produces sexually and sporophyte produce asexually. Male makes sperms in the (Antherida) and female makes an egg in the (archegonia). However water transports the sperm to the female egg in which they form a diploid zygote which produces a sporophyte which has a capusles contain spores which is dispered. When the spores reach a wet environment will germinate.

Lecture 8: What are the three groups of vascular plants?

Pteridophytes: include ferns, are vascular plants and therefore have a well developed systems of roots and rigid stems. Produce spores, not seeds. Have flagellated sperm that require water to reach the eggs. Unlike mosses the ferns we see are the sporophyte version of the plant. ex.Ferns, horsetails, seedless plants.reproduction structures are cones. Female cones (ovalues) are fertilized by male pollen. As the embryo mature its makes a seed Gymnosperms: seeds have replaced spores. Reproduction via seeds has advantages for both plant survival and dispersal. Seeds are embryonic sporophyte and therefore can tolerate extreme conditions. Seeds can postpone development till conditions are favorable unlike gametophyte. Examples of these plants that have naked seeds included conifers (spruce, pines). Another innovation found in these plants in addition to seeds is pollination, now longer relying on water as a mechanism of delivering the male gametophyte. ex. conifers, cycad, early seed plants that produce naked seeds Angiosperms: flowering plants! Seeds now have specialized structures which is a container and seed is surrounded by fruit important for dispersal. Attracts pollinators very successful group pf plants makes up a huge chunk of the living species on earth. SO MUCH FREAKIN FOOD COMES FROM FLOWERING PLANTS SUCH AS CHOCOLATE RICE GRAINS COTTON LINEN AND EVEN ASPIRIN -Have flowers so do not have to rely on wind to carry pollen. Propbably co-evolved with animals. -Anther produce pollen and ovales are in the ovary. rely on pollination for fertilization. anythign that contains a seed is fruit. ex. flowering plants, seeds are protected

Lecture 3: . Provide examples of modern environmentalism

Rachel Carson was a nature writer in the 1950's. She wrote the book Silent Spring in 1962 and the book became widely popular, casting light on pollution, pesticides, etc. Great Lakes: contain over 20% of the world's fresh water. But have become heavily polluted. Especially lake Erie. Torrey Canyon: huge oil tanker but struck a reed in 1967, resulted in the World's most serious oil spill at the time. Spill caught on fire. UN conference of the environment in Stockholm 1972: represented the beginning of modern political and public awareness of global environmental problems 1. Club of Rome: first attempt to predict future earth using computer simulation 2.Blueprint for survival: talked about over exploitation of resources and pollution 3. Stockholm declaration: natural resources must be safeguarded, more renewable energy wildlife needs to be protected, etc. Other movements Friends on earth:founded in 1969 as originally an anti nuclear group. Now they campaign on global and local issues. Greenpeace:founded in 1971, also started as movement to prevent nuclear testing. Now has campaigns concerning climate change and marine reserves. United National Environmental Protection Programme (UNEP): deals with biodiversity, climate change, ozone depletion,etc.

Lecture 9: What are Nematoda

Roundworms -cylindrical body -among the most diverse and widespread of of all animal groups. Found in most aquatic habitats, wet soil and parasites. -Complete digestive tract -Body cavity: pseudocoelom and a hydrostatic skeleton

Lecture 9: What are sponges provide some descriptions

Sponges: (phylum Porifera) (multicellular and lack true tissues) -Simplest of all multicellular animals -Loose federations of cells, not tissues. -No body cavity -Are filter feeders bacteria from water streaming through their bodies. -Choanocytes ( flagellated cells) -Amoebocytes (digest food and carry nutrients) -Range of skeletal types: Calcium carbonate and spongin

Lecture 8: what was the push and Pull method in Africa?

Stem Borers and Striga weeds are the most destructive pest of crops and can greatly reduce yields of maize and sorghum on small farms. The impact of these pests can be fatal to a farmer's crop yield and the control of these pests is very not only expensive but not environmentally friendly. Therefore farmers use both desmodium legumes and Napier grass to control the stem borer moths and striga weeds. The desmodium is planted between the rows of maize which repels the moths (push) and napier grass is planted around the maize crop which traps the months because they are more attracted to the grass than the maize (Pull). More over the desmodium that is planted prevents the striga weeds from growing. Benefits: increase crop yield. Napier grass and desmodium can be used as cattle feed. Desmodium acts as a cover which protects soil from erosion. napier grass provides shelter for maize from wind.

Lecture 8: What is symbiosis

Symbiosis: Two or more kinds of organism living together in close associations. There are different forms of symbiosis such as: 1.Mutualism: both parties benefit ------Ex. Acacia trees and ants. Ants nest inside the spines of the tree and feed on the leaves. But the ants provide an aggressive defense from insects. ------Nitrogen fixing bacteria and legume plants: bacteria receive a carbohydrate food source and plant receives nitrogen 2.Parasitism: One species benefit where the other is harmed. 3. Commensalism: one species benefits and the other neither benefits nor is harmed ------Epiphytes- plants that grow on top of another plant for support and position. Examples of this relationship is seen in orchids, Spanish moss, etc.

Essay questions: Giving examples, describe the various types of body cavity in the invertebrates.

The coelom is the main body cavity in most animals. The coelom is positioned inside the body to surround and contain the digestive tract and other organs. Some invertebrates like flatworms lack this body cavity where round worms are pseudocolemates and therefore have an incomplete body cavity. But molluscs have them.

Lecture 5: What are coral reefs, how are these habitats being effected?

The coral reef environment involves shallow water, clear water and depends greatly on the temperature. There are three types of coral reefs fringing reefs, barrier reefs, carol atolls. Coral Bleaching: There is a symbiotic relationship between coral and zooxanthellae algae. So when the zooxanthellae become temperature stressed they leave the coral. Therefore, just one degree above the typical summer max is enough to bleach corals. Coral is bleaching because of climate change, pollution and exposure to low tide. Coral Reef diversity: Coral reefs are referred to the rainforests of the sea and support rich communities. From the southeast asia to the great barrier reef there are over 700 species of coral and supports more than 16% of the worlds marine fish. The great barrier reef is the world's largest system of reefs. Threats to Coral reefs: reports estimated that 75% of remaining coral reefs are currently threatened and may have already been lost. With the rising temperature there is more bleaching happening due to the loss of symbiotic algae. Alsp oceans are becoming acidic, pollutant and introduction of invasive species. In hawaii there are a lot of problems with invasive species that outcompete the species.

Lecture 3: explain the different strands of the environmental movement.

The environmental movement can be categorized in four strands which outline the movements progression 1. Colonial exploitation: The age of colonialism were characterized not only by the destruction of cultures but the destruction of environments. Land was heavily damaged to to the planting of cash crops such as tobacco and especially sugarcane. This is seen in two major islands St. Helenas, a port city near the coast of Africa and Tobago an Caribbean islands. Both areas were heavily affected by deforestation. However with some help which is seen in with Governor Roberts trying to help out St. Helena, these islands came under some protection 2. Love of Nature: Gilbert White wrote, "Natural History of Selborne" which White argued for a more rural way of life. John Muir helped established the Yosemite national park and was a founder of the sierra club. 3. Cruelty to animals: Animals for a long time were considered to be responsible for their actions. So much so that animals use to be put on trial for their actions. Rene Descartes said that humans ans animals differed. the abolish-meant of slavery helped with the treatment of animals. Overall the treatment of animals helped change the way people viewed the environment. 4. Overpopulation and environmental pollution: Irish potato famine, Chorea spread and overcrowded cities, changed the way people viewed the environment. In the 1800's many people died from the London Smog. 5. Environmental ethics: looking at the relationship between humans and the natural world. Looking at schools of thought such as anthropocentricism, Bio-centrism and Utilitarianism.

Essay question: Describe some of the groups of animals which did not invade the land and discuss why they did not do so.

The groups that did not make it to land were the: 1. Sponges -Lack true tissues -filter feeds -immobile 2. Cnidaria -Coral and jellyfish. Have two germ layers endoderm and exoderm so can ingest and get rid of food. Radial symmetry. Can either be stationary (sessile polyp form) and floating medusa 3. Ecinoderms Star fish! water vascular system to transport water. Bilateral as larvae and radial as adults. Slow moving.

Lecture 8: Describe plant evolution from water to terrestrial environments

There is significant evidence to suggest that plants have evolved from aquatic environments. The first land plants evolved from green algae millions of years ago. However, in order to make the move from aquatic to terrestrial environments plants needed certain characteristics in order to survive. These adaptations included: 1. Cuticle: plants faced drying out and needed to find a way to conserve water. Therefore developed a waxy water-proof to retain water. 2. Guard cells flanking openings in the epidermis layer of the leaves. By opening these guard cells the plant is able to allow gas exchange by diffusion through the open stomata. 3. Rigid tissues made from specialized plant cells containing lignin. Provided support to the plants because they were no longer supported in water. 4. Vascular tissue (xylem and Phloem) transport water and nutrients up and down the plant. 5. Fertilization: Organisms in water can release their gametes into the water - encounter of sex cells relatively easy. On land, such a scenario is not possible. Solution - living in moist environments (ferns and bryophytes) or by using pollen grains (non swimming male gametophytes) - adapted to use wind to transport sperm to eggs - therefore replaces the reliance of water. Also development of specialized delivery systems like pollen tubes to get the sperm cells to the egg

Lecture 8: what are trophic leves

Trophic levels shows how energy flows in an ecosystem. Each energy supplies energy to the next trophic level, however only 10% is passed on as in reality a lot of energy is lost. 1.Producers: autographs, plants, convert energy from the sun to food 2.Consumers: Heterotrophs, animals, depend on producers for food 3. Decomposers: Fungi, bacteria break down chemicals from producers and consumers to simpler forms to be reused.

Lecture 3: Give descriptions about the main schools of philosophy surrounding the environmental ethics

When it comes to environmental ethics there are multiple schools of thought. 1. Utilitarianism: Nature is a resource, an action is good if it provides the greatest good for the greatest number of people. 2. Anthropocentric: Human value is the most important 3. Bio-centrism: Nature has intrinsic value.

Lecture 4: . What are some options to help the industrial agriculture industry, but what are the pros and cons

With the harmful impacts there are some alternatives to allow for the protection of agricultural ecosystems. 1. GM Crops:ery controversial especially in Europe. Allows scientists to breed together favourable traits to make crops more sustainable. GM crops allow for less fertiliser, less water, more resistant to pest, disease and draught. But affect genetic diversity and have unpredictable ecological effects. 2.Synthetic pesticides: increase food supplies, work rapidly and increase profits for farmers. But accelerate development of genetic resistance in pests, kill natural predators and parasite and pollute the environment, also farmers pay more and more for a pest systems that becomes quickly in-effective. 3. Integrated Pest Management: cultivation controls: altering planting times. Targeted use of pesticides, identify when pest is most vulnerable. 4. Organic farming: shift to more sustainable farming. Which results in reduced environmental effects, lower CO2 emissions, increased biodiversity. However it may not be enough to support food needs and would make food more expensive.

Lecture 9: Phylum Chordate

all have these main characteristics :notochord, nerve cord, Pharyngeal slits, Post anal tail. four main chordate characteristics. 1. Tunicates (invertebrates): Phalangeal slits for respiration and feeding. Many characteristics are lost in the adult stage but are present in larvae. 2. Lancelets (invertebrates) Have Phalangeal slits for feeding. Lancelets display chordate characteristics in both larvae and adult stage. 3. Vertebrates: huge diversity Example of the first vertebrates are haggish. Amphibians: First Ambians to colonise the land. Evolved from fish with lungs. Skin is a seconon respiratory surface. (Frogs, salamanders and caecilians) Reptiles and birds: reptiles, birds and mammals are amniotes. Lay amniotic eggs with have shell with help with dehydration. larvae, waterproof skin and keratinous scales (transition to terrestrial environments). Birds: evolved from two legged dinosaurs, have around 10,000 species. endotherms , feathers provide insulation, lay amniotic eggs. Have adaptations for flights. Bones resembles a honeycomb structure. Advantages of flight include escape from predators, ability to migrate and helps with hunting/scavenging. Mammals have hair which act as insulation to maintain internal temperature. Mammary glands which allow for the production of milk to nourish their young. Other important features to mammals include long parental care, large brain relative to size. Mammals are divided into groups including, monotremes, marsupials and Eutherians. -Monotreme: egg laying mammals, have hair and produce milk. Platypus -Marsupial: pouched mammals, brief gestation. -Eutherians: Includes largest and most intelligent animals. High investment in parental care. Humans are part of this group

Lecture 7: What are optimal models

are models constructed with the purpose of how an animal should behave. These models help show the cost and benefits for certain activities. For example, can conduct an optimality model about territorial defense which takes into consideration the time, energy its costs to do so along with the benefits such as access to food and increase in territory size. Optimal Foraging: any method of searching for and obtaining food that maximises the relative benefit

Lecture 2: What is a pump storage scheme

is a reversible hydro-electric plant used to store energy. Power is supplied from a power grid into the electric generators which as a motors turning the turbines which act as pumps moving water from a river/ lower reservoir to upper reservoir. This store potential energy in the water to be used.

Lecture 3: Explain the efforst of scientists such as Dian fossey, Arne Ness and John muir who belived in biocentrism.

scientists such as Diane Fossey, John Muir ans Arnes Naess believed in bio centrism, the notion that nature has intrinsic value. Diane Fossey: Studied mountain gorillas whose homes were being attacked by deforestation and poaching. Fossey's solution was active conservation such as arresting poachers and setting up anti-poaching controls. She even ended up getting murdered. Arnes Naess: believed in deep ecology, meaning that all creatures have worth! Believed that the interest of organism and the environment need to be protected.

Lecture 4: What is the four point strategy?

when it comes to salvaging ecosystems there is a four point strategy 1. Map terrestrial ecosystems, create inventory of species they contain and ecosystems provided 2. Locate and protect most endangered ecosystems and species with emphasis on plant biodiversity and ecosystem services. 3. Restore as many degraded ecosystems as possible 4. Make development as biodiversity friendly as possible.

Lecture 7: What are some classical behavioral studies.

-Associative behaviour: stimulus linked to something else unrelated. Example would be Ivan Pavlov and the bell/dog experiment. The dog began to associate the bell with food. -Imprinting: important to be able to recognize members of own species. Learning takes place in a very limited time. When the geese imprinted on the farmer hours after hatching. -Observational: Individuals become interested in an object due to other interacting with it. For example in one experiment a monkey learned how to obtain food after watching another. The study was conducted by Melvin Haggerty. -Social transmission: Japanese monkeys lived in an inland forest. Researches started feeding them sweet potatoes on a beach. One money started washing the sand off from the food before eating it and other learned from her.

Lecture 1: what is energy? what are the specific types?

-Energy is a hard term to define but broadly it is the capacity to do work or produce heat. Moreover, energy can take several forms. 1. Mechanical: associated with an objects potential or kinetic energy 2. Chemical: Energy is associated with the inner atomic forces which bind elements forming compound. When chemical energy occurs sometimes thermal energy will occur as well. 3. Electrical: is the energy that is derived from electric potential or electric kinetic energy. 4. Thermal: Kinetic energy of random, vibration motion of atoms 5. Radiant: any form of electromagnetic radiation 6. Nuclear: energy associated with the strong nuclear force which keeps protons and neutrons bond together in a nucleus.

Lecture 9: What are Mollusca

-Gastropods (snails): often marine, single spiralled shell and radula. -Bivalves (oysters)-all aquatic, no distinct head. -Cephalopods (Squid and Octi pus) : tentacles, large brains and shell. -all have three body parts a muscular foot, visceral mass and a mantle and a radula

Lecture 2: Problems with GMO and Gene escape, how have scientists created ways to combat this issue.

-Genetically modified crops are a very controversial topic. Although must food that people eat are mutants, people are weary of modifying organism more sustainable. -with the population growing at a rapid raid, GM crops can increase the quantity of food, especially in areas with poor farmland. -However, plants a concern for GM crops is gene escape. Plants that are out breeder rely on cross fertilization. These plants are the biggest concern when it comes to gene escape as plant breeding with GM crops can ultimately impact gene diversity. -GM crops have made these plants infertile by making them male therefore they don't disperse pollen. However this is expensive as a farmer will have to keep on buying seeds from biotech producers.

Lecture 4: explain the importance of Ice sheet.

-Glacial environments: about ten percent of the earth's surface is covered by ice. -Saw tooth pattern of Ice ages: Ice would grow to the max and then there would be an abrupt warming and abrupt melting, resulting in the saw-tooth pattern is the worry for global warming. This is important as it tell us that ice sheets are dynamic features, changes are sudden and large, therefore we should expect abrupt changes!!! Very, Very, Important: what do ice sheets control Present day sea level Atmospheric circulation Ocean circulation Human evolution -International panel for climate change: the aims are to identify the main factors affecting ice sheet health and to use that to help with the future health of ice sheets. -Antarctica and Climate Change: Probably too cold to react, warming increases air moisture allowing for snow and ice sheet thickening. Evidence shows that the antarctic ice sheets are growing. -The state of polar environments: Once pristine environments these polar habitats are becoming contaminate. They act as sink for contaminants such as persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals and radioactivity. Species such as polar bears and penguins are being affected by the changes in the environment

Lecture 4: explain the theory behind islands and why they are important

-Islands are very important when it comes to scientific study. Small islands tend to have fewer species, therefore resulting lower genetic variability. Scientists cane use the islands lack of species richness and study speciation and adaptation. This is particularly seen Charles Darwin Finch study. In which he founded new species of Finches that originally diverged based on natural selection.

Lecture 9: echinodermata

-Named for their spiny surfaces -7000 species known -Most are slow moving -Lack body segments -most have radial symmetry as adults but bilateral as larvae. -Most have an endoskeleton -Share evolutionary branch with chordates -Unique water vascular system: extends into tube feet for locomotion and to grip prey.

Lecture 1: What is nuclear energy? explain the pros and cons?

-Nuclear energy is the associated with the strong force between neutrons and protons in the nucleus. Nuclear fission occurs when the nucleus is split and energy is produced following Einstein's E=MC2. Uranium or Plutonium isotopes are normally used as the fuels in nuclear reactors because their nuclei are easy to split. Pretty much the process involves a uranium or plutonium isotope being hit by a neutron. -Nuclear energy is highly efficient and produces zero Co2, but is both expensive and the waste remains radioactive for long periods. The spent fuel rods are burried underground, but the process is expensive and they remain hazardous for thousands of years.

Lecture 1: Provide some alternatives to fossil fuels.

-Nuclear power emits zero carbon dioxide, but is both expensive and the waste remains hazardous for thousands of years. -Solar Power: is the conversion of energy from sunlight to electricity, either directly using photovoltaics or indirectly using solar panels. Solar power causes no pollution but is expensive and photovoltaic material generate electrical power when exposed to sunlight so when there is a lack of sunlight this in an issue. Total radiation from the sun is 173,000 Tw and humans need 0.01% of this power. -Wind power: is the use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically power generators for electricity. Wind is clean, produces zero greenhouse gases, uses little land. -Hydroelectricity: is electricity produced from hydro power, the cost is low making a competitive source of energy. consumes no water, produces no waste.

Lecture 3: name some of factors to come out of the environmental movement

-Paul Enhrlich wrote the population bomb which warned about mass starvation and the need to slow the growth rate -Barry Commoner wrote the closing circle and describes the over exploitation of resources -Doomsday syndrome: written by John Maddox and attacked the extremism movement -Stockholm declaration: natural resources must be safeguarded. Need to look to renewable resources. Wildlife needs to be protected. Pollution should not exceed the environments capacity to clean itself. Environmental education is essential, environmental research needs to be promoted. (what came out of the UN conference at Stockholm in 1972) -Radical action environmental groups: Sea Shepherd: would board vessels, cut nets and harass fisherman. Earthfirst: inspired by silent spring and deep ecology various acts of sabotage in the name of defending the planet. -World conservation strategy 1980: Conservation of biological resources, preservation of species diversity and sustainable development. Rehabilitation of degraded ecosystem, protection of indigenous peoples, preservation if genetic diversity. -Kyoto 1997: international treaty that sets binding obligations on industrialized countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases.

Lecture 9: Arthropoda and provide detail

-Phylum Arthropoda: Insects, Crustaceans and Arachnids also millipedes -Found in all habitats -Segmented body: specialized appendages and coelom -Body covered by an exoskeleton (growth by moluting) Arachnids: spiders, scorpions, mites Multiple legs and a pair of specialized feeding appendages (fangs in spiders for example) Crustaceans: Nearly all aquatic Specialized appendages antenna, mouthparts, etc. Insects: live in most terrestrial habitats. Have three tagmata (body regions) the abdomen, thorax and head. Many undergo metamorphosis. Most can fly!

Lecture 9: what is the different between radial and bilateral symmetry

-Radial: drifting, meet environment equally from all sides (jellyfish) -Bilateral: definite head and end.

Lecture 4: Describe the mechanism for soil protection

-Soil Conservation -reduced tillage: tilling only the areas that matter while minimally disturbing the soil. Tilling between furrows. -no tillage:the ultimate in reduced tillage. Weeds are controlled by cutting or with herbicides. The natural soil organisms are allowed to rebuild the soil, increasing its porosity and resistance to compaction, while better retaining nutrients. Only where seeds are planted is the soil 'drilled'. -Shelter belts: reduce wind and evaporation, increase soil temperature. -Contour ploughing: works a bit like terracing, preventing moisture from running down-hill and reducing erosion considerably. -reduced compaction: using machinery and technology that spreads its weight over a larger area. Reduced tilling causes soils that resist compaction better. -strip cropping: reduces the downslope length of the field considerably, reducing the chance of rilling. Increases biodiversity. Leached nutrients are used by neighbouring strips. Shelters bare strips from wind and wind erosion. Makes better use of the land but is more labour intensive. -terracing: the ultimate in soil conservation on steeper hills. It is extensively practised in padiculture where water is harvested at the same time. Terracing is common in viticulture (wine). Terracing can reduce erosion twenty-fold. -optimal fertilising: although fertiliser is an important ingredient for increasing profit and yield, it can also degrade the land in many ways. Regular soil tests are one way of overcoming this. Erring on the safe side, another. -water harvesting: by keeping forests planted above the field, one prevents runoff from reaching the cropland. Trees also harvest water in their very porous soils. Water is slowly released into the water table, reaching the cropland down-slope. Ponds can be made by damming the upper catchment area of a creek. Water will flow through the water table to water cropland down-slope. Water can be used for irrigation and stock drinking water. -stubble-mulching: leaving stubble on the field as long as possible to reduce evaporation, to catch snow in winter, to keep the soil covered. Rather than ploughing the stubble under, which would disturb the soil while inviting soil organisms to decompose the organic matter far too rapidly, the stubble is mulched to leave soil organisms the task of digging it under. This reduces weed growth and keeps the soil covered, while feeding the soil biota slowly -increased crop rotation -reduced heavy machinery use

Lecture 1: explain the greenhouse effect and ways to minimize it's effects.

-The greenhouse gas effect is when carbon dioxide along with other gases trap heat within the earth's atmosphere. Without greenhouse gases life would not exist on earth because it would be so cold. However, the rise of fossil fuels and industry, has allowed fro more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is naturally absorbed by plants but the burning of fossil fuels such as oil, coal and gas have caused for C02 to be emitted into the atmosphere at shocking rates causing for more heat to be trapped, allowing for rises in temperature. -To help reduce the amount of Co2 into the atmosphere, scientists have been working on carbon capture which would prevent the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere . This is a relatively new idea in which scientists are trying to see if storing in underground or in the ocean is effective in storing C02

Lecture 6: Provide details of the oceanic zones

-The part of the ocean the sunlight reaches is the photic zone and the part that sunlight does not reach is the aphotic zone. (top and bottom) (horizontal) -Nertic zone: top of the photic zone lots of life because there are a lot of autographs here (grasses, seaweed and photosynthetic algae). -Pelagic zone: Open ocean divided into five layers, epipelagic zone, mesopelagic zone, bathypelagic zone, abyssal zone and hadal zone. Photoplankton dominate the open oceans. Food chains in Pelagic communities start with bacteria and protists -Benthic Zone: the floor of the ocean. No light, very cold and extremely high pressures. Despite darkness have high species diversity such as crustaceans and Polychaete worms. Organism in benthic regions include Macrobenthos: Polychaete worms and molluscs, Meiobenthos: nematode worms and crustaceans and microbenthos bacteria and fungi

Lecture 2: Explain the debate of global warming? provide evidence on both sides?

-The rise is Co2 which is a result of the burning of fossil fuels via industry and transportation has allowed for more heat to be trapped in the earth's atmosphere, thus causing for a rise in temperature. Although average temperatures taken from meter-logical station over the years shows the rise in temp in the northern and southern atmosphere, there is other evidence that says other wise. -The Hockey Stick model showed the drastic rise in air temperatures using dendroclimatology. however, this model had a lot flaws due to the selection process causing for the data to be deemed inaccurate. -Sateliite data and radiosonde ballons show that air temps are not significantly changing. -heat islands: temperatures are hotter in urban areas due to the people and commotion, rather than rural areas. -Can also test global warming by taking ice core sampling or looking at the ice sheet thickness as anatarctica shows that ice cover is increasing.

Lecture 6: describe what happened in the silurian, carboniferous and permian period.

-There were several factors delaying animal invasion. First being the uv shield, dehydration, supporting skeletons, lack of nutrients outside water and of course a circulatory system. -Cambrian explosion kicked started the emergence and evolution organisms. -Silurian Period:sects invaded the land which later lured the vertebrates ashore in the carboniferous period. In the silurian period the land starts being invaded. Insects first fed on terrestrial debris in moist places. -Carboniferous periods:conditions were more hospitable. This was the time of pangaea. There was a rise in 02 and fall in C02. still there are no plant eating land animals most likely due to the plant tissues being hard to digest. First detritivores, then predators and then herbivores. In this period the carboniferous animals invade. Detritivores invade first then predators and herbivores follow. Permian period -Pangea fully formed -gymnosperms dominate the land plants. -amphibia and reptiles dominate land -but then there was the permian mass extinction and that affected the majority of marine and land animals. -Triassic saw rise of dinosaurs -rise of mammals and birds in the tertiary after the dinosaurs went extinct.

Lecture 8: Name the five ways in which species interact.

1. Inter specific competition: the most common interaction. when members of 2 or more species interact. compete for access to a limited resource such as food, shelter, water. light, etc. Results in species evolving to share resources or one species outcompete the other. 2. Predation 3. Parasitism 4. Mutualism 5. Commensalism

Lecture 2: what is the carbon cycle

1. Plants use carbon dioxide and sunlight to make their own food 2. Plants that die are buried and may turn into fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal) 3. When humans burn fossil fuels, most carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. 5. Thus repeating the cycle

Lecture 3: Provide examples of vulnerable enivronments (rainforest, island ecosystems, coral reefs, polar environments)

1. Tropical rain forests: Deforestation has major consequences. Removal of rain-forests causes increased erosion, flooding and kills off a highly diverse ecosystem. 2. Coral reef: coral reefs are often referred to as the rain-forest of the sea as the also support rich species diversity. However, the rising of the water temperature coupled with increased acidity in the water is having a fatal impact on coral reefs. Coral has a symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae algae but when the temperatures rise the algae leaves the coral bleaching it and causing the coral to die. Over 75% oceans reefs are being threatened. 3. Polar climates: Evidence shows that the antartic ice sheets are increasing. Where the artic sheets are melting rapidly. Some reports even giveway to ice sheets being completely gone in the near future. The animals such as penguins and polar bears that live in these poplar environments are being threatened.

Lecture 8: what are the highlights of plant evolution

1.Diversification of plants from aquatic ancestors protection of gametes and embryos from desiccation. 2.Diversification of vascular plants (plants lacking seeds) 3.Emergence of seed plants, seeds are no enclosed or protected (gymnosperms) 4.Emergence of flowering plants, which seeds are protected with a shell )angiosperms)