Bio446 Compiled Exams
This recent study on barnacle reproduction found that, contrary to all previous knowledge -----?
When located beyond penis range, barnacles often capture sperm from the water.
Where is productivity int he ocean the highest?
Where light and nutrients are abundant. Nutrient influxes can occur at the mouth of rivers, and upwellings. Are the most productive at Subtidals because there is a lot of mixing.
How can temperature impact carcadian rhythms
affects speed via a phosphoswitch mechanism (that involves reversible phosphorylation of clock proteins (PERs) - other stimuli such as hormones
What are the stratification lake layers?
epilimnion - well-mixed surface metalimnion (thermocline)- transition zone of large temperature changes with depth hypolimnion - cold unmixed bottom layer.
What is Euryhaline?
eury (wide) haline(salt) an organism that can tolerate a broad range of environmental salinity.
What is the tangled bank hypothesis?
evolved to create variety in your offspring, as in any environment where these exists intense competition for space, food, and resources, a premium is place on diversity (heterozygosity) This emphasizes the importance of the spatial heterogeneity found in a complex environment in the maintenance of sexual reproduction. Sex evolved in order to prepare offspring for the world.
What happens when a NON_SELF MHC protein comes only a cell surface?
results in binding of T-lymphocytes cells, thereby initiating degradation of infected cells and the infections microbes they contain.
What are some Socioeconimic issues to ocean acidification
revenue, economic diversity of the fishing communities (local societal importance of shellfish) 2. jobs/employment 3. scientific information 4. political action 5. stakeholders and fishing communities to deal with impacts of ocean acidiciation.
What is the bottom line regarding movement of chloride ion by the chlorie cells following osmotic gradient for saltwater and freshwater?
saltewater- water and chloride ions move out freshwater - water and chloride ions move in
how do body processes scale?
scale to some spread or dispersion multiplier (i.e., a scaling factor) that is a proportion of body mass where the proportion is rarely exactly 1.0. Isometric scaling occurs when this scaling factor, or proportion, is 1.0.
What are the 3 deep scales with regard to ocean temperature?
seasonal thermocline 0-1000m (hot/warm) permanent thermocline 1000 - 2000m (rapid cooling) Deep layers with constant temp 2000m onward (cold)
How is emission of sulfur dioxide from coal and il burning reduced by electrical generation plants?
flue-gas desulfurization (scrubber) uses an alkaline solution that reacts with S)2 to form sulfite CaSO3 and Co2 or water.
What are self MHC antigens proteins prevent?
frm being targeted by an organisms immune system
When a cell presenting self MHC anigen proteins prevent what?
from being targets by an organisms immune system
where are the nutrients derived in headwater streams?
from course allocthonous inputs, such as coarse particular organic matter from twigs and leaves.
Where are nutrients derived in the depositional zone?
from fine allocthonous input, FPOM
What is cutaneous gas exchange (CGE)
gas exchange across the externior body surfaces (also called cutaneous respiration) works in air and water.
What is the themohaline circulation?
global ocean circulation pattern that is determined by the changes in water density due to changes in salinity and temperature
How is the environmental-independent components of the circannual clock demonstrated by an experiment?
golden-mantled ground squirrels (Callospermophilus lateralis
What physiological process occurs with the renal function in spouts of T&H?
greatly reduced or completely ceased (metabolism of strictly carbohydrates and lipids reduces rate of urea accumulation; necessary becuase blood pressure is too low to make primary filtrate in the glomerulus). They will typically wake up when they need a potty break.
What is the genetic parental combination with hRN and hANG that results in hypertension?
hRN (paternal) x hANG (maternal) ---> massive hypertension. Therefore, fetus that have the maternal hRN = no hypertenstion.
How does the vampire squid deal with low oxygen levels?
has really large gills, low metabolic rate, and very high O2 binding capacity of oxygen transportation prteins hemocyanin
What is an evolutionary process?
hat results in changes in the genetic material of a population over time. Evolution reflects the adaptations of organisms to their changing environments and can result in altered genes, novel traits, and new species. Evolutionary processes depend on both changes in genetic variability and changes in allele frequencies over time.
What do xerophtyes do to protect their seeds?
have a hard, resistance testas (coating) capable of surviving dry for very long periods of time.
What is the benifit to having more aerenchyma?
have lower metabolic costs and cean therefor grow longer to reach water nutrients. also helpes iwth boyancy, gas exchange, and will make less tiss therefore less energy.
What is countercurrent exchange of gases by fish gills?
natural mechanism in which there is a crossover of some property between two solutions flowing in opposite directions to each other. oxygen pool blood flows through each gil lamella in a direction that is opposite the direction of water flow generation by gill ventilation.
what type of frequency dependent selection does the Uta (coommon side blotched) lizards demonstate?
negative frequency dependent selection in a male mating strategy
With regard to isometric scaling of 3-dimensional objects do other characteristics of objects, such as surface area and volume, show the same relationships as linear measurements?
no
With regard to isometric scaling of 3-dimensional objects, would the ratios of surface area to volume or volume to length remain invariable?
no
If a species relys o temperature for sex determination do they rely on genes?
no the do not have to have the sex-determining region y (SRY) gene
What is the importance of coccolithophores?
the comprise a large proportion of the phytoplankton in the ocean therefore significantly contributing to the global oxygen reserve.
When looking at a log regression plot between L and M how would you know that that characteristic is scaling isometric?
the data will fall along a straight like with slope of 3 because mass is proportional to Volume where volume is L^3. However, note that the Y-intercept is the constant that is dependent on the geometrical shape of an object.
When is H+ released the water during ocean acidification?
the dissociation of carbonic acid into bicarbonate and carbonate. ?
What do branches lenghts of a phylogenetic tree indicate?
the divergance time, or the rate of evolution the longer the line the more time it took to evolve. the more similar the branches the more recently they diverged from a common ancestor.
What is the case study for phylogeny and lizards?
the ecomorphology difference of Caribbean anolis lizards, where there are 3 different speices that differe in morphology and how they use their habitat
What are the conclusions to the house sparrow experiment with circannual Rhythm?
the group that recieved the fewest total hours of daylihgt (skeleton photoperiod treatment) had the most divergent timing of reproductive condition rather than the treatment that differed most in the number of days in the calendar year. - argues against the counting hypothesis --- if they were counting it would be the number of days not the hours of light. - and does not reinfornce that the clock responds to primarily photoperido duration and trend
Why cant humans drink salt water?
the human body excretes more water eliminating the salt then the saltwater water is being provided to the body.
What is a characteristic that can be observed in the daily torpor in the sugar glider regarding temperature?
the individual least able to maintain Tb (body temperature) was the one who entered torpor on days when the Ta (ambient temperature) was the coldest. Chilling rainfall entering the hollow log may also induce a "shallow" torpor. this results supports the idea that torpor is an emergancy response
What is carrying capacity?
the maximum number of individuals in a species that an environment can sustain over time without destroying or degrading the environment
What is a microbiome?
the microorganisms in a particular environment, the combined genetic material of the microorganisms in a particular environment.
how does the molecular clock scale?
the molecular clock (rate of nucleotide substitution) tisks at a rate based on unit of mass-specific metabolic energy rather than time. This relationship suggests that genetic drift would be faster in animals with higher resting metabolic rates, such as smaller animals
What is something that occurs with the phospholipids when at 100 m of depths in ocean
the nonpolar, fatty acid tail of phospholipids switch to less saturated types in order to counteract the stiffeninf effect of high pressure.
What is the cause in the selection in fur color for rock pocket mice?
owl predatation and differing habitate colors resulted in selection for different melanin pathways that influence fur color.
What are homologous chromosomes?
paired chromosomes with genes for the same traits arranged in the same order
What is an exome
part of the genome formed by exons, the sequences which when transcribed remain within the mature RNA after introns are removed by RNA splicing.
how do Whiptail Lizards in Genus Cnemidophorus reproduce?
parthenogenesis: no males in population only genetically identical females: female lays unfertilized egg, created population of clones, egg undergos chromosome doubling after meiodid and develope into lizards. However, females need to be courted by other females to be able to lay egg.
What does RPM1 code for?
peripheral plasma membrane protien that confers the ability of plants to recognize pathogenic pseudomonas syringea bacterial strains carring AvrRPM1 or AvrB virelence factors.
what does fluctuating asymmetry appears to be a signs of what?
phenotype being subjected to some level fo stress and the ability to cope with these pressures is partyle refected in the levels of symmetry.
What is parthenogenesis?
reproduction from an ovum without fertilization, especially as a normal process in some invertebrates and lower plants.
What is evapotranspiration?
the process by which water is transferred from the land to the atmosphere by evaporation from the soil and other surfaces and by transpiration from plants.
What is sexual reproduction?
the production of offspring by combining genetic information from two individuals of different types (sexes). In most organism with sexual reproduction, on sex (male) produces a small motile gamete that travels to fuse with a larger stationaty gamete produced by the other (female)
what do major histocompatibility complex (MHC) do in DNA?
they are highly polymorphic that encode for proteins sprensent on the surface of cells that are essential for recognition of self and non-self
What do fires and large herbivors have in common?
they are key players in the distribution and function of plant species in a biome and are key determinants of PP and soil nutrient fertility.
what is the most dominant characteristic of the blue morph lizards?
they are middle sized and form strong pair bonds with females. they are subordinant to and hunted down by the orange males. but the blue males recognixe and repel yellow throated males
what are the prominent characteristics of the yellow morph lizards?
they are the smallered and are able to mimic the coloration and behavior of females
What is heterozygosity?
when a INDIVIDUAL organism carries two different forms of gene. means a lot of genetic variability
What is polymorphism?
when a POPULATION contains multiple forms
What are strategies that trees will employ to reduce the combat wind?
willl have the ability to bend. - shedding leaves on tree to be able to have less weight through snow fall and prevent dessication.
1. What is acclimation? Give some examples.
§ Phenotypic changes within individuals § Over the summer, trout being able to adapt to higher water temperature. § Velvetbean caterpillar's adaption to crowding
1. Where does a phenotype reside in the cells?
§ RNA --> Protein --> Development -->Anatomy, Physiology, Behavior
1. What are different types of evolutionary processes?
§ Reproduction § Genetic drift § Migrtation (gene flow) § Natural selection § Horizontal gene transfer § Genetic cross-over § Decent with modification
Where do Fundulus experiance a temperature cline?
maine to florida
What is a metazoan organism?
multicellular, eukaryotes, is the sub kingdom of the animal that is a person
how does pressure increase the deeper you go into the ocean?
pressure increases by 1 atm for every 10m depth
what are sex ration bias?
1. individual level: where a pair of parents may produce more males then females 2. populations level: the occurance of one sex is more dominatnt then the other
How do you calculate the fraction of air that is O2
%O2 = pO2 / atm pressure
What is Allometric scaling?
(allo = different, metric = measure), or allometry, happens when the organism deviates from isometry; proportional relationships of different body dimensions deviate in a statistically significant manner from 1.0.
If something got 100x larger in all three of its dimensions what would be the accompanying increase for mass (m), volume (V) and ability for it's legs to support its body?
(m) is dependent on Volume. so if you increased in 100x in all directions your volume would increase (100x100x100). BUT its leg support is dependent on cross-sectional area (A) which area is (lxw) --> 100x100.
What is vapor pressure?
(saturation deficit) is a measurement of the amount of moisture in the air. it technically the pressure of water vapor above a surface. when air reaches the saturation vapor pressure, the water vapor in it will condense.
In the paper on the scaling of carnivore density, the authors predicted that the number of carnivores per unit prey biomass would vary with carnivore mass raised to the exponent ______ and that the carnivore number per unit prey productivity would vary with carnivore mass raised to the exponent ______. These predictions were ______ by the data.
-1; -0.75; supported
What are some of the main physiological processes that occur when a mammal enters T&H?
- Reduction in metabolic rate can go to as low at 2-4% of normal - Reduction in Body Temp (Tb) Tb can regulate a few degress above ambient (3-5 degress from normal) - reduction in breathing rate: 100-200/min -> 4-6/min - restriction of blood flow and pressure to the main organs: slower heart rate
Why us courtship important for parthenogenic wiptail lizards?
- the ritual functions to stimulate the hormonal changes necessary for ovulation and egg-laying (oviposition) just like that would occur in sexual species of whiptails. Other female will mount female and bit her inorder to stimulate egg production Females play the role of males after she lays her own batch of eggs
The quantity of sperm in the reproductive tract of female calopteryx damselflies is lowest when they are ----?
in the midst of copulating with a male.
How do mesophytes compensate for water lost?
- absorbing water from the soil. - stomata can also close during the day for short periods of water stress and stay closed at night. - shed leaves - produce seeds with testas (lipophilic to reduce water lost and can stay dormant. - wax coating on leaves
What is the effect of hypoxia on dead zones?
- death - high losses of benthic macrophytes - reduced number of species - disruption of fish spawn, recruitment, and migration
Why is the quantitative relationship between surface area and volume of primary biological importance?
- for an organism to get larger, they must find allometric ways to increase the surface area to volume ratios for material exchange (invagination or evaginations) ex. leaves on trees.
what is the phenotype assocation with the functional effects of variatns approach to selection for resistance in the human malarial parasite in response to the environmental context
- genotype comprised copy number cariants (CNVs) of the gene encoding multidrug resistance protien (PFDMR1) - phenotype involves reduced suseptibility to antimalarial drugs in vitro and reduced huamn cure rate in vivo
What are some of the adaptions that aquatic organisms have developed in response to low levels of O2
- increased surface area for cas exchange - ability to absorb oxygen through the body surface - countercurrent exchange - keeps the gradient b/w blood flow - ram ventilation - primitive lungs,
What is Genetic Recombination?
- is the exchange of genetic material between different individuals organisms resulting in the production o offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in either parents. - allows for allels to mix with other allels creating epistatic effects - genome of the progeny to be different then the genome of the parents. - occurs "nonrandomly" in nature as a normal event of meiosis in eucaryotes -the production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in either parent - Enables the regrouping of alleles with other alleles
What are other genetic/genomic methods that might be useful in testing the importance of genes in an organism fitness?
- knock out - crisper - transposition - agrobacterium - gene silencing
What are the physiological adaptations that might be needed to live at high altitudes?
- larger heart and lungs - more blood vessels - increases diameter of blood vessels - more rapid blood transporation - hemoglobin that can bind oxygen when its concentraitons (partial pressure) is lower - increased hemoglobin content in hemocytes
Commonly, how do marine invertebrates maintain ion and water homeostasis?
- near osmotic equilium with seawater. (isoosmotic) - ion gradient small - near osmo and iono conformers.
What is the Red Queen Hypothesis?
- proposes that an organism must increase the rate of adaptation to survive an ever changing environment ( to keep ahead of pathogens) - developed new defences - Genetic diversity provides an advantage in escaping biological enemies.
Commonly, how do brackish water (esuarine) invertebrates maintain ion and water homeostasis?
- show a wide range of strategies for osmoregulation.
What are stimuli that can influence the carcadian rhythm?
- temp - light - medication - exersice - day length
How does bioluminescence work?
-Luminescent bacteria form symbiotic relationships with benthic-dwelling fish -Luciferase Enzyme works in the electron transport chain to help emit electron energy as a photon of light/ The rxn substrates often differ and the protieb aquaporin can be involved.
What are the conclusions from the the Wedekind Tee-shirt study with immunological diverity and mate selection.
-females not taking birth control pills (creating a hormone state that mimics pregnacy) prefered the odor of males with dissimilar MHC genotypes - females taking oral contraceptive preferred MHC-similar males - non-pill taking females also found MHC dissim males to be more reminiscent of mates - suggest that the MHC or linked genes influence haman mate choice
What is the average concentrations of O2 in water
0-14 mg/L
in the paper of fire in Amazonian forests, Table 1 indicates that the height of crown scorch (i.e., damage of branches and leaves by flames) in first-time verse third-time burned areas changes from approximately --- to -----. This finding is part of the evidence that fire intensity ---- with each successive fire in a particular area of forest.
0-2m; 5-17m; increases
what is the hypothesis that metabolic rate scales to the 0.75?
0.75 is midway between 0.66 (2/3) (area scaling; energetics of membrane-based processes) and 1.0 (mass scaling; structural costs associated with mass or weight)
what are the main effects of temperature on O2 in aquatic habitats?
1. .solubility of gas decrease with increasing temperature 2. O2 solubility inversly proportional with salt content 3. increase water temp decrease dissolved O2
Facts about the Ocean 1. How much global oxygen does it provide? 2. how much heat does it absorb from atmosphere? 3. How much CO2 does it absorb? 4. How much fo the earths surface does it cover? 5. How many species on earth does it contain? 6. how much food does it provide yearly?
1. 50-60% oxygen 2. 28% of heat 3. 50% CO2 4. 71% earth 5. 94% species 6. 16% food
What are the 4 hypotheses for the prevalence of sexual reproduction?
1. Anti-Mullers ratchet 2 Tangled Bank 3. Red Queen 4. Genetic recombination
What did the reciprocal transplant study with Mimulus show?
1. Became sympatric species due to breedind at different times of the year. 2. Shows that they are locally adapted becuase they do better in their home environment and do worse in the new environment
What are some mechanisms that a female might use in a natural setting when a male tried to force copulation to resist copulation?
1. Behavioral (move away), physical 2. Biochemical (such as tears for humans)
What are the two reasons that the Bergmann's rule works?
1. Big endotherms do better in the cold (more thermal inertia due to their small surface/ volume ratios) -- higher lati and more thermal innerta 2. small endotherms better withstand high temperatures (less thermal inertia due to their large surfaces/ volume ratio).
What are physiological processes rely on optimizing the ratio of surface area to volume?
1. Blood exchanges of oxygen and carbon dioxide with atmosphere through the invaginated surfaces of the lung ( the alveoli in mammals) 2. Blood exchanges of oxygen, carbon dioxide and nutreints with the tissues of the body through walls of the extensively branches capillaries of circulary systems. 3. Nutrients enter your body through the highly invaginated surfaces of in excretory organs. 4. Anything that enters or leaves a cell must pass through the cell membranes, another two-dimensional surface whose size and shape is influenced by the surface to volume ratio. 5. Heat exchange by an organism with the external environment also involves two-dimensional surface where the surface to volume ratio comes into play.
What is the relative importance of skin and lungs or gills for respiration changes with temperature in aquatic or amphibian vertebrates, whcih are ectotherms?
1. CGE is more important at lower temperature 2. lungs and gills are more important at high temperature 3. result is seasonal differences in the relative importance of respiiratory structures.
How might a change in body size occur over time?
1. Developmental rate (change in solely a phenotype response. 2. Local adaptation (on site evolution) local population evolved different body size as climates change. 3. Gene flow (migration) Genotypes moved from place to place as climate changed.
investigating local adaptations allow you to..
1. Differentiat the power of natural selection relative to gene flow and other evolutionary processes 2. Model to test evolutionary hypothesis about traits favored by particular environmental factors 3. Local adaptation required that different populations of the same species experience different natural selection
According to the RCC what characterizes a depositional Zone?
1. Energy supplied byb upstream DOM 2. Drifting zooplankton and phytoplankton 3. diverse floodplain 4. omnivore fish 5. Esentially all collectors
What can influence how fast an adaptation evolves?
1. Genetic variation 2, popluation size 3. selection pressure 4. generation time 5. genome size --> the more genes you have the more change you have for a mutation 6. bigger species are closer to extinction
What are the groups that plants will get lumped into with how water affects them in terms of their structural adaptations and the availability of water from their environment
1. Mesophtye; conditions not to dry or wet 2. Xerophtye; dry conditions 3. Hydrophyte; very wet conditions 4. Halophyte; salty conditions.
What types of plants (evironmental conditions require stomata to be open during the day?
1. Mesophtye; conditions not to dry or wet 3. Hydrophyte; very wet conditions 4. Halophyte; salty conditions.
What abiotic variables most affect organisms in terrestial biomes?
1. Osmotic (salinity, water) --> nectar, desert feeders. 2. Pressure -> Thick bones, tree trunks 3. Light --> primary producers 4. Currents and waves --> wind, change in temperature. 5. Nutrients --> especially for autotrophs like plants. 6. temperature 7. rainfall/moisture 8. oxygen - altitude 9. fire --> plants and herbiores. 10. soil.
Who is more related when comparing phylogeny of rules.
1. Quene Elizabeth II 2. Kaiser Wilhelm II 3. Theresa May Queen is more related to Kaiser becuase they are descendants of Queen Victoria where Kaiser is grandson and Elizabth grat great grand daughter
What are the different macro function feeding gilds?
1. Shedders - consume CPOM 2. Grazers -- scrape algae from rock surfaces 3. collectors -- filter ad gather FPOM 4. Pred -- common everywhere but not abund becuase dependent on prey.
What are the 4 stages for the hypothesis of molecular adapation in ADH to account for ethanol resistance?
1. changes in the genotype (amino acids, codons, protiens) (substitutions in D. melanogaster ADH) 2. Changes in protein biochemistry (rxn rates, binding substrates)( increases activity verse ethanol) 3. Changes in in vivo protein function (how well do they detoxify or metabolize ethanol) (increased activity verse ethanol 4. changes in fitness components (increases ethanol tolerance.
When is tertiary sex ratio measured and what are the thingss that can influence this ratio?
adulthood; sexual maturity, infent mortality, competition, and other pressures.
What are the 10 steps to sexual reproduction based on the video the evolution of sex?
1. Start with single-celled single-sex (F) organisms capable of cell fusion and meiosis 2. A Seconds sex (m) evolves 3.Simple multi-cellular organisms evolve (colony of 1 cell type), where each cell is capable of sexual reproduction 4. multi-cellular organisms evolve specialized cells for sexual reproduction (gametes) 5. Sper use flagella to increase motility and their chance of finding an egg 6. Further specialization produces simple gonads designed to produce large quantities of gametes 7. Coordinated mating behavior (simultaneous release of sperm and egg) ensures maximum reproductive success 8. After moving exclusively onto land internal fertilization become much mroe advantageous 9. Further specialization leads to matched genitals. Male penetrates female to further facilitate internal fertilization 10. To better protect the developing embryos a uterus evolves for internal gestation sex does not dispute exolution
According to the RCC what characterizes a headwater?
1. Steep slopes 2. Limited Photosynthesis 3. Allochrhonous inputs 4. macros mainly shredders and collectors 5. high CPOM
Why might daily food requirements NOT scale directly with body mass, especially in endothermic animals?
1. Surface are decreases with volume or mass; i.e. ratio of surface area to volume or mass scales to the 2/3 power. 2. Resting metabolic rate decreases with volume or mass; i.e. resting metabolic rate scales to the 3/4th power with mass (a universal parameter for all organisms.
Which of the following is TRUE for yellow males?
1. They behave and look like females 2. They are not recognized and repelled by orange males 3. They have the highest relative fitness when orange males are the most common morph, 4. Their frequency in the population cycles.
Why are ectotherms generally better at water conservation than endotherms?
1. They have a lower resting metabolic rate. 2. they have a lower skin temperature and thus a lower surface vapor pressure resulting in less water loss through the skin. 3. becuase water vaopr deficit increases with temperature.
What are the three different nices that the Caribbean anolis exploit and how are the lizards adapated to these niches?
1. Tree trunk or canopy dweller is stocky with long legs 2. grass dweller species is slender with a long tail 3. twig dweller is thin with relatively stubby legs.
What are the dominate abiotic and biotic conditions that are used to characterize a biome?
1. abiotic - climate (temo, evaporation), relief, geology, soil, altitude, and salinity 2. biotic - plant life -- plants that frow in an area determines the other organisms that can live there. HOWEVER NOTE: the primary produces won't be able to withstand abiotic factors that aren't favorable to them. `
what are that adaptations of halophytes to cope with saline soil and water.
1. absorbed/ drink seawater 2. reduce water lose from evaoptranspiration by transpiriing via sunken and redcued stomata in leaves. 2. special root cells accumulate salt via active transport therby becoming hyperosmotic to thier surroundings which allows them to abosrbe water via osmosis. 3. leave actively secrete salt. 4. leaves are thick layer of cuticle and suncken stomata.
Why does the winter air have such a drying effect on humans?
1. air we breathe is warmed up, therefore, it can old more moisture, then when we breath we have a short nose that is poorly invaginated therefore, we are unable to reclaim that water vapor when exhaled. 2. the vapor pressure at the skin is 36C and about 100% relative humidity and the surrounding air only has about 10-20% RH therefore, it will want some of our water.
How do freshwater invertebrates maintain homeostasis of ions and water?
1. all are osmo and ionoregulators, often with a large gradient. 2. urinate a lot 3. active transport of ion uptake
What are the general female mating strategies that enhance the reproductive fitness of females
1. allow internal fertilization 2. deposite eggs or offspring in the most favoriable location, or most favorable time (choosiness about space and time) 3. select a male mate that has the best traits (E.g. defends the best location, displays a phenotype indicative of "good genes" indicates the liekelyhood of contributing to rearing of the offspring) 4. helt those offspring survive.
What are some notable ectotherm adaptations for water conservation?
1. avoid dry habitats 2. store water 3. buuld water-proof mucus cocoon 4. find scarce water 5. avoid using evaporative cooling 6. concentrated urin 7. absorbe wawter from unsaturated are (desert beetle)
what is the summary of mammalian lungs?
1. bidirectional flow of the external environmental media air over the lungs 2. unidirectional excahnge of gasses between the external environmental media and the blood. the alveoli in mannalian lungs provide a large respiratory surface area but do not permit counter or cross current exchange.
What are some observations about bone design?
1. bones are closer to compressive failure in larger animals. 2. Skeletal design must depart from geometrical similarity (e.g., birds where flight required that wing bones scale at a much greater rate of increase relative to body mass than that of leg bones. 3. Different sized animals must use their bones differently.
What are male mating strategies that enhance their fitness?
1. broadcast sperm into the environment 2. place sperm immediately adjecent to eggs release into the environment 3. place sperm inside the body 4. search for and mate with the greated number of females 5. mate with one or few females and defent that sucess -- mate guarding 6. stay with mated female to assist in rearing offspring 7. environmental conditions
What are some of the main adaptations to pressure do sea creatures have?
1. changes in the gas exchange processes of air-breathing divers (seals, wahles, turtles) to avoid nitrogen narcosis and the bends 2. swim bladder (fish): organ that controls bouancy 3. compression of air out of the lungs and swim bladders or not have either. 4. create triethylamine to prevent protein and other molecule compression. 5. homeoviscous adaption - keep the same fluidity and viscosity
What are the positives to sexual reproduction?
1. increased heterozygosity 2. purging of deliterious mutations 3. recombination and cross over 4. behavior
What are the three hypothesis relating to MHC dependent mating preference?
1. increases heterozygosity 2. increased adaptive ability 3. avoid inbreeding
What are general adaptations of plants to changing light intensity?
1. chloroplast movement to the desired side of the leaves 2. Modulation of photosynthesis - which is long term changes that occurs at the transcription, translational and/or post translational level; -- changes in the abundance or size of the photosystem. 3. Leaf out before canopy plants. 4. leaf out in the winter, flow and die in the spring 5. germination under a closed canopy and persit as an understory species and grow to full size only when a gap in the canpy occures. 6. increase leaf reflectance 7. leaf movement that ultized blue-light absorbtion 8.
What threats mangrove habitats?
1. coastal development 2. shrimp farming 3. clogging of lenticels by crude oil 4. cutting 5. classification of useless swamplands 6. sea level rise if occurs to fast
What are other factors that could lead to decreased weight going into hibernation.
1. competition 2. late birth 3. low birth rate 4. environmental changes 5. resource avaliability 6. immunocompeteny
What are 3 reasons that T&H is interesting?
1. coping mechanisms 2. physiology (body weight/lipids, circadian clock regulation, maintence of bodily functions 3. molecular biology (how the gene environment interactions occur)
What are the two hypothesis that can be tested to determine how the circannual clock runs un the absense of environmental cues.
1. count circadian days (a mechanism that keeps track of the number of diurnal clock cycles 2. the annual cycle is a result of a series of seasonal physiological states whose duration sum to 12 months (no molecular clock needed) tested on house sparrows
What does genetic recombination involve?
1. cross over 2. independent assortment
What are some adaptations that xerophtyes have to reduce water loss?
1. deep extensive root systems - tubers 2. short reproductive cycle 3. leaves are small and fleshy (needles), low stomata, 4. fleshy stem 5. stomata close in the daytime and open at night to reduce exapotranspiration.
What are the two conclusions that can be made regarding the role of positive molecular adaptation of ADH in thanol tolerance in D. melanogaster?
1. differences in ethanol tolerance onserved between transgenic flies carrying fast and slow coding alleles were small relative to the large range of ethanol tolerance observed among flies in the feild 2. increases tolerance of ethanol by molecular adaptions of ADH appears to largely be a spandrel as they do not really gain anything from the molecular difference.
How do hypersaline invertebrates maintain homeostasis of ions and water in specific taxa and habitats?
1. drink lots of water 2. use active transport to excrete salt via gland (nymph) or swimming appendages (adult) 3. they spend a large fraction of their toatl metabolism (>33%) on osmoregulation, but energy availability is high and costs are easy to meet.
How does the dourado respond to lower concentrations of O2?
1. elevated respiration rate, ventilatory tidal volume, and gill ventilation. 2. will reduce blood gas circulation rate with decreasing oxygen level in the water, which is in part an attempt to reduce oxygen demand
What are the three hypotheses for the maintenance of the clines related to ADHf having higher activity and ADHs having higher thermostability?
1. ethanol levles in decaying fruit tent to be higher in temperate regions 2. Selection favors greater explotation of ethanol-rich in the temperate zone than in the tropics, indepdened of differences in availability 3. Alcohol consumption may protect fruitflies from blood-borne parasites (wasps)
What are local factors what also increase ocean acidification that are not related to anthropenic atmopheric CO2 emissions?
1. eutrophication, upwelling of Co2 enriched waters and river dischange temporarily increase anthropogenic ocean acidification in coastal waters.
What are limiations of fish gill counter-current system?
1. fish can only live in water, to support filament and hold the lamellae apart
what are the ecological benefit of having mangroves on the marine and estuarine?
1. form the base of complex marine food web 2. create breading habitat 3. protection 4. filter and assimilar polutants - improve water quality 5. stabilize bottom sediment 6. protect shorline erosion
What ways can rates of evolution be estimated?
1. fossil records 2. rate of generation 3. isotopic dating 4. molecular clock 5. genes
What are the advantages of asexual reproduction?
1. genetically identical 2. no energy wasted for finding partner 3. offspring well adapted to environment 4. high number of offspring in little time 5. mulitcelluar and more viable greater penetration of miceosits than would be possible for asexual reproduced clones, therefy reducing competition among siblings.
According to the RCC what characterizes a Transfer Zone?
1. gradient decreases 2. channels widen 3. algae submerged 4. limited grH20 5. Macor - collectors grazers 6. high FPOM
How do fish live within hypoxic regions?
1. gulp air and use a vascularized mouth or esophagus for gas exchange.
What is the cyclic pattern with populations density/size and food avaliablity regarding the carrying capacity?
1. high population density 2. reduced energy availability 3. reduced energy accumulation 4. increased hibernation mortality 5. reduced population size 6. increased energy availability and so on
What are some adpations that sea creatures have adapted to componsate for waves, currents
1. holdfasts (anchor algae and animals to rocks) 2. Cement (theat hold together sand grains - tube worms) 3. Armor ( that protects against impact) 4. Prop roots (mangroves) that elevate the trunk and provide multiple contact points 5. Flexibility and defomability: seasweeds and anemones go witht he flow
What are the two choices that water breathers have to manage ion and water flux across the exchange surface?
1. ionoconformation or continually engage in active transport requiring APT. Active transport is harder for salt then for fresh. 2. osmoconform or continually counteract water flux requiring APT. Active transport in water is harder for freshwater then salt
What are some animal strategies to combat desert conditions
1. lower energy expenditure 2. utilizing ectothermy 3. making opporunistic use of resources 4. resticting movement and activity at times 5. using torpor to accomplish parts of this suite f adaptions
What are oxygen conformers?
1. metabolic rate variest in direct proportion to the concentration of O2 in the environment 2. common conformers are main inverts, and those with sedentary life styles
How is the flow of water of the gills accomplished?
1. moving the gill though the water 2. moing water over the gills via -- pump-like action, ram ventiliation, and ciliary flow
What are the disadvantages of asexual reproduction?
1. no genetic variability 2. one parent to take care of offspring 3. does not adapted or will take a long time to adapt 4. runs the risk of extinctions due to catastrope affects all organisms due to genetic indentical 5. the parent sometimes disappears becuas its body no longer exists due to fisson
What were the adaptations that the banner tail kangaroo rat makes to survive in hot dry environments?
1. nocturnal 2. nasal turbinates recover %50 water 3. dig complex deep tunnels and plug enterance 4. no sweat glands 5. dry fecal pellets 6. recover metabolic water 7. concentrated urine ** have perfect water balance water in= water out
What advantages might exist for living under the canopy?
1. nutrient rich compared to sunny 2. moisture is higher 3. temp is lower 4. protection from UV light
What are the reasons for the observed vertical distribution of nutrients?
1. nutrients at the surface are depleted due to the phytoplankton 2. Dead phytoplankton biomass sicks from the euphotic sone when they are eaten and excreted by zooplankton 3. Plankton are then eaten by bacteria and animals in the deep sea and then their waste will be released back into the deep ocean where it will be remineralized
What are the disadvantages of sexual reproduction?
1. offspring may not be as well adapted as parents 2. genetic errors mroe frequent 3. nergy to find partner 4. competition in mating 5. ability to find a partner male and female
What are the strategies to be eurynaline?
1. osmoregulation: by altering surface permeability, ion transport, cellular osmoreg. 2. Osmoconform: be tolerant to a wide rande of salinity in extracelluar fluid 3. Mixed strategy
What are some hypothesizes to why there are period terms of arousal in T&H?
1. pepay sleep deprivation (brain waves characteristic of restorative deep sleep are absent during torpor and low temperature 2. renal activity 3. muscle loading to prevent atrophhy 4. increase in immune system to resist disease 5.. drinking, eating, and food digestion 6. reproductive activity 7. roost selection in bats
What are some adaptations that mangroves have?
1. salt exclusion via active transport in roots. 2. salt tolerance: total osmolarity of mangrove extracellular fluid is 250mOsm 3. Salt secretion - through salt glands outside leaves. 4. salt sequestration; store salt in cells of older leaves or bark to latter shed.
What are the two primary trophic types found in the aphotic zone?
1. scavengers, detritovores, and decomposers - feed on dead creatures, and other organic particles that sink from the photic zone 2. chemoautotrophs- these organisms are able to obtain energy by the oxidation of electron donors in their environment
What do fish not used bidirectional flow?
1. some water wouldn't make it to the gas exchange surface for oxygen to diffuse from water into the blood 2. water is viscous and bidirectional flow would require a lot of energy to achieve the oxygen obtained via countercurrent exchange.
What are the 6 steps that occur when a sperm encounters an egg?
1. sperm binding 2. sperm penetration 3. sperm adhesion to the oolemma 4. fusion-fertilization 5. Corical granule exocytosis 6. Block to polyspermy
What are some adaptions for lining in flowing water?
1. streamlining 2. behavior changes ( hide behind rock, upstream migration) 3. holdfast 4. stay in the boundry layer
What is the sequence of destruction for sequential fires?
1. surface fire burns leaves, kill vines 2. second (perhaps a year later) consumes dead vines; fames are higher and hotter and kill some small trees 3. third fire consumes dead small tress and becomes a crown fire.
what is the purpose for bioluminescents
1. to high from prey 2. to lure prey in 3. communicate (sex-specific patterns of photophores) 4. Deterrent of pred 5. mimic 6. illumination to detect prey.
Why can human toddlers fall 20x a dat and not get hurt while adults frequently get injured in a single fall?
1. toddlers are 3x lighter (mass) then adults 2. toddlers are 2x shorter (height) then adults Therefore, when considering momentum MxV. adults fall faster and harder.
What is the summmary of how fish gills work?
1. uidirectional flow of the external environment media over the gills 2. counter current exchange of gasses between the external environmental media and blood in the gill lamella
What are three major challenges regarding living in the desert?
1. unpredicatble climate 2. low primary plant productivity 3. large diurnal temperature fluctuations
In what ways do ocean acidification result in fish brain problems>
1. upsetts the ability to sense prey (latteral lines), elude pred, locate home, diminished sense of smell, impaired vision, disrupt hearing and reducing the awareness of danger.
What are some characteristics of hydrophytes because they are not water limited?
1. xylem poorly developed 2. root sytem redcued 3. little to no stomata 4. little cuticle on leaves 5. little lignified tissue
What occurs in the lizard populations when the 1. yellow, 2. blue, 3. orange morph is the most common?
1. yellows fitness is reduced and the blue will start to become more fit (produce the most offspring in the next generation) 2. blue will decrease and the orange is most fit 3. orange will decrease fitness and yellow will increase fitnes
The number of cells in a Manduca wing is related to body mass raised to the exponent ______ and is determined ______ the larva has stopped feeding (i.e., time that the body stops growing).
1.0; after
What are the advantages of sexual reproduction?
1.combination of traits 2. heterozygosity 3. polymorposis, inccreased adaptive ability 4. increased variability 5. two parents to watch over offspring
What are characteristics that all for salinity to change within the ocean?
1.mixing 2. evaporation 3. freshwater input
Why are allometrically invaginated exchange surfaces rarely externally visible or exposed?
1/ delicate 2. desiccate easily 3. impede movement
What is the scaling power that all length-based propertie change with mass to the ??? power?
1/3 (L proportional to M ^1/3
How many imprinted genes are in the human genome, what are the primary function of these genes?
100 imprinted. most of these genes have roles in the control od embroyonic growth and development, including development of the placenta, post-ntal development,
What is fisher's principle resented iin 1930 regarding the sex ratio?
1:1 sex ratio has significance beyond merely finding an equilibrium value in the sex ratio based on the allocation of resources and if parents allocate resourses equally to both both will be born; however, if more energy is needed to create the one gender that sex will be selected against.
What is the scaling power that all surface area-based properties change with mass to the ?? power?
2/3 (i.e. A proportional to M^2/3)
What is the fractions of air that is oxygen?
21% and this is the case everywhere outside even as altitude increase up to 100km - however note that atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude and does the partial pressure of O2.
What is the primary reason for death in European Hedgehogs during hibernation
28% dead juvenille needs to be 450g to survive ones that weight much less (100 g) will die this weight is largely dictated by the amount of resources that were avaliable. If there are a lot of juvinials there will be limited resouses thus more will die over winter to bring the carrying capacity down.
what is the chemical reaction for sulfur bacterial to oxidize hydrogen sulfide?
2H2S + O2 >> 2S _ 2H2O
What is the typical salinity of the open ocean?
35ppt.
What is the average depth and pressure in the ocean?
3700 m and 370 atm.
What is the concentration of oxygen in water at 21C and air at sea level?
5-8 mg/L - water 9mg / L air -- 20.95%
What has been the pH change in the ocean from 2000 to 2016?
8.3 - 7 that is almost a 10 fold decrease in pH.
What are the a. african savanah, b. australian bush, c. flordia pinelands, and d. rocky mountain meadow all have in common?
All of these communities periodically brun and thier platns communities composition is maintained by fire.
What Symbioginium were found at the different heights?
A and B are common at the top parts and in shallow water (high, direct irradiance) whereas genotype C predominated on the sides and in deeper water (low, indirect irradiance habitats.
What is a cline?
A graded change in a trait along a geographic axis.
What is Ecology?
A holistic way of viewing nature in order to comprehend how those tangled ecosystem works by following and studying those tangled ecosystems by following and connecting between the living and nonliving
What is estivation?
A period of inactivity experienced during hot and dry summers (summer torpor/hibernation)
what is hypertonic?
A solution with a higher salt concentration outside of the (cells shrink) LESS WATER THAN IN CELL saltwater environments
What is hypotonic?
A solution with lower salt concentration than in the cells (cells burst) MORE WATER THAN IN CELL Freshwater environments
What is the difference between oligotrophic and eutrophic lakes?
A water body with low nutrient levels, low productivity, high dissolved oxygen levels, and good light penetration, cold. Significant nutrients, highly disturbed, high productivity, shallow, warm, turbid
Bone mass is proportional to what?
A x L
What is the fraction of air that is oxygen in Denver if the pO2 there is 17.08 kPa (128.1 mmHg) and atmospheric pressure in mile high Denver is 81.33 kPa (610 mmHg)? A. About 21% (pO2 in Denver divided by the atmospheric pressure in Denver) B. About 17% (pO2 in Denver divided by the pO2 at sea level) C. None of the answers listed
A. About 21% (pO2 in Denver divided by the atmospheric pressure in Denver)
What part of a plant or animal cell is primarily comprised of phospholipids? A. Cell membrane B. Ribosome C. Cell wall of plants D. Cytoplasm E. Chromatin
A. Cell membrane
Coral reefs are typically situated in low nutrient waters, so where do the nutrients come from that fuel the high productivity of coral reefs? A. Efficient recycling system due to high species diversity and the symbiotic relationship between photosynthetic symbiotic algae and coral B. Runoff from the land C. Upwelling of deep ocean water D. Capture by coral tentacles of the low levels of plankton that drift in from the open ocean and occur within the reef E. Overfishing followed by returning the remains back to the reef
A. Efficient recycling system due to high species diversity and the symbiotic relationship between photosynthetic symbiotic algae and coral & D. Capture by coral tentacles of the low levels of plankton that drift in from the open ocean and occur within the reef
What is lactate dehydrogenase (LDH or LD)? A. Enzyme in the glycolysis pathway B. Enzyme that converts pyruvic acid to lactic acid and back C. Enzyme in the tricarboxylic acid (Krebs) cycle D. Enzyme in the oxidative phosphorylation pathway
A. Enzyme in the glycolysis pathway B. Enzyme that converts pyruvic acid to lactic acid and back
What is alcohol dehydrogenase? A. Enzyme that facilitates the interconversion of alcohols to aldehydes or ketones B. Enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of aldehydes to carboxylic acids C. Enzyme that detoxifies ethanol D. Used in Star Trek to prevent alcohol intoxication
A. Enzyme that facilitates the interconversion of alcohols to aldehydes or ketones C. Enzyme that detoxifies ethanol
What is happening to fitness when a phenotype shows frequency-dependent selection? A. Fitness of a phenotype increases or decreases as its frequency in the population increases B. Fitness of a phenotype does not depend on its frequency in the population C. Fitness of an individuals' phenotype is not affected by the allele or genotype frequencies underlying the phenotype of other individuals in the same population D. Fitness of a phenotype is not an important component in determining the frequency of traits in a population E. None of the above answers
A. Fitness of a phenotype increases or decreases as its frequency in the population increases
Use information in the figure on the right to answer the following: How might the cline in ADH allele frequency respond to climate change (e.g., warming)? (Negative slope with latitude on the bottom 15 - 45 and ADHs frequency on the y axis) A. Frequency of the ADHS allele increases relative to the ADHF allele B. Frequency of the ADHF allele increases relative to the ADHS allele C. Frequency of the ADHF allele does not change relative to the ADHS allele D. No change in the frequency of either Latitude allele E. Decrease in the frequency of both alleles
A. Frequency of the ADHS allele increases relative to the ADHF allele
Why do aquatic organisms rapidly lose nitrogenous waste products to the environment? A. Highly soluble in water, ammonia will diffuse passively out of excretory organs B. Aquatic organisms do not have excretory organs C. Excretory organs in aquatic organisms do not function in maintaining ionic and water balance D. Aquatic organisms must leave the water when excreting waste E. Excretion of nitrogenous waste only occurs in marine organisms
A. Highly soluble in water, ammonia will diffuse passively out of excretory organs
What is genetic sex determination? A. Males and females have different alleles or even different genes that specify their sexual morphology B. Temperatures experienced during embryonic development determine the sex of the offspring C. Process resulting in an individual that has both male and female reproductive organs D. Process by which social dominance determines sex E. A form of asexual reproduction
A. Males and females have different alleles or even different genes that specify their sexual morphology
Which of the following is a means by which males control who fertilizes a female's eggs? A. Producing proteins that alter female receptivity B. Secretion or emission of discriminating odors C. Alter or adjust vagina shape D. Alter or adjust body symmetry or ornamentation E. All of the answers listed
A. Producing proteins that alter female receptivity
Which of the following are phenotypes that enhance human fitness? A. Skin color B. Wisdom teeth C. Bipedalism D. Large and complex brain (i.e., capacity to learn) E. Ability to eat a wide range of food types (i.e., generalist, omnivorous)
A. Skin color C. Bipedalism D. Large and complex brain (i.e., capacity to learn) E. Ability to eat a wide range of food types (i.e., generalist, omnivorous)
Which of the following is an adaptation to life in fast flowing water such as a stream? A. Swimming close to the bottom where the boundary layer is located B. Swimming close to the surface where the boundary layer is located C. Swimming where the boundary layer is not located D. Hold on loosely as in the song E. Exposing as much of the body surface as possible to the water
A. Swimming close to the bottom where the boundary layer is located
How might the SRY protein initiate the development of male humans? Hint: use the metabolic scheme on the right and that aromatase controls female development A. The SRY protein down regulates aromatase expression, preventing synthesis of estradiol from testosterone B. Humans do not use hormones to control development of the sexes C. SRY protein up regulates aromatase expression,enabling synthesis of estradiol from testosterone D. Humans do not use regulation of gene expression in development of the sexes E. SRY only functions in temperature dependent sex determination
A. The SRY protein down regulates aromatase expression, preventing synthesis of estradiol from testosterone
Why are Mimulus lewisii and Mimulus cardinalis said to be locally adapted? A. They have elevated fitness in their home environments B. They have depressed fitness in alternative environments C. They have poor fitness in both home and alternative environments D. They have high fitness in both home and alternative environments E. These species only respond to the local environment only by acclimation
A. They have elevated fitness in their home environments B. They have depressed fitness in alternative environments
What statement best describes use of the term adaptation in biology? A. Word used to describe a trait or character B. Word used to describe an evolutionary process C. Word used to describe a process of phenotypic adjustment within individuals D. All of the answers listed
A. Word used to describe a trait or character
Why or aphids go through sexual reproduction during periods of environmental uncertainty and asexual in certainty?
Allows them to create offspring with genetic variability increasing the probability that at least one variant can survive the particular conditions. Asexual reproduction occurs when the environment is favorable allows them to rapidly and efficiently exploit that environment
What is a heterotroph?
An organism that cannot make its own food. -- an organism deriving its nutritional requirements by feeding on other organisms that consist of complexe organic substances. they must make use of food that comes from other organisms in the form of fats, carbs, and proteins.
What is an autotroph?
An organism that makes its own food - they are able to form nutritional organic substances from simple inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen fixation (forms ammonia, nitrates, or nitrites)
What is the form of calcium carbonate used in living organisms
Aragonite.
What is AVT?
Arginine vasotonic. is a hormone produced by neurosencretory cells within the posterior pituitary gland (neurohypopysis) of the brain. This is a major endocrine regulator for water balance and osmotic homeostasis in mammals. Playing an integral role in the or bonding behavior and social hierarchy in non-mammalian vertebrates.
What are gametes? A. Fertilized zygotes B. Mature reproductive cells that unite during sexual reproduction to produce a new organism C. Cells comprising the ovaries where eggs are produced D. Cells comprising the testes where sperm are produced E. Cells that produce hormones regulating gender-specific development
B. Mature reproductive cells that unite during sexual reproduction to produce a new
Why might degree of body symmetry suggest fitness of a potential mate? A. Increases the likelihood of recombination occurring in offspring B. A higher degree of symmetry suggests a better coping system for environmental factors influencing fitness C. Increases the chance of finding a mate whose smell indicates the heterozygosity necessary to increase offspring fitness D. Decreases fitness by increasing the probability of allele mixing via genetic recombination E. None of the above answers
B. A higher degree of symmetry suggests a better coping system for environmental factors influencing fitness
Why is sex-change in the bluehead wrasse called social determination of sex? A. Genetics (e.g., presence or absence of the SRY gene) determines sex B. Behavior (e.g., social dominance) determines sex C. Chromosomes (e.g., XX or XY) determines sex D. Hormonal processes determine sex E. Blood flow to the gonads determines sex
B. Behavior (e.g., social dominance) determines sex
What are the best approaches for studying adaptation among those listed. A. Separating adaptation from selection B. Characterizing the functional, fitness effects of genetic variants (i.e., alleles) C. Looking for phenotypes that did not arise historically via natural selection to enhance fitness of an organism in its current environment D. Determining if the presence/absence of an allele affects fitness
B. Characterizing the functional, fitness effects of genetic variants (i.e., alleles) D. Determining if the presence/absence of an allele affects fitness
What happens if you prevent surface fires over many years? A. Dead plant material decreases B. Crown fires that consume everything C. The probability of a fire decreases D. Smokey the bear is happy E. Lower probability of lightening starting a fire
B. Crown fires that consume everything
Based on the result shown at right, what survival advantage would the dunnart gain from using torpor? A. Increased evaporative loss of water as temperature increases B. Decreased evaporative loss of water as temperature increases C. Increased use of energy as temperature increases D. Tighter control of its circadian rhythm E. All the answers listed
B. Decreased evaporative loss of water as temperature increases
What direction does water tend to diffuse relative to the organism in marine biomes? A. No diffusion of water occurs into or out of the organism B. Diffusion out of the organism C. Osmolarity is not an important abiotic factor in marine biomes D. Diffusion into the organism E. Water does not diffuse
B. Diffusion out of the organism
What is a biological adaptation? A. Movie based on a book or play B. Distinct variant of a phenotypic that arose historically via natural selection to enhance fitness of an organism in its current environment C. Process that brings about an increasingly good, heritable fit between organism and environment D. Non-heritable phenotypic change within an individual E. None of the answers listed
B. Distinct variant of a phenotypic that arose historically via natural selection to enhance fitness of an organism in its current environment
Use information in the figure on the right to answer the following (grey bars = plant has RPM1, black bars = plant lacks RPM1): What can be concluded about the effect of RPM1 on fitness of Arabidopsis? A. No change in fitness B. Fitness decreases C. Fitness increases D. None of the answers listed E. Do not know
B. Fitness decreases
What aspect of the rock, paper, scissor game of reproduction in the Uta lizards suggests that populations of the different morphs are under frequency dependent selection? A. Fitness of a morph phenotype does not change as its frequency in the population increases B. Fitness of a morph phenotype decreases as its frequency in the population increases C. Fitness of a morph phenotype does not change as its frequency in the population decreases D. It takes more than color to fool a lizard E. All of the above
B. Fitness of a morph phenotype decreases as its frequency in the population increases
Coral bleaching pattern in the examples just shown (see figures on the right) is due to which of the following statements? A. Fitness of the different Symbiodinium genotypes under the same circumstances that influence exposure to the bleaching conditions of temperature and irradiance B. Fitness of the different Symbiodinium genotypes under different circumstances that influence exposure to the bleaching conditions of temperature and irradiance C. Fitness of the different Symbiodinium genotypes under different circumstances associated with day length (i.e., circadian rhythm) D. Fitness of the different Symbiodinium genotypes associated with their ability to control the environment about them E. None of the answers listed
B. Fitness of the different Symbiodinium genotypes under different circumstances that influence exposure to the bleaching conditions of temperature and irradiance
How does Osedax exploit the rare and distantly separated occurrence of whale carcasses? A. Adult worms detach and float on the currents B. Free-swimming progeny aided by currents C. High fecundity and continuous reproduction D. Production of negatively buoyant oocytes E. All of the answers listed
B. Free-swimming progeny aided by currents & C. High fecundity and continuous reproduction
What organism that was presented in this class or in the readings inhabits brackish water? A. Coral B. Fundulas heteroclitus (killifish) C. Drosophila melanogaster D. Arabidopsis thaliana E. Symbiodinium
B. Fundulas heteroclitus (killifish)
Why might selection for genetic diversity in a metabolic enzyme like LDH be a major driving force in the maintenance of physiological function and survival in Fundulus? A. Fundulus is an endotherm B. Fundulus is an ectotherm C. Fundulus is a homeotherm D. None of the answers listed E. All of the answers listed
B. Fundulus is an ectotherm
The pH of a solution is a number from 1-14 of the acidity (or basicity) of an aqueous solution based on ______ concentration, such that each unit of change represents a ______ change in acidity or alkalinity. A. Hydroxyl ion; ten fold B. Hydrogen ion; ten fold C. Carboxyl ion; two fold D. Sodium ion; 100 fold E. Coca-cola ion; 12 oz fold
B. Hydrogen ion; ten fold
What is the albedo effect on warming of the Arctic Ocean? A. Lack of absorption of sunlight by sea ice in the Arctic Ocean resulting in no sea-surface temperature B. Increased of absorption of sunlight by open water in the Arctic Ocean resulting in warmer sea-surface temperature C. Increased salinity in open water in the Arctic Ocean resulting denser sea-surface water D. Decreased absorption of sunlight by open water in the Arctic Ocean resulting in warmer sea-surface temperature E. Lack of sunlight during the Arctic summer
B. Increased of absorption of sunlight by open water in the Arctic Ocean resulting in warmer sea-surface temperature
What example presented earlier in the course makes use of heterozygosity to survive across a broad range of water temperatures? A. ADH cline in Drosophila melanogaster B. LDH cline in Fundulus heteroclitus C. Mullerian mimicry in Heliconius butterflies D. Susceptible to irradiance stress in Symbiodinium E. Frequency of SNPs in the EPAS1 gene of Tibetans
B. LDH cline in Fundulus heteroclitus
Why are locations that you would expect to be a desert actually be a tropical location?
Because they are in influenced by oceanic wind/currents resulting in increased precipitation events.
What conclusion can be derived from comparing the lateral muscle activity of trout swimming in free stream flow (no barrier) with that of trout swimming behind a barrier (D-shaped cylinder); see the image at right? Behind a No barrier barrier A. Body shape is not blunt or long enough B. Only anterior muscle activity is activated when a trout is behind the barrier C. Trout swimming in free stream flow use much less energy than trout swimming behind the barrier D. Trout swimming in free stream flow use much less muscle activity than trout swimming behind the barrier E. None of the answers listed
B. Only anterior muscle activity is activated when a trout is behind the barrier
Why do many animals purposely skew the sex ratio? A. Improve the health of offspring and the subsequent adult B. Optimize reproductive success to match environmental conditions C. Increase the benefit that the helper sex provides in the successful rearing of young D. All of the answers given above E. None of the answers given above
B. Optimize reproductive success to match environmental conditions
Which of the following is a biochemical or chemical means by which male's control who fertilizes a female's eggs? A. Secrete non-discriminating odors B. Produce proteins that alter sperm storage parameters C. Alter or adjust vagina shape D. Alter or adjust body symmetry or ornamentation E. None of the above answers
B. Produce proteins that alter sperm storage parameters
What is natural genetic recombination? A. Process by which nucleotide editing occurs B. Rearrangement of chromosomal genetic material during the formation of gametes C. Process by which DNA from another species is inserted into a genome D. A period in the timeline of the Big Bang when protons and electrons formed neutral hydrogen E. Accumulation of deleterious mutations in the chromosomes of progeny
B. Rearrangement of chromosomal genetic material during the formation of gametes
Evolution of dark human skin pigmentation is due to significant selective pressure from which of the following factors? A. Sunburn B. Reduction in available folate (as 5MTHF) for cell division by photolysis and ROS due to high UVR (i.e., UVA) exposure near the equator C. Sexual preference (i.e., greater need for vitamin D in females causing increasing sexual dimorphism in pigmentation that is exaggerated by sexual selection in some populations) D. Skin cancer (e.g., malignant melanoma) due to UVA exposure E. Production of vitamin D (cutaneous photosynthesis of vitamin D3) under low UVR (i.e., UVB) environments
B. Reduction in available folate (as 5MTHF) for cell division by photolysis and ROS due to high UVR (i.e., UVA) exposure near the equator
Plants living under the canopy of a tropical forest could use what strategy to obtain light for growth? A. Increase leaf reflectance during high light B. Utilize far-red light (about 730 nm) very effectively C. Grow narrow and thick leaves D. Leaf out after canopy plants E. All of the answers listed
B. Utilize far-red light (about 730 nm) very effectively
Why does the ocean often appear blue? A. Colors in the reder part of the light spectrum are reflected more than those in the blue part of the light spectrum B. Water most strongly absorbs colors in the red part of the light spectrum C. None of the answers listed
B. Water most strongly absorbs colors in the red part of the light spectrum
Why do smaller endothermic animals have a greater difficulty staying warm in cold climates?
Because they have a higher surface to volume ratio then llarger endothermic animals
How does the LDH-B^b and LDH-B^a allele variation differ as you moves from higher lattitide to lower lattitude?
B^b is fixed (100%) in the north and B^a is fixed (100% in the south. thus these two populations are homozylose for these alleles however, in the inbetween latitudes there are heterozylgots becuase these fish populations must deal with high and lower temperature.
Why are the quantitative relationship between surface area and volume is a good example of the fundamental problems in scaling?
Because basic dimensions (length, area, volume) do NOT maintain constant magnitudes (extents, ranges, etc) as size varies. Instead these dimensions are proportional.
How do Imprinting genes violate the usual rule of inhertiance?
Because both alleles in a heterozygote are expressed.
Why does TSD occur?
Because is involved the disruption in the conversion of testosterone to estradiol via the exposure off aromatase. Thus i you add testosterone or aromatase inhibitor will create females.
What is a large reason that larger animals have greater thermal inertia?
Because organisms are at least 70% water which acts as a good thermal buffer.
Why does the rate of evaporation not entiely depend on the relative humidity?
Because the water vapor deficit increases with temperature, therefore, it is mainly dependent on the the difference between the relative humidity and the saturated humidity.
How do we know that balancing selection is probably occuring in the latitudinal variation in Drosophila ADH?
Both ADH allele is actively maintains as heterozygotics in the gene pool at frequencies higher and longer than expected for genetic drift alone ---- All population at all latitudes indicating that is occurred multiple locations thus isn't genetic drift.
What abiotic factor would affect the type plants growing in a desert? A. Long growing season B. Herbivory C. Very low average precipitaion level D. High predator population E. Solar power generation plant
C. Very low average precipitaion level
Given that mouse fitness to owl predation is conferred by allelic differences in the Mc1r gene that are under disruptive selection across the two rock color habitats: What mouse fur color might be selected for in a habitat where both dark and light rock colors occur? A. Light B. Dark C. Both light and dark D. Patchy or mottled
C. Both light and dark
Based on the Bjerrum plot at right, what inorganic ion concentration in the ocean will continue to decrease if the pH of the ocean goes below 7.5? A. Bicarbonate (HCO3−) B. Carbon dioxide (CO2) C. Carbonate (CO32−) D. Calcium ion (C2+) E. Nothing
C. Carbonate (CO32−)
What do circadian and circannual rhythms have in common? A. Clock mechanisms with environmentally-dependent components that enable them to function in total darkness B. Clock mechanisms with environmentally-independent components that prevent them from functioning in total darkness C. Clock mechanisms with environmentally-independent components that enable them to function in total darkness D. Length of time during which they influence physiology E. No commonalities
C. Clock mechanisms with environmentally-independent components that enable them to function in total darkness
What survival advantage would the rock dwelling desert marsupial gain from using torpor in combination with basking? A. Increased use of energy to "awaken" from torpor B. Decreased need for a circadian rhythm C. Decreased use of energy overall D. Decreased interspecific competition E. None of the answers listed
C. Decreased use of energy overall
What is a way for plants to reach light in the canopy without having roots in the ground? A. Growing a vine B. Being transported on the backs of animals C. Growing non-parasitically on another plant; being an epiphyte D. Growing a long, high trunk E. Growing broader and thinner leaves
C. Growing non-parasitically on another plant; being an epiphyte
What is the boundary layer of flowing water? A. Layer of increased velocity immediately adjacent to the surface of a solid past which water is flowing B. Layer of reduced velocity far above the surface of a solid past which water is flowing C. Layer of reduced velocity immediately adjacent to the surface of a solid past which water is flowing D. Layer of reduced velocity immediately behind a large object over which the water is flowing E. All of the answers listed
C. Layer of reduced velocity immediately adjacent to the surface of a solid past which water is flowing
What is the difference between torpor and hibernation? A. Animals in torpor are indolent while animals in hibernation are apathetic B. None, both involve increased use of energy stores C. Length of time in the reduction of body temperature, metabolic rate and associated physiology D. Animals in torpor are manic depressive while animals in hibernation just manic E. None, both involve increased rate of respiration
C. Length of time in the reduction of body temperature, metabolic rate and associated physiology
Choose the missing term in the following sentence: Symbiodinium genotype C is more abundant in coral living at greater depth than genotypes A or B because it shows the __________ fitness to relatively high irradiance stress. A. Highest B. Most likely C. Lowest D. Stingiest E. Most exceptional
C. Lowest
What is genetic sex determination? A. Temperatures experienced during embryonic development determine the sex of the offspring B. Process resulting in an individual that has both male and female reproductive organs C. Males and females have different alleles or even different genes that specify their sexual morphology D. Process by which social dominance determines sex E. A form of asexual reproduction.
C. Males and females have different alleles or even different genes that specify their sexual morphology
What approach might better inform the choice of any (new or old) antimalarial drug treatment? A. Use of a cocktail containing several drugs B. Development of a new drug with a mode of action different from currently used drugs C. Molecular genotyping of parasites infecting randomly chosen patients to determine effectiveness of the drug treatment strategy D. Allow natural selection between host and parasite to proceed unabated E. None of the answers listed
C. Molecular genotyping of parasites infecting randomly chosen patients to determine effectiveness of the drug treatment strategy
Terrestrial plant communities in particular biomes and Holdridge life zones are determined largely by what basic, overall climatic factors? A. Average plant cover height and daylength B. Fire, temperature and herbivory C. Precipitation, evapotranspiration and temperature D. Altitude, soil quality and snow cover E. Their microbiome
C. Precipitation, evapotranspiration and temperature
What is biological fitness? A. The condition of being physically fit and healthy B. The quality of being suitable to fulfill a particular role or task C. Relative genetic contribution of an individual to the gene pool of the next generation(s) D. Measure of the number of an individual's offspring that survive to reproductive age in a particular environment E. Competency to serve in political office
C. Relative genetic contribution of an individual to the gene pool of the next generation(s) D. Measure of the number of an individual's offspring that survive to reproductive age in a particular environment
In an environment containing small, motile gametes (e.g., humans), how would selection act on gamete size in genotypes producing a relatively large embryo? Hint: use the picture on the right to help formulate your answer A. Selection for producing fewer motile gametes and more large gametes B. Selection for producing gametes of similar size C. Selection for producing many small motile gametes and few large gametes D. Selection for gametes of variable size and motility E. The small gamete would get lost trying to find the large one
C. Selection for producing many small motile gametes and few large gametes
Why does a courtship ritual still occur in unisexual whiptail lizard species? A. Protection from predators B. They find it fun to role-play C. Stimulates hormonal changes necessary for ovulation and egg laying D. Alters adaptation to the environment E. Inhibition of hormonal changes necessary for ovulation, egg laying and role-playing
C. Stimulates hormonal changes necessary for ovulation and egg laying
What is your phenome? A. Ability of your skin to tan B. Only your height C. Sum total of your phenotypic traits D. Having a genetic variant that confers resistance to an infectious disease E.None of the answers listed
C. Sum total of your phenotypic traits
How might the protein encoded in the SRY locus initiate the development of male humans? A. Humans do not use hormones to control development of the sexes B. This protein upregulates aromatase expression, enabling synthesis of estradiol from testosterone C. This protein downregulates aromatase expression, preventing synthesis of estradiol from testosterone D. Humans do not use regulation of gene expression in development of the sexes E. SRY only functions in temperature dependent sex determination
C. This protein downregulates aromatase expression, preventing synthesis of estradiol from testosterone
Which of the following is a genotype? A. Eye color B. Color of your pet's fur C. Variation in the RNA sequence encoding a viral spike protein D. Cooling by sweating or panting in response to high temperatures E. All of the answers listed
C. Variation in the RNA sequence encoding a viral spike protein
Phenotypes conferring a fitness-related trait can be due to which of the following types of variation in the genome? A. a nucleotide mutation that does not alter the amino acid sequence of a protein (synonomous SNP) B.loss of genetic recombination C.epistasis as a result of genetic recombination D.lack of heterozygosity when the environment changes E.gene copy number
C.epistasis as a result of genetic recombination and E.gene copy number
What defines an aquatic biome?
Can be split into freshwater and salt water -- this is the water is the common link where ionic, osmotic, and water balance issues have selected for physiological processes to regulate the effect of these abiotic factors of organisms.
In the experiment with coccolithophore algae (see image at right), why does the concentration of carbonate (CO32−) in the water decrease as concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the water increase? A. pH of the water increases B. The dissociation of bicarbonate ions (HCO3−) to carbonate ions (CO32−) increases C. Carbonate ions (CO32−) already in the water combines with some of the hydrogen ions (H+) to make more bicarbonate (HCO3−) ions D. Interaction of A, B and C E. None of the answers listed
Carbonate ions (CO32−) already in the water combines with some of the hydrogen ions (H+) to make more bicarbonate (HCO3−) ions
Epigenetics is?
Changes to the gene without actual change to the DNA itself.
IF you are fish in flowing water, you can swim and hold your pace against the currect more easily doing which of the following?
Choose a spot downstream of a large rock
What is the genome? A. Complete set of genes, or genetic material usually in the form of DNA, present in an organism B. Part of genomic DNA formed by (or consisting of) exons C. All the messenger RNA molecules expressed from the genes of an organism D. Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome E. DNA in which the nucleotide sequence of one strand reads in reverse order to that of the complementary strand
Complete set of genes, or genetic material usually in the form of DNA, present in an organism
What is a heating mechanism that ectothermic animals will use to keep their body warm at the very old temperatures of the ocean?
Counter current blood circulation - where they will heat from the muscle metabolism warms blood that flows bacl tot he body from the perphial muscles back to the core. - anti-freeze molecules
What term is used to describe a distinct variant of a phenotype that enhances fitness and arose historically as a result of natural selection for its current biological role? A. Evolutionary process B. Spandrel (biological) C. Exaptation (biological) D. Adaptation (biological) E. Acclimation
D. Adaptation (biological)
What statement best describes use of the term adaptation in biology? A. Word used to describe a trait or character B. Word used to describe an evolutionary process C. Word used to describe a process of phenotypic adjustment within individuals D. Any of the above
D. Any of the above
Why is sex-change in the bluehead wrasse called social determination of sex? A. Genetics is the only factor that determines sex B. Chromosomes (e.g., XX or XY) determines sex C. When sex is only determoned by hormones D. Behavior (e.g., social dominance) determines E. None of the answers listed
D. Behavior (e.g., social dominance) determines
What is salinity? A. A sci fi TV series B. Concentration of dissolved organic molecules C. Measure of being moody, angry or annoying D. Concentration of dissolved inorganic salts E. Concentration of plankton
D. Concentration of dissolved inorganic salts
Which of the following is a natural biome? A. Playing field in Beaver Stadium B. Agricultural fields/plots around the world C. A Minecraft video game D. Deciduous forests around the world E. Central Park in New York City
D. Deciduous forests around the world
Why would dry terrestrial areas heat up more in the daytime and cool down more at night in comparison to moist terrestrial areas? (Hint: take into consideration heat buffering by moisture) A. Less cloud cover B. High tree canopy coverage C. Disturbance of the soil by off road vehicles D. Dry soil holds less heat than moist soil E. Being located next to an ocean
D. Dry soil holds less heat than moist soil
What is genomic imprinting? A. Genetic process in which alleles inherited from both parents are equally expressed in offspring B. A mechanisms by which offspring recognize the parent C. Process where the effect of one gene is dependent on the presence of one or more modifier genes D. Epigenetic process in which alleles from both parents are not equally expressed in offspring E. Stamping an image of a gene on a surface
D. Epigenetic process in which alleles from both parents are not equally expressed in offspring
What statement best defines the term phylogeny? A. History of a species or group B. Evolution of a species or group, especially in reference to lines of ascent from and lack of a relationship to a common ancestor C. Developmental history of an organism D. Evolutionary history of a species or group, especially in reference to lines of descent from and relationships to a common ancestor. E. Software used to infer the tree of life
D. Evolutionary history of a species or group, especially in reference to lines of descent from and relationships to a common ancestor.
What kind of organic matter is broken down by collectors in flowing fresh water? A. Coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM) B. Pollutant particulate organic matter (PPOM) C. Mud particulate inorganic matter (MPOM) D. Fine particulate organic matter (FPOM) E. Algae growing on rocks and other stationarry surfaces in the water
D. Fine particulate organic matter (FPOM)
Spring Creek that flows through the State College area is a transfer zone-like stream. What would be the relative abundance of shredders and grazers in Spring Creek, which is a 4rth order stream/river? A. Collectors would be way less abundant than all other types of feeders B. Shredders and grazers would be about equal in abundance C. Grazers, shredders and collectors would be less abundant than predators D. Grazers would be much more abundant than shredders E. Shredders would be more abundant than grazers
D. Grazers would be much more abundant than shredders
What ion must be removed from the inside of coccolithophores and coral in order to produce their aragonite skeletons? A. Carbon dioxide (CO2) B. Bicarbonate (HCO3−) C. Calcium (Ca2+) D. Hydrogen (H+) E. Carbonate (CO32−)
D. Hydrogen (H+)
Use the image at right to answer the following: What could be the effect of the dramatic decline in giraffe populations on fire in African ecosystems that harbor giraffes? Note: Giraffes feed on the leaves of shrubs and trees. A. Overgrazing by herbivores that feed on grasses B. A large intense crown fire C. Increase in the frequency of fires D. Increase in fire intensity and the risk of crown fires E. Increase in the number of small surface fires
D. Increase in fire intensity and the risk of crown fires
Why do aphids reproduce sexually? A. Rapid exploitation of a favorable environment B. Creation of offspring with much genetic variability C. They get bored of having sex D. Increased adaptation to a changing environment E. None of the answers listed
D. Increased adaptation to a changing environment
Use information in the figure on the right to answer the following: How does increasing latitude influence the number of alternating bouts of torpor and arousal? A. Decreases the number of bouts B. No change in number of bouts C. Time spent in hibernation does not increase with latitude D. Increases the number of bouts E. None of the answers listed
D. Increases the number of bouts
What is Muller's Ratchet? A. Purging of deleterious mutations via sexual reproduction B. Increasing the rate of adaptation C. Something that should have be called Muller's screwdriver D. Irreversible accumulation of deleterious mutations via asexual reproduction E. Regrouping of alleles with other alleles
D. Irreversible accumulation of deleterious mutations via asexual reproduction
What is genetic drift? A. Non-random fluctuations in the frequency of gene variants (alleles) in a population B. A 1950s R&B/soul vocal group C. A way to obtain an adaptation that increase fitness D. Random fluctuations in the frequency of gene variants (alleles) in a population E. Transfer of alleles or genes from one population to another
D. Random fluctuations in the frequency of gene variants (alleles) in a population
What is an evolutionarily stable strategy (ESS)? A. Strategy that will be replaced (or invaded) by another strategy through natural selection B. Altruistic interactions based on kin selection and/or inclusive fitness C. A scheme to defeat the odds in Vegas D. Strategy that cannot be replaced (or invaded) by any other strategy through natural selection E. Establishment of mutualism between individuals from different species
D. Strategy that cannot be replaced (or invaded) by any other strategy through natural selection
Why are there low nutrient concentrations at the surface of the ocean (take light penetration into consideration and where primary production occurs)? A. Fishing in the euphotic zone B. Uptake by zooplankton in the euphotic zone C. Large presence of chemoautotrophs in the euphotic zone D. Uptake by phytoplankton (primary producers) in the euphotic zone E. Fishing in the dysphotic and aphotic zones
D. Uptake by phytoplankton (primary producers) in the euphotic zone
Choose the best approaches for studying adaptation from those listed. A. Ignoring the historical context associated with natural selection of a phenotype or genotype B. Separating adaptation from selection C. Measuring a biological feature without placing it into the context of selection D. Using a common garden approach to compare the physiology, protein biochemistry and fitness of very closely related species whose distribution patterns reflect an environmental gradient E. None of the answers listed
D. Using a common garden approach to compare the physiology, protein biochemistry and fitness of very closely related species whose distribution patterns reflect an environmental gradient
Choose the best approaches for studying adaptation from those listed. A. Ignoring the historical context associated with natural selection of a phenotype or genotype B. Separating adaptation from selectionc. C. Measuring a biological feature without placing it into the context of selection D. Using a common garden approach to compare the physiology, protein biochemistry and fitness of very closely related species whose distribution patterns reflect an environmental gradiente. E. AandD
D. Using a common garden approach to compare the physiology, protein biochemistry and fitness of very closely related species whose distribution patterns reflect an environmental gradiente.
1. Where does a genotype reside in the cells?
DNA
Give an example of a reciprocal transplant case study
Determine the Mimulus (monkey flowers) are locally adpated to different elevations in the Sierra Nevada Mountains to determine what evolutionaty mechanism underlays trait variations leading to increased fitness in the home environment
What is the scaling rate of animals metabolic rate?
Does not follow Bergmann's rules, to the 3/4 power of animals mass this is known as Kleibler' law. Larger organisms use more oxygen in total, but smaller organisms use more in comparison to their body mass.
Why would Drosophila need ADH? A. "T o party like its 1999" B. For the detoxification of ethanol C. Synthesize sex pheromon D. To feed on rotting and fermenting fruit E. Answer B so it can do answer D
E. Answer B so it can do answer D
Choosing a mate based on MHC genotype primarily falls under what hypotheses for the prevalence of sexual reproduction? A. Increase the rate of adaptation to changing environments (red queen hypothesis) B. Purge deleterious mutations that would accumulate in an asexual line C. Create variety in your offspring by increasing heterozygosity D. Allowing alleles to mix with other alleles via genetic recombination E. Answers A and/or C
E. Answers A and/or C
Choose the best approaches for studying adaptation from those listed. A. Separating adaptation from selection B. Characterizing the functional effects of genetic variants C. Looking for genes that influence multiple, seemingly unrelated traits (i.e., pleiotropy) D. Determining if the presence/absence of an allele affects fitness E. Answers B and D
E. Answers B and D
How does extinction rate scale with body size?
Extinction rate increases with increasing body mass while speciation rate decreases with increasing body mass. Because, bigger animals = larger home range, more food,
Given what you have learned so far, what mating strategy (or strategies) could enhance the reproductive fitness of males in general (i.e., not just human males)? A. Broadcast sperm into the environment (hope for the best); place sperm immediately adjacent to eggs released into the environment (external fertilization); place sperm inside the female body, as close as possible to newly released eggs B. Search for and mate with the greatest number of females. (Love 'em and leave 'em) C. Mate with one or a few females and defend that success so that other males don't also have a chance to fertilize those eggs (example: mate guarding behavior where the male defends a location most favorable for females -- territoriality) D. Stay with mated female to assist in rearing offspring. E. Any of the above depending on environmental conditions to which the species has adaptedA.
E. Any of the above depending on environmental conditions to which the species has adaptedA.
What is genomic imprinting? A. Stamping an image of a gene on a surface B. Process where the effect of one gene is dependent on the presence of one or more modifier genes C. A mechanism by which offspring recognize the parent D. Genetic process in which alleles inherited from both parents are equally expressed in offspring E. Epigenetic process in which alleles from both parents are not equally expressed in offspring
E. Epigenetic process in which alleles from both parents are not equally expressed in offspring
What will probably be the primary, most direct impact of ocean acidification on humans? A. Increased absorption of atmospheric carbon dioxide B. Decreased absorption of atmospheric carbon dioxide C. Reduced availability of carbonate (CO32−) for exoskeleton formation D. Reduced availability of Calcium (Ca2+) for exoskeleton formation E. Reduced nutritional and economic support for coastal human communities
E. Reduced nutritional and economic support for coastal human communities
what is the difference between between genetic and environmental sex determination
Environmental sex determination is the establishment of sex by a non-genetic cue, such as nutrient availability, experienced within a discrete period after fertilization. ... This is in contrast to genotypic sex determination, which establishes sex at fertilization by genetic factors such as sex chromosomes.
What is the sequence of renin leading to vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure in mice?
Enzyme - human renin (hRN) or human angiotensin (hANG) (secreted by the kidney) --> converted to the peptide hormone angiotensin (ANG) to ANGI, --> goes to the lungs to be converted to ANGII. Where ANGII results in vasoconstriction and increase blood pressure leading to preclampsia.
What is an example of an organism that has positive allometry?
Esox masquinongy (muskellunge) whose weight (mass) grows with about the power of 3.3 of its length (M proportional to L^3.3) whereas isometric growth would be (M proportional to L3)
What are factors that influence rainfall and moisture in terrestrial environments?
Evapotranspiration latitude air circulation elevation earth spin axis orientation
What is exaptation? Give an example.
Exaptation is the gradual adaptation of existing structures to new functions. The situation in which a structure that evolved in one context is later adapted for another function. Birds are derived from a lineage of earthbound reptiles. They evolved light, honey-combed bones from flightless ancestors prior to developing flight. Flippers are developed to ocean dwelling animals that later evolve into useful appendages for walking on land.
What is the relation between N and P concentration in freshwater v salt water
Freshwater - N high, P low Saltwater - N low, P high
What is a case studying relating to the functional effects of variants approaching to studying adaptation?
Functional Differences among Symbiodinium Dioflagellates to the Environmental Context, light senstivitiy. experiment contains two species of Caribbean Coral hosts (differ in morphology) and 3 genotypes of Symbiodium dinoflagellates denoted A,B,C. Does light intensity effect the fitness of the symbol.
What is the difference between Genetic drift and gene flow
Genetic drift has to do with the randomness of reproduction and the resulting allele frequencies. ... That's genetic drift. Gene flow has to do with the migration of organisms.
What does it mean if aragonite saturation index is greater then 1, and less than 1
Greater = CaCO3 does not readilty dissolve (pH but be basic enough Less = CaCO3 dissolves therefore, ph is low enough
what are some chemicals that chemotrophs can use to make energy?
H2S, S, H2, Nh4, ferrous Fe2+, and Ferric Fe3+
If you were to depart from Southern Florida by boat with the intention of finding the most plastic waste in the ocean surface water, which direction should you go?
Head due east toward the clearest, deepest open ocean farthest from human populations.
What is the heat flux scaling factor?
Hf proportional M^2/3 ---> smaller organisms will lose heat quicker than larger organisms this is why smaller organisms will increase the metabolic rate.
What is Physiological Ecology
How an organism interacts with its physical environment, and its adaptions to that environment. Is a an integrative mentality and a dynamic process where evolution is ongoing.
What is the difference between food and fat hibernators.
In hibernation energy intake is reduced. fat: food intake ceases; energy derived from stored lipids while food storing: eat from stored nuts or plan material furing arousal.
Where are imprinting epigenetics marks established?
In the germline and maintained throughout all somatic cells of an organism.
In Drosphila how does ADH f and ethanol resistance respond to increasing latitudes?
Increases allele frequence.
1. What are the different ways adaptation can be used?
Infers that evolutionary processes acting on heritable genetic or epigenetic variation bring about an increasingly good fit between organism and environment. § A process of temporary phenotypic adjustment within individuals describing a non-heritable change thus coined as acclimation
What is determining the correlation between genetic and environmental change approach to studying adaption?
Is a way method to determine if genetic variation in wild populations changes with a natural environmental change or gradient *organisms are studies in place without any modifications of them or their environment
What is Evolution?
Is an overall narrative of the natural selection process because it does not apply to one specific individual. It involves a change in the genetic composition of a population of individual organismal over a period that includes many generations of individuals. Is the historical change in genetic allele frequency in a population of organisms.
What is M0?
Is the rate at which resources become available which is independent of an organisms mass.
Why is K+ more readily to leak into cells cmpared to Na+?
K+ only have 10 molecules of water associated in compared to 16 molecules around NA+; therefore, K+ will establish a higher concnetration inside than. Higher K+ common in bulk water. But with higher K in cell it leaves more bulk water for other solventness.
How do large multicellular organisms cope with allometric scaling or important exchange surface areas?
Large vai invagination or envagination of surface area - gas exchange (lungs, gills, plant leaf stomata, ect. - water and ion exchange -- digestion (intestinal microvillar lining) - internal exchange (counter current exchange pf blood via blood vessel dilation or concentration in appendages such as ears. fins, gills, legs tails, leaves)
What does the red queen hypothesis refer to? (originate from?
Lewis Carrolls through the looking glass which the red queen tells alice "it takes all the running you can do to keep in the same place" thus then never ending evolutionary cycles between interacting functions and the constant evolutionaty struggle for a survival advantage
Facultative skin pigmentation (delayed tanning) in humans is an adaptation to the following environmental factor? A. Creation of the bikini and speedo swimwear B. Sexual preference C. Low annual and summer peak levels of UVR (UVA and UVB) D. Positive selection on the same genetic pathways E. Lack of seasonal variation in UVR (UVA or UVB)
Low annual and summer peak levels of UVR (UVA and UVB)
Why is convection of O2 easier then in water?
Lower viscosity of air increase the accessibility of aerial O2
What does bone cross sectional area would need to scale ? in order to resist gravity?
M
If something scales to M^1/4 or the M^4/5 what does that mean?
M^1/4 is called "negative allometry" as the values are smaller than predicted by isometry M^4/5 is called positive allometry these are values that are higher than predicted by isometry and organisms.
What is a way that female Argentine lake ducks (Oxyura vittata) combat undesired male mating.
Male ducks have a corkscrew penis that twists anti-clockwise, and a female duck twisters her vagina in the opposite direction, preventing the duck penis from reaching deep inside the female. They can also tighten their vaginal muscles to thwart an unwants male and relax them during sex with a preferred male.
How do aquatic air breathers deal with excess salt? Give an example
Marine iquana, secretes crystalized salt from salt glands in its nose.
What is the main difference between meiosis and Mitosis?
Meiosis has 2 steps and results in 4 haploid cells, while mitosis results in 2 diploid cells.
The study in which men had olfactory exposure to womens emotions tears showed which of the following about brain function
Men stiffing women's emotional tears had lower activity in brain regions associated with sexual arousal
What adaptations might large endotherms have to survive high temperatures?
Migration, aestivation, insulation by hair, adpative thermoregulation, evaporative cooling (sweat, pants) relative high internal body temperatures, large extremities (elphant ears), countercurrent heat exchange with peripheral vasodilation, reduced body size (deer in the south), get in the shade, nasal turbinates
what is a limitation to too much light?
Plants have to be adapted to reduce the risk of desiccation and exposure to UV rays. Therefore they have to expend energy to produce pigments that block the UV light and secrete waxy coating to prevent water loss. (canopy plants)
What is the trend of nutrients in the ocean?
Nutrients tend to be low near the surface higher at depth, and low in the open ocean or pelagic zone. -- nutrient will declien with depth and will stabilize after 100 m
What are the two genes that are the core oscullarors in circadian rhythms?
PER (period) and CRY (Cryptochrome genes)
what are symbiodium?
Phtosynthesis capable single-cell symbionts that reside in corals.
What is gene copy number variation? A. An allozyme polymorphism B. Polymorphic gain or loss of genomic loci in which a gene resides C. A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) D. An epigenetic polymorphism E. An indel polymorphism
Polymorphic gain or loss of genomic loci in which a gene resides
When given images indicative of situations in which sperm competition is likely, human males ---?
Product more motile sperm but not a higher concentration of sperm, although the effect is subject to rapid habituation.
What controls female physiology and behavior subsequent to copulation for Drosphila?
Protiens of the male Drosphila ejeculate and gene encoding them. Regardless, individual proteins in controlling female physiology and behavior subsequent to copulation. These genes show a very high rate of polymorphism and evolution. Some of these proteins also have antimicrobial functions and induce expression of auntimicrobial peptides in some insects.
What is balancing selection?
Refers to a number of selective processes by which muitiple allels (different versions of a gene( are actively maintained in the gene pool of a population at frequencies larger than expected from genetic drift alone. Some types of selection is happening over certain latitudies and genetic drift.
What is the Function of accessory gland proteins that are in the ejaculate on Female receptivity?
Right after mating the protein reduces the female receptivity and over time it slowly being to increase to the pre-ejaculate level. Function of seminal fluid proteins in semen of humans and other primates is unknown, but many are under strong positive selection.
What is the scaling factor of respiratory (gill or lung) to surface area?
SA proportional to M^0.75
What is scaling?
Scaling is the structural and functional consequences of a change in size and scale among similarly organized objects, where size (i.e., length, area, volume, mass, etc.) is a unit of measure and scale is the spread or dispersion multiplier of that size.
What is sexual selection? A. Selection process whereby organism better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring B. Selection process whereby one sex of an organism prefers certain characterisitics in individuals of the other sex such that these characteristics don't necessarily have to be preferred on a survivial basis. C. Selection process that favors one extreme of continuous variation, such that over time the favored extreme will become more common than the other extreme which could be lost D. Selection process that favors the intermediate states of continuous variation, such that over time the intermediate states become more common and extreme variants will become less common or lost. E. Selection process that favors both extremes of continuous variation, such that over time the two extreme variants become more common and intermediate variants will become less common or lost.
Selection process whereby one sex of an organism prefers certain characterisitics in individuals of the other sex such that these characteristics don't necessarily have to be preferred on a survivial basis.
What is the pattern of Drosophila and biochemical manipulation of female receptivity by males.
Shows that mating frequency of virgin females spikes right after emergances then sharply declines. It takes at least 3 days to build the peceptivity over many hours after mating.
what are Structural (i.e., physical) adaptations of organisms that have an allometric (non-geometric) scaling basis?
Size and shape Plumbing (internal and external exchanges of ions, wastes, gases, heat) Surface characteristics (color, permeability) Biomechanical properties (leverage, lift/drag, adhesion, buoyancy, locomotion, etc.) Mechanical defenses and weaponry Information processing (sensory and integrative structures)
What is the problem with skeletal mass scaling?
Skeletal mass does not scale appropriately with gravity times the ratio of body M to cross-sectional area.
What are the main three difference between small and large organisms with regard to physiological scaling of Thermal Exchange?
Small: large surface/volume ratio, rapid heat flux, usually ectotherms Large: small surface/volume ratio, slow heat flux, usually endotherms.
Why would Drosophila need ADH? A. "To party like its 1999" B. Detoxification of pesticides C. Synthesize sex pheromone D. So it can feed on rotting and fermenting fruit
So it can feed on rotting and fermenting fruit
What is the life history cycle for the Green Peach Aphid (Myzus Persicae)
Spring: Stem Mother hatches -> progany asexual --> winged insect migrates in the spring Summer: winged insects gives birth to wingless adult Fall: Winged migrant -- migrates --> sexual reproduces Winter: Lays eggs on stick (Spring Summer: there are many parthenogenic generations, all are female, no males are produced Fall: male are produces, mating occurs, sexual eggs are produced prior to winter, eggs overwinter in diapause and hatch as ansecual adults in spring)
What is the relative fitness difference (swimming performance and Differential mortality) between the LDH-B^b and LDH-B^a alleles for Fundulas?
Swimming performance: at 10 C LDH-B^b homozygots sustain a swimming speed 20% higher than LDH-B^a homozygotes. Therefore, fish with bb are better swimmers at colder temperature. Differential mortality: at 30C LDH-B^b homozygotes have lower survivership than Ba thus do not handle warm weather well.
The geospatial distribution of human nares width is correlated with?
Temperature and absolute humidity but not relative humidity. Wider noses are more common in warm-humid climates, while narrower noses are moe common in cold-dry climates. Therefore human noses are driven by local adaptations to climate. males typically have larger noses then women too.
What is osmoregulation?
The control of water balance.
Was there a difference in adult v larval stages in ADH ethanol toxicity?
The fast allele had the higher LD50 values indicating its is slightly better at the larval stage.
in vitro assays how well do the ADH fast allele and slow allele assays of bacterial expressed protien compare?
The fast allele is barely better than the other forms thus indicates that is doesnt change the biochemistry enougth to correlate to increased fitness
What is a metabolome?
The metabolome refers to the complete set of small-molecule chemicals found within a biological sample. The biological sample can be a cell, a cellular organelle, an organ, a tissue, a tissue extract, a biofluid or an entire organism.
what are mammal lungs like?
They are highly branches and invaginated lung, 2. is ventilated using a negative rpessure system with the diaphragm. 3. gas echange in bidirectional; air moves back and forth into and out of the lungs
What genetic thing happens when the probability that the father os the current offspring will not be the father of the females future offspring increase?
There is an increase selection for material inherited genes in the fetus to gain a bit more from the mother in terms of investment and future cost. --> In turn there is increases selection on material genes in both mother and fetus to resist this action of paternally inherited genes.
300 million years ago there were giant arthropod, how could they exist?
There use to be 31% of the atmsphere was oxygen.
What is the reprocussion to living organisms if the aragonite saturation state reduces from its initial value?
Therefore, the environment now is more difficult and energetically costly for larvae of mollusks and other calcifiers to build shells EVEN BEFORE aragonite concentration declines to the point that results in the dissolution of structures formed from calcium carbonate.
What is vertral camoufloge in marine organisms?
These organisms will emit blue-green light; thus countershading to the sky.
What is a challenge that nectar and phloem feeders have with osmotic variables?
They consume so much water, they must excrete it, and then have a problem with losing ions int eh process; therefore, it can be challenging for them to obtain sufficient ions.
What are dominate characteristics for plants in the tiaga?
They end to have needle like leaves that are good at conserving water, reducing snow damage, extending the photosynthetic period, preventing freezing of photosynthetic cells, and conserve energy and nutrients because they are not shed annually (taiga soil is poor in nutrients)
How is the Bushy-tailed woodrat an example of bergmanns rules?
They evolved to be locally adapted to body size and climate change. At high mean July temperatures there will be more smaller rats and the smaller wootrats will have a higher lethal temperature since they live in warmer environments. While the smaller rats will have smaller fecal pellets -- this is how scientists were able to pin point where these critters lived.
Which of the following is NOT true for yellow males?
They repel blue males from their territories
What is DMRT1?
This is a transcription factor that is a key switch in genetic sed determination (GSD) so it appears that both TSD and GSD differ only in what controls the differential expression and DMRT1, after which both pathways have similar mechanisms.
What are genomic imprinting?
This is an epigentic process that involved DNA methylation and histone modification and will result in whose genes will actually be expressed. Typically expression of the genes provided by the contributing parent.
What is special about uric acid?
This is the most highly reduced form of nitrogenous, which enables it to be excreted in a form that contains almost no water, unlike ammonia and urea.
What is the osmotic motor of plants?
This is water reservoir at the base of leaves that drives leaf movement using dissimilar volume and turgor changes in two oppositely positioned parts of the pulvinus. this motor is powered by a plasma membrane proton ATPase, which drives KCL fluxes and consequently water across the pulvinus into swelling cells and out of shrinking cells
what is meant by the term proportional in isometric scaling of 3-dimensional objects?
Two variables (e.g., an object's surface area and length) are proportional if a change is one is always accompanied by a change in the other. Ratios of areas and volmes for geometrically similar objects, or organisms, will be proportional to length (or width, radius, etc.) raised to some power (exponent)
In TSD, demethylation involves a 5-methylcytosine hydroxylase (5-mC) whose activity is temperature-dependent, such that;
Warm, female-producing temperatures stabilize the 5-mC activity resulting in demethylation of the aromatase promotor, thus aromatase is binding into the prometh and can be exressed and promotion of a female. Enabling DMRT1 to bind and initiate aromatase expression, Leading to the conversion of testosterone to estradiol and subsequent development of female sex organs.
What is the aragonite saturation state equation?
[Ca2+][Carbonate]/Ksp -> Where Ksp constant is the concentration of Ca2+ and Carbonare when CACO3 is at equilibrium
What is the carcadian rhythm?
a biological process that a periodicity of about 24 hours that controls gene expression to behavior in both animals and plants. that is controlled by a molecular clock that comprises positive and negative autoregularoy feedback loops of transcription and translation
What is the Holdridge Life Zone System?
a general model to explain global variation in terrestrial biomes. a global bioclimatic scheme for the classification of land areas. this is the more encompassing in incorporating climatic factors associated with latitude and altitude and detailed information about rainfall, humidity, and moisture.
for adeguate gas exchange in water what is necessary?
a higher rate of water flow and close contact between water and gill surface are necessary
What is oogamy?
a large, non-motile egg cell is fertilized by a small, motile, flagellated sperm cell. the egg is optimized for longevity, whereas the small sperm cell is optimized for motility and speed.
What is sympatric speciation?
a species evolves into a new species within the same environment (flower example)
What are mapping traits onto a phylogeny commonly used to establish
a trait (genotype or phentype) that arose HISTORICALLY as a result of natural selection for its current role and used to see if its closely related through ancetry (lines of descent)
What are hydathodes on leaves of hydrophytes?
a types of secretory tissue in leaves that secretes water through pores in the epidermis or margin of leaves. very important to getting rid of water that diffuses in freshwater systems.
What are mechanisms that oxygen regulators might use?
a. maintain O2 inside independent of the concentraiton outside to some critical pO2 b. Maintain O2 by increasing ventilation rate c. increase circulation of blood d.
what are the strategies that marine Vertebrates maintain ion and water balance?
a. nearly/essentially an osmo and iono conformer b. osmoconformer and ionoregulator (hagfish) c. osmo and iono regulator
What was the scale value in biology inform us.
about the proportional effect that a change in size could have on a biological process or adaptation.
Where are most of the univalent salts absorbed and excreted in marine vertebrates?
absorbed gut eliminated via special chlorine cells in the gill surface by a process that creates ionic charge gradients by using the NA/K 2Cl cotransporter to move Na and K and 2Cl into the cell.
What act resulted in less acid rain?
acid deposition act. (1980) and the clean air act (1989) which caped the amount of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides companies were allowed to emit.
What is a problem with air as you decent to great ocean depths?
air compressionability. air is compressable, while water is not. therefore they need to make sure to get rid of or prevent air form occuting in tissues prevents deep sea organism from being crushed by the pressure.
Why is filter feeding challenging in terrestial environments. What are some examples of filter feeders?
air contains little suspended organic matter compared to water. Spiders and Spanish moss filter feeders.
How does crosscurent exchange work?
air passes through air capillaries and blood moving through blood capillaries generally travel at right angles to each other in which is classed cross-current flow.
What is the purpose of aerenchyma?
air tissue. enables the plants to line in standing water allowing tranportation of oxygen into the submerged roots.
What is the isometric scaling rule?
all of the dimensions of one shape size can be calculated by multiplying the dimensions of the other by a invariable scaling factor.
In a paper on the scaling of muscle force output, it was shown that the maximum force per unit mass produced by the "motor" of animals such as insects, birds, bats, and fish predicts almost exactly the mass-specific maximum force output of machines such as ______ .
all of these choices are true; these authors are geniuses!!
What is more common in nature allometric or isometric scaling?
allometric; however, isometric scaling is often used as a null hypothesis
What are the lungs like in amphibians and reptiles?
amphibians have no lungs or lungs with only a small degree if subdivision and invaginations usually more than the lung fish. reptiles use a suction pump system to draw air into their lungs (similar to mammals) essentialy swallowing air into their lungs.
What is irreducible complexity?
an argument that certain biological systems cannot evolve by successive small modifications to pre-existing functional systems through natural selection, as no less complex system would function - shows how it most likely evolved and the proccess - statement about eh current systems state not the past history
What is frequency-dependent selection?
an evolutionary process where the fitness of a particular phenotype and its underlying genotype depends on its frequency of occurrence relative to that of other phenotypes in a given population. This occures when the fitness of a phenotype and its underlying genotype depnds on whether it is rare or common in the population
What is eutrophication?
an increase in chemical nutrients in the water, leading to excessive blooms of algae that deplete underwater oxygen levels.
What is game theory?
analysis of strategies for dealign with competitive situations wehere th ourcome of a participants choice of action depends criticallly on the action of ther participants .
What are the five major types of biomes?
aquatic, desert, forest, grassland, and tundra/taiga
What are reactive oxygen species?
are chemically reactive molecules containing oxygen
What are ROS in the biological context?
are formed as a ntural byproduct of the normal metabolism of oxygen and have important roles in cell signalling and homeostasis.
What is the benefit of being a terminal phase males for bluehead wrasse regarding mating?
are the best at defending and mating sites bu repelling other males interference competition, graiing exclusive access to eggs ot the femals that oviposit there.
What are lungfish?
are the most adept at supplementary air breathing( some are obligated air breathers), but they still cant support high levles of activity this way beceasue their lungs have low surface area compared to terrestial beings. - have a vascularized pouch off of the esophagus and gulps air.
Where is the East Pacific Gyre garbage patch?
between Hawaii and cali. covers an estimated 1.6 million square km or twice the size of texas.
What is a microsatellites?
are tracts of repetitive DNA where certain sequence motifs are repeated 5-50 times in tandem. motifes 2-4 are useually used in genetics. the number of repeats of a motif varies among populations and within allels of an individual.
What is an allozyme?
are variant forms of an enzyme which differ structurally but not functionally from other allozymes coded for by different alleles at the same locus
What is a hydrothermal vent?
areas of sea-floor spreading are unusual habitats with high temperature (4 to 100C) over distances about meter or less, abundant chemical nutreitns for chemoautotrophs, extreme depths,
What areas typically have the highest salinity in the ocean?
areas of the ocean that are deep, have little mixing and high evaporation ( mediterranean sea, and atlantic ocean
What areas typically have the lowest salinity in the ocean?
areas that are shallow, have a lot of mixing, little evap., and receive freshwater inputs. ex. baltic sea
What are problematic areas that are not easitly managed by controlled burns?
areas where rain is abundant in an average year but there are occasional of severe droughts
How does latitude and altitude influence climate?
as latitude and altitude increase, the temperature getss colder therefore changing the vegitation. In addition, latitude will influence the locations of terrestial biomes due to the circulation of moisture, length of daylight, extremes in temperature, wind direction, and intensity of sunlight.
What is gamete limitation?
assumes that natural selection would lead to gamete size that results in the largest population-wide number of successful fertiilzation - works at the population level
what is gamete competition?
assumes that natural selection would lead to individuals who product more (but smaler) gametes becuase they gain a larger proportion of fertlization simply becuase they produce a larger number of gametes that are good at seeking out those of the larger type. - works on the individual level
When is primary sex ration measured? what can effect this ratio?
at conception and things like chemical and hormones can effect this ratio
How did beaching effect the abundance of Symbiodinium genotypes in Both corals
at shallow depths. bleaching occurs primarily on the sides of colonies (c does not do well) where as at deeper depths bleaching (a and b do not do well)
Based on the hydrologic system, where on the map could you expect to find tropics and deserts?
at the equator - 30 -- tropics then at 30 see desert
What does the microbiota include?
bacteria, archaea, protists, fungi, viruses and sometimes very small macroscopic metazoa (nematodes)
What are some examples of female preference for symmetry?
barn swallows, zebra finches, japanese scorpionflies
Why can you substitute volume for mass for animals?
because animals have similar densities due to being primarily comprised of water whose density is 1.
Why are biomes NOT ecosystems?
because biomes contains different ecosystems there the communities are adapted to the small difference in climate and biota inside the biome.
Why might a sperm be more successful at fertilizing an egg than another?
because it had the best match to recognition and binding factors on the outer surface the egg -- specific recognition between the glycoprotien receptors ont he outer surface of sperm and the protein and carbohydrates recognition factors on the egg surface and cell membrane marsk the beiginnng of life
why is T&H widespread in mammals?
because it is a broad evolutionary process that shared a common descent, with multiple independent losses at various points on the phylogeny (imcluding primates, although torpor in a lemur has been described) - occurs in ectotherms and endotherms
Why can carp live in low oxygeninated water?
because they only need low arterial blood O2 concentrations and using hemoglobin with a low P50 for its dissociation curve.
Why is sex primarily selected?
becuase of its benefits of genetic exchange between individuals
What is the aphotic zone?
below 1000 m 2/3 miles.
What does the presentation of a non-self MHC protein (antigen) on a cells surface result in?
binding of T-lmphocytes cells, thereby initiating degradation of infected cells and the infectious microbes they contain.
what is the carcannual rhythm?
biological process that has a periodicity of about one year that regulates seasonal activity -- reproduction, hibernation, migration, germination, flowering, leafs and have environmentally dependent and independence components
What are brackish waters?
bodies of water with salinity intermediate between seawater and freshwater EX chesapeake bay
What does the rate of evaporation depend on?
body surface, vapor pressure, vapor pressure deficit, saturation vapor pressure
What is viviparous?
bring forth live young.
How is CPOM broken down?
by bacteria, fungi, and shredders
How were symbiodinium genotypes distinquished
by different restrictions fragment lengths of their small ribosomal RNA (srRNA) gene.
Why can Benguela gobbies hid during the day in hypoxic and hydrogen sulfide laden mud where no other vertebrates are present?
by metabolic depression and formation of sufficient ATP via glycoysis during their time in hypoxia
What is Molarity?
concentrations of a specific solute in moles per L
What is the Role of induced resistance
can lead to increased levels of phenolic compounds in the plant tissues, which often have antioxidant properties that are highly beneficial to humans.
What controls T&H?
carcadian rythm and cirannual rhythm
What are the three organisms that use urea and TMAO to be osmoconformers in seawater?
chimaera, colacanth, and crap-eating frog
What is ciliary flow and what utilizes it?
cilia create water currentes to move water over gills. used by mollusc
Who is Jacques0Yves Cousteau?
co-developer of the aqua-lung, pioneer of marine conservation, ocean exporer, filmaker and cinematographer, and owner of the calypso.
What is anoxia?
complete absence of O2
Although a normal daughter cell produced in meiosis always received half of the genetic material contained in the parent cell (haploid), recombination acts to ensure what?
constant viariabiity: no two haploid daughter cells are identical in genetic content to the parent cell. and no two progeny are indentical in genetic content to the parents.
What is a Biome?
contiguous natural area with similar, dominant abiotic conditions/factors that contain biotic communities with special adaptations that make it possible for them to exist under the abiotic conditions of a particular biome.
What do nitrogen fixing bacteria do?
convert atmospheric nitrogen to usable forms such as nitrate and ammonium compounds which are important for symbiotic, role in how many plants and animals obtain nitrogen.
Where in the ocean are their temperature variations?
coral reefs, tidal pools, and neat hydrothermal vents. Otherwise there is very little microhabitat variation in ocean temperature.
What are some examples of oceanis calcifiers?
coralline algae; bethic foraminifera, reef-building coral, deep-water coral, bryozoan,mollusk, echinodern, crustacean
What is the major importance for terrestial plants to participate in evapotranspiration?
crucial to create a driving force to move water and nutrients in the xylem upward from the soil to tissues.
How does % food consumption scale to body body weight
daily food requirements do not scale directly with body mass; therefore, some animals will need a great % food to body mass then other.
Why does acid water kill both invertebrate and vertebrates in freshwater habitats?
damages the interference with the active transport pumps that freshwater animals use in osmoregulation, ion uptake is pH sensitive which acid interfers with.
What is the estimation of surface ocean pH from 1721 ad 2008?
decrease from 8.179 to 8.069 that corresponds to an 28.9% increase in H+
How does O2 change with altitude?
decrease in O2 with altitiude is not in percentage (20.95% no matter the altitude up to 100km, but in volume of O2 per volume air. number of molecules of O2 per volume airs, or partial pressure as total air pressure declines iwith altitude - O2 in water already decreases with altitude
What is the purpouse of the thick waxy cuticle on xerophytes?
decrease water low from epidermis via evaporation and reflect sunlight and prevent overheating (overheating can lead to celluar damage)
How does salinity and temperature effect water density?
density increase with increasing salinity density decreases with increasing temperature.
What is the dysphotic zone
depth from 100 - 100m have blue light at intensities insufficient for photosynthsis but enough for limited animal vision
What is phenotypic polymorphism?
describe a population in which two or more distinct morphs for a character are each represented in high enough frequencies to be really noticeable. Examples of phenotypic polymorphism are lizards that have three different throat color variations in males.
What is the reciprocal transplant approach ised to determine for studing adapation?
determine in local genetics variants and adaptations perform best in the home environment, or habitat in which they are found i.e. are they locally adapted.
What is genetic independent assortment?
different gamets get different genes - alleles on different chromosomes get sorted into different gametes INDEPENDENTLY, such that the allele a gamete receives for one gene does not influence the allele received from another gene. - allows for homologous chromosomes parties to sort randomly and independently into hapoid daughter cells at the end of meiosis 1 and allows sister chromatids to sort randomly and independently into daughter cells at the end of meiosis 2
how does dispersal scale?
dispersal - move by their own means, dispersal ability scales (generally increases) with body mass within a toxon and dispersal mode. You can disperse better to larger you are.
what are the results of the house sparrow experiment for testing circannual rhythm?
duration of time between peak to peak gonad and follicle sizes. where all the photoperiod treatments except the skeleton had free-running circannual period lengths of about 10 hours. The skeleton period had the fewest hours of daylight
What is Hypercapnia?
elevated CO2
what are non-self MHC antigens protiens targets for?
elimination by an organisms immune system.
What is the fairly common temperature pattern in temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD)
embryos that develope at cooler temperatures (22 - 27 C) become males while embryos at warmer temperature (27-33) become females.
What is a case study for the experimental approach to studying adaptation
fitness cost of disease resistane in the paln Arabidopsis thaliana
What is Isosmotic?
extracellular fluid of an organism has the same osmolarity as the surrounding environment?
What is hypoosmotic?
extracellular fluids of an organism have a lower osmolarity than the surrounding environment --- saltwater to fish. saltwater will draw out water from fish
how does fecundity respond to body size and ect
fecundity increases with increading female body mass, especially in egg laying organisms. - larger mammals tend to give birth to larger offspring, thereby increasing their relative recundity, particularly in leaner or harsher conditions.
in the great lakes of africa, the existence of recent evolves species flocks of cichlid fish, which can still interbreed, is threatened by eutrophication because ---.
females apparently can't tell apart the colors of different types of males because the water is too cloudy.
What is catadromic?
fish born in the sea and live in freshwater and enter salt water to spawn (eels)
What is anadromic?
fish that are born in freshwater, spend most of their lives in the sea and return to freshwater to spawn (salmons, smelt, shad, striped bass)
What are two adaptive mechanisms that species will use if they have a very specific resource and there are great distances between resources?
high fecunity - free swimming larvae that change into a stationary phase upon location of a food
For adequate gas exchange in water what is necessary?
high rate of water flow and close contact between water and gill surface are necessary.
determining the correlation between genetic and environmental change approach to studying adaption?
how does the frequency of a genetic variant in humans change with adaption of human to living at high altitudes. allele frequence for SNPs in Tibetan (4300m above sea level) v Han Chinese (at sea level)
What two types of plants (environmental condition categories) have specific osomregulatory organs?
hydrophytes (hydathodes) and halopytes (root cells and tricomes)
In freshwater environments, extracellular fluid of an organism are?
hyperosmotic- higher osmolarity in realtion to the surroundings therefore makes osmotic gradients hypotonic relative to the organism and water flows into the organisms
In saltwater environments, extraccellular fluid of an organism are?
hypoosmotic (of lower osmolarity) in relation to the surrounding environments. This makes the osmotic gradient hypertonic relative to the organism and water flows out of the organism.
How is evolutionary stable strategy a game plan?
if adopted by a population in a given environemnt, cannot be imporved or invaded, through the process of natural selection by an alternative or mutant strategy that is initially rate, provided that every member of a population is ucing the current ess
What is a characteristic of mice when it comes to daily torpor?
if mice are in a communal nesting site in the winter they do not go into torpor, however, if they are alone they will.
What is the importance of abscisic acid in plants?
important hormone that helpes plants conserve water. its causes stomata to close and stimulates root growth so that more water can be absorbed.
What is the problem with lift regarding to stayin in the boundary layer?
in a fish has too much lift it can make the fish flow outside of the boundary layer making it flow away.
Where is LDH-B expressed in Fundulus heteroclitus
in aerobic red muscle, heart, liver and erythrocytes in Fundulus
What is the relationship with increasing pCO2 in the water with relation to carbonate, and particulate inorganic carbon? in algal cells of both coccolithophores algae species.
increase CO2 results in, decrease in carbonate, pH, and rate of particulate inorganic carbon incorporated into algal cells of both coccolithophores algae species.
How does increasing ocean acidfication influence aragonite?
increase in atm. CO2 results in the reduction of argonite concentrations in calcifiers and an increased rate of dissolution of skeletons already formed by organisms that include crustaceans, coral, molluscs
What is a repercussion to the increased global temperatures relating to the ocean?
increase temp --> increase in polar ice melting --> sea-level rising --> decrease in sea salinity, affecting the ocean circulation and regional air temperature.
Why is there high aquatic mortality at high temperatures?
increased metabolic rate of ectotherms with increasing temperture and at the same time that oxygen avalibility is decreasing. also, thermal pollution, and climate change
What is the relationship with temperature and phospholipid saturation?
increased temperature need decreases saturfation of the lipits and need longer side changes as tey are better at disbusig with unsaturation you get more packing and thus will result in more wax that is less likely to dissolve.
For the moment, higher wind speed over the Southern Ocean around their breeding sit has ---- the ----- of female wandering albatross foraging flights and --- their average body mass and breeding success
increased, speed, increased
What does the color change of a bluehead wrasse signify?
indicated the motive or role of that individual in the population. And once you are terminal you can not change to be initial phase!! They do not progress to terminal stage unless they are the largest individual the their social group. This change is largely density dependent
what did research find to control the bisexual display of secual behaviors in Whiptail lizards?
indicates that proper gates (release at specific times annual reproduction) by hormones (androgens) and neurotransmitters (serotonin) -- this hormone regulation allows dimorphic male and female behavior displays to be mutually exclusive even when it occus in the same sex
What is an example of epistasis?
inheritance of coat color in Labs. their color was controled by two genes E and B. the E gene determiens where or not there will be pigment in the fur, and the B gene determines the amount of pigment deposited. THe interaction of these genes produces there differnt color labs
Based on scientific research what is actually thought to be the main driver for calcification rates in califiers?
investigation into the calcification mechanisms in organisms suggest that the interaction of external and internal build-up of H+ is more likely to be the driver. Therefore with increase H+ in the sea water, there alters the concentation gradient therefore, more H+ will get taken in by the organism into the internal cellular reserviors and the calcifiying fluid will continue to increase H+ due to the extraction of ca2+ and they wont be able to release the H+ into the external environment. thereby making in difficult for an organism to maintain pH. It is most likely the decrease in seawater pH and associated problems of pH homeostasis within live organisms that govern changes in calcification rates under ocean acidification conditions. But after the shell is formed the aragonite saturation state will come into play.
What does the phloem in a plant do?
involved in primarily transporting water containing dissolved food and nutrients (sugar amino acids) downward from leaves to other parts of the plant.
What is a reciprocal transplant approach to studying adaptation?
involved moving an organism from its native, home (local) environment to an alternate environment, followed by comparing its fitness in both environments
Why does acid rain impact freshwater invertebrates homeostasis of ions and water?
ion uptake pH senstive. Na pumps are inhibited with high H+ (low pH) therefore, decreasing uptake increasing NA loss. Acid also disolves for heavy metals that are bad for fish gills.
What is the purpose for solving the aragonite saturation state?
is a direct way to determine the state of the ocean relative to its effect on organisms with carbonate shells or exoskeletons -- is the measure of variable most related to the sensitivity of aragonite shell formation in early stage bivalve larvae.
What is cortisol?
is a glucocorticoid steroid hormone produced in mammals by the adrenal is released in response to stress and low blood-glucose concentrations.
what is Fixation Index (Fst) (fixation distance)
is a measure of population differentiation due to genetic structure. It is frequently estimated from genetic polymorphism data, such as single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) or microsatellites
what is sexual selection?
is a mode of natural selection in which sme individuals out reporduce others in a population becuase they are better at securing mates. an dresults in differenial contributions to the next generation not because of differenetial survival but becuae of differential mating success.
what is PFDMR1?
is a p-glycoprotien transporter that reduces the rate of drug uptake into resistance of P faliparum compared to sensitve strains.
what is a codon wobble?
is a pairing between two nucleotides in RNA molecules that does not follow Watson-Crick base pair rules.
What is epistasis?
is a phenomenon that consists of the effects of one gene on a phenotype etc. being dependedn on the presence of one ore more "modifier genes (genetic background) note these genes are not allels. -chromosomes pairing that affect each other due to these interactions between genes this could lead to non-addititve effects-- the effects of the mutation is dependent on the genetic background in which it appears
What is Mullers Ratchet
is a process by which the genomes of an asexual population accumulate deleterious mutations in an irreversible manner - the mutations do not die because they are always inheritate and could result in a accumulation of mutations (genetic loading) due to genetic drift, which come become so great that the populations go extinct due to genetic drift
What is Natural Selections:
is a process whereby an individual's organism experiences random mutations or other genetic changes in their genome. I these genetic changes are beneficial in a particular environment; the individual organism will be more likely to survive and reproduce thus creating more individuals with that genotype
What is the torr?
is a unit of pressure based on an absolute scale and used in measuring partial vacuums and defined as exactly 1/760 of a standard atmosphere.
What is the functional effects of variants approaching to studying adaptation?
is a way of showing why heritable allelic or phenotypic variation that affects fitness is not fixed at a particular frequency (contect-dependent selection) --- the frequency of an allele depends on the environmental context`
What is the Trandgene experimental approach to studying adaption?
is a way to determine if the presence or absence of an allele affects fitness.
What is coral bleaching?
is an events that occues during periods of sustained high sea temperature (29C) and water clarity that create a combined temperature and irradiance stress. When coral get stressed the throw off the symbiodium.
What is local adaptation?
is an evolutionary mechanism whereby a population of organisms has evolved to be more well-suited to its home (higher fitness), local environment than other members of the same species or close relatives.
What is genetic polymorphism?
is defined as the inheritance of a trait controlled by a single genetic locus with two alleles, in which the least common allele has a frequency of about 1% or greater.
What determines climate?
is determined by the average weather conditions that occur in an area on the earth over a long period of time. which are typically temp, humidity, ocean currents, and winds. But are also dependent on latitude, elevation, seasonality of temp, seasonality of rain, and global circulation of the atmosphere and ocean waters.
What is partial pressure?
is how concentration of a gas is measured and reported.
When is a strategy said to be evolutionarily stable?
is once adopted by all members of the population, a small fraction of so called mutants or individuals doing something different will be selecteed against
What is environmental sex determination?
is the determination of environmental sex determination: such as sex changing blude head wrasse fish, and temp-dep in turtles, lizards, and amnotie
What is vapor pressure deficit?
is the difference (deficit) between the amount of moisture in the air and how much moisture the air can hold when its saturated
What is one of the largest differences between marine and freshwater teleosts with regard to their kidney?
is the inward pumping of water from the filtrate in the kidney collecting tubes of marine teleosts; where this do not occure in freshwater teleosts.
What is saturation vapor pressure?
is the pressure of a vapor when it is in equilbrium with the liquid phase. it is solely dependednt on the temprature. as temperature rises the saturation vapor pressure rises as well.
What is sex allocation?
is the relative allocation of resources to male verse female reproduction in sexual species.
What is a transcriptome?
is the set of all RNA transcripts, including coding and non-coding, in an individual or a population of cells.
What is the point of using a controlled burn?
is to burn frequently is to avoid a problem: after too much build-up of deadwoods,fires become difficult or impossible to control . The broader aim is to maintain a certain plant and animal community type and reduce the chance of crown fires.
What is isometric scaling?
iso = same, metric = measure), or involves maintaining geometric similarity; i.e., proportional relationships of different body dimensions are 1.0. Geometrically similar objects exhibit isometric scaling; they show isometry. Geometric similarity means that the ratio of any two linear dimensions of one object will be same for any similar object.
What is the purpose of remineralization?
it enriches the deep waters with elements that are cycled by the eat poop process.
How is gamete limitation and gamete competition a push and pull method and what does it ensure?
it ensures that good genes, mutations occuring at the individual level get distributed throughout the population or species, however the trade off is that offspring survival verse increased fertization -- increase in size results in increased change of fertilization but reduced gamete number.
What is a microbiome or more accurate (microbiotum)
it is an ecological community of commensal, symbiotic mutualistic and pathogenic organisms found in an environmental niche, such as an individual metazoan/ surface and inside the organism. *refers to the collective genomes of the microbiota that reside in a particular environmental niche.
how is climate change influencing the salinity of the baltic sea?
it is increasing rainfall and decreases ocean water encroachment into the baltic; therefore, salinity is decliing and its biota is changing and begining to change to freshwater species in the north and inner coastal waters.
What did bipedal gait do with the mechanics of breathing?
it reduced the mechanical constaints on respiration in humans, however, it has not eliminated the need for synchronization of repiration and body motion during sustained running.
What is the disadvantage to having little aerenchyma?
it required more energy and nutrients to maintain which limits how long they can grow.
What is the function of cortisol?
it response to stress leading to increase blood sugar through (release of sugar via glucogin) gluconeogensis, to supress the immune system, and to aid in the metabolism of fat, protien, snad carbohydrates.
What is the color diferentation bluehead wrasse?
juvenule = small females and males that have a yello wupper body and white lower body. and this is known as the initial phase mature = large females and some males can permanently change the coloration and sex. this is known as the terminal phase.
What is the importance of sea ice loss in the arctic?
lack of ice reduces areas for algal growth on its underside resulting in ramifications on up the foodchain all the way to mammals. warming of the ocean changes species composition. - loss of ice and close affects the albedo. Lowers the albedo.
What is the dominate characteristic of the orange morph lizard?
large, aggressive and do not form strong pair bonds with females instead they will invest energy into controlling the largest territories however have the lowest survival rate to the next generation due to the energy usage. - have the highest concentration of testosterone
What are adaptations in aquatic organism in response to changes in the intensity and wavelength of light with depth.
larger eyes photopigments more senetive to blue parts of the spec eyes may contain more overal light sensitive pigments bioluminescence, translucence diurnal verticil migration countershading - improced sensory mechanisms - become scavenger, detritovore or chemoautotrophs - vertically migrate between light zones
What are factors that influence temperature in terrestrial environments?
latitude moisture water ocean currents location from body of water seasonal/diurnal intensity of light wind velocity shade elevation soil depth and type.
What are the driving factors that determine terrestrial temperature
latitude, moisture, and distance from oceans. oceans are able to store a lot of heat becuase of the latent heat of water therefore changes in temperature are very slow buffering coaster terrestrial temperatures.
Where does gas exchange occur in mangroves
lenticels that cover surfaces of these structures above the water where gas exchange takes place (O2 and Co2)
What is a adaptive factors that comes into play with plants due to light.
light is abundant everywhere other than under the canopy therefore, stems and trunks will shoot up the top of the canapy for fight for light.
What are the different zones in a lake?
litteral zone - near the shore where sunlight penetrats all the way to the sediment macrophytes grow here 2. limnetic zone: well-lit open surface water that is away from the shore. this is the same as the pelagic zone.
What is ionoregulation?
maintaining a faily constant concnetration of individual inorganic ion species independently of changes in the external environment. the total extracellular inorganic ionic concentration of ionregulators can be in equilibrium with seawater, but certain individuals ions will not be in equilibrium with saltwater.
what is osmoregulation?
maintaining a fairly concentration of total dissolved solutes independently of changes in the external environment. osmotic pressure in extracellular fluids are maintained by the control of water and salt concentrations via physological processes of selective excretion into and obsorption from the external environment
When conditions are favorable what sex is more dominant?
males have a higher sexual compacisty then females becuase there is enough food to provide to them. (this is the case when males require more energy then female)
What is the fascinating trick that male damselflys can do during mating?
males have evolved to remove the sperm of the previous mating from the female reproductive tract using a physical removal via penile spines of a subsequent male.
What is mapping traits onto a phylogeny approach to studying adpations.
mapping traits onto a phylogeny is a way of showing that multiple species, or multiple individuals within a species, have independently evolved similar relationships between a trait and the environment.
CGE by large inverterbrates
may also depend on simple diffusion acorss the integument in association with internal channels through thich water may pass so that diffusion deistance to the clells are greatly reduced.
What is the draw back to mammals bidirectional means of breathing?
means that alveoli, where gas exchagne occurs are not always bathed in air that contains 21% O2, and that the air coming in the lungs is often mixed with old air that contains less oxygen.
What is tonicity?
measure of the osmotic pressure gradent between two solutions, but it is not the osmolarity itself. in relation to organisms (cells) it is the ability of the surrounding environment (extracellular solution) to make water more into or out of an organism or ell Example salt water is hypertonic.
When is secondarr sex ratio measured? What are things that can influence this ratio?
measured at birth; temp
What gene was selected for in the rock pocket mouse study? And what alleles were found?
melanocorin-1-receptor gene (Mc1r) (954 bp) D and d associated with fur color. and were different at 4 widely spaced nonsynonomous SNP sides resulting in different amino acids being encoded. DD dark, Dd, dark, dd, light
What is early evidence for the molecular basis of circadian rhythms
mice- put mice in constant darkness and still maintained a 12:12 photo period in constant darkness. shown in a wheel revolutions recoded in dark verticle bands. the gene single copy of a functional wild type gene with two alleles. Heterozygous mouse for normal clock where introduce to complete darkness and started to slighly deviate from schedule ( didnt function completly properly) - Homozygous mice that had both alleles for the clock gene mutants lost all periodicity after 10 days. and resulted in random rhythms
What are adaptations might small endotherm have to survive cold temperature?
migrations, torpor, hibernation, huddling, adpative thermoregulation (birds), insulation by hair and fat hide under the snow, countercurrent heat exchange with peripheral vasoconstruction, shivering, nonshivering with brown fat, nasal turbinates, etc.
In freshwater, oxygen depends on the degree of what?
mixing with air and temperature.
What are acclimation that occur when we go to a high altitude for a short period of time?
more rapid ventilations and blood transport - increase hemoglobin content in hemocytes - more hemocytes - hypertension - increased expression of enzymes that enhance oxygen release (more 2,3-bisphosophogylcetate) and solubilization of carbon dioxide
What are the conclusions to the Raptor predators ofr coat color in rock packet mic in response to the environemental contect, rock color , involved a genotype to phenotype association
nucleotide mutation that alter the amino acid sequences of a protien (nonsynonymous subsittion) is one molecular basis by which genotype is connected to a phenotype conferring a fitness relatied trait. phenotypic polymorphsi evolved independed of different sites.
Increased riverine runoff of ----- into marine ecosystems lead to an increase in ---- production and a decrease in populations size and production by -----?
nutrients, microbial, benthic invertebrates and fish.
What is Anti-Mullers Ratchet?
occurence of recombination and independent assortment during sexual production which results in purging deleterious mutations that would accumulate in an asexual line. A caveat to being able to select against bad genes you could also select against good genes
negative frequency dependence?
occurs when hier fitness or rate alleles promotes genetic variation. - when a genotype becomes common its fitness declines and a different rarer genotype becomes favored.
What is sympatry?
occurs when populations are in the same geographic area
positive frequency dependence
occurs when selection favors common alleles which in turn accelerate the loss of rare alleles, resulting in decreasing genetic variation.
what is the Isometric scaling factor
occurs when this scaling factor, or proportion, is 1.0.
What is the Allometric scaling factor?
occurs when this scaling factor, or proportion, is greater than or less than 1.0 in a statistically significant manner (i.e., it does not maintain isometric similarity).
What is asexual reproduction?
offspring arise from a single organism, and inherit the genes of that parent obly; it does not involve the fusion of gametes and almost never changes the number of chromosomes - typically single cell organism - horizontal gene crossover
What is the Aragonite (AR) saturation state?
omega - is a measure of the thermodynamic stability of this mineral, which is also commonly used to track ocean acidification.
Where are waves, currents, and tides most important
on or near shoreline.
What is an allele?
one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome.
what species feed on whal carcasses?
one species of polychaeta worms that specialize on eating whales in Osedax
What is the cyclic pattern with the Uta lizards?
orange (rock) usurp territoried from blue mate-guarders - Blue (scissors) cooperatively exclude yellow sneakers -- yellow (paper) sneak copultions from orange usupers
what is an autotroph?
organisms that produce complex organic compounds from simple substances present in its surroundings, generally using energy from light or inorganic chemical reactions.
what is an osmoconformer?
organisms whose extracellular fluids are isosmotic (isotonic) to their external environment. Ex hagfish, sharks, marine invertebrates
What is the pelagic ecosystem largely dependent on?
phytoplankton inhabiting the upper, sunlit regions..
What are some pyenotypes that are resulted from these imprinted genes?
placental vasculature development, maternal blood pressure, maternal blood nutrients (diabetes), offspring size, and a ctch-all pregnancy pathologies called preeclampsia.
What are other organisms that hibernate that aren't mammals?
plants - dormancy (problem is vernilazation: in ability to break dormancy) bacteria - phase variation insects - dispose reptiles birds
In the paper "Scaling Body Support in Mammals: Limb Posture and Muscle Mechanics", mechanical advantage in limb bones during locomotion is shown to scale ______ .
positively with increasing size
What is a way to formalize isometric or allometric relationships is to use?
power function y = a x^b Where y = mass, x=length, and a is a constant and is the scaling exponent that describe the relationship.
What type of courtship display do females prefer?
prefer more intense and more varied courtship stimulation, favoring males with larger, more brightly colored ornamentation, more extreme rates of acoustical or tactile display, or combinations of all of the above.
What do mangroves typically have becuase estuarine sediments are typically anoxia?
prop roots and pneumataphores. which these structures enchance above ground surface area near root tissues to ensure an adequate O2 supply below ground and support during storms.
How is emission of nitrogen oxides in vehicles exhaust reduced?
proper engine tuning to obtain thorough burning and by pasing exhasut through a cataltyic converter, which catalysts with other metals to perform redoc reaction that reduce NOx to N2 and O2.
When does scaling occur when?
proportional relationships occur organism's (or organ or tissue) size and its shape, anatomy, physiology, behavior, ecology and finally evolution.
What is an example of an animal that survives in the desert?
pseudantechinus madonnellensis (fat-tailed false antechinus) a rock dwelling desert marsupial --> is able to drop its body temperature a couple degrees below the ambient temperature outside then will bask in te morning to rapidly increase the temperature. - shows the torpor is an energy saving strategy more than an over-wintering strategy.
What does the diffusion barrier of CGE cosists of for small inverts?
q. thickness of the respiratory surface b. thickness of the unstirred boundry layer of the respiatory medium immediately adjacent to the respiratory surface c. doundry layers that account for 80 - 90% of the toal resistance to diffusion in aquatic situations, so they may limit gas exchange in water.
What is Fick;s law of diffusion?
rate of diffusion of a solute or gas from regions of high concentration to regions of low concnetration is proportional to the concentration gradient. where the gradient is the change in the value of quantity (concentration pressure) with the change in another variable (distance)
Coral reefs are really good at what>
recycling old nutrients.
What is the order of wave lengths that are absorbed by the ocean
red, orange, yellow, purple, green, blue
What do ROS do once in a mitochondriaon cell?
redox signalling, mitochondrial dysfunction, apoptosis/Necrosis, these can lead to disease and ageing.
What is Anisogamy also known at heterogamy?
refers to a form of sexual reproduction involving the union or fusion of two dissimilar gametes (differing either in size, form) --- typically oogamy
What is fluctuating asymmetry?
refers to the way body symmetry randomly changes over the course of developement -- one side grows first and the other side developes after and if there is a disruption in development on side will be more deformed then the other
Fluctuating asymmetry
refers to the way body symmetry randomly changes over the course of development. One side of the body grows first, or faster, and the other side catches up. Any disruptions to growth tends to disrupt the symmetry of this process and result in an asymmetrical adult.
What defines a grassland biome?
regions of the earth dominated by grasses where physiological processes have been selected for to deal with almost extreme seasonal variation in temperature and/or precipitations. Due to these extreme changes it does not allow trees to grow.
What defines a forest biome?
regions of the earth dominated by trees where physiological processess have been selected for to deal with variation in light penetration though the canopy, level of soil nutrients, soil ph and seasonal variation in temperature and the amount of form of precipitation.
What defines a tundra/taiga biome?
regions of the earth that are extremely cold in most or all of the year and where physiological processes have been selected for to retian heat and deal with the short growing season, poor soil nutrients and generally low amounts of precipitation.
what is genetic crossing over
regrouping of genes among chromosomes (usually homologous chromosomes) resulting in the exchange of genetic information between the arms of homologous chormosons in prophase 1 of meiosis, thus increasing the diversity of individual chromatids.
what does the vacuole do in plants?
regulates the concentration of solutes in the cytoplasm.
What is Beer's Law?
relates the attenuation of light waves to the properties of the material through which the light is traveling.
What defines a desert biome?
relatively lower precip temperature extremes are common links that have large and small sizes and physiological processes to reduce water loss, retain or eliminate heat, and hibernation though weather extremes
What are the conclusions to the functional effects of variatns approach to selection for resistance in the human malarial parasite in response to the environmental context case study?
selection for genotypes of P. falciparum that have increase CNV of PFDMR1 occur under the environmental context, malarial drug, resulting in a parasiste phenotype with reduced suseptinility to the drug that effects its clinal varability to treat infected humans. -- if you haev 2 or more copies you produce too much protein and are more suseptable to getting the disease again.
What is an ESS in human populations?
sexual dimorphism
What is a major concern with shelled molluscs in relation to ocean acidification?
shells are largely comprised of calcium carbonate, where they will pull CACO3 from the ocean concentrations but since the ocean is acidifying there is a decrease in avaliable Caco3 because it is getting converted to bicarb which ultimetely results in the a reduction in shell biomass.
What is the homology?
similarity resulting from common ancestry
How do bacterial cell size scale?
size is not determined by the initial size of the mother bacterial cell or specific time interval, and growth rate. They do not double in size. - the volume added is proportional to the amount of cell cycle proteins needed for the next round of cell division.
what typically utilizes CGE?
small inactive invertebrates where simple diffusion of O2 though the body surface directly to tissues is suffient and not circulation is needed.
Who is dessication more a problem for?
small organisms and desert dwellers because those with incresee surface to body ratio will loose water more readily those those with higher surface to body mass ratio. This is a large reason why desidous trees keep leaves.
how is Na ion pump influence by low pH?
sodium ion pumps are specifically inhabited by high H+ concnetriatons and thereby inhibiting active sodium uptake and increasing diffusial sodium loss. Movement of Na+ is dependent of movement of H+ out.
CGE by complex invertebrates?
some lack specialized respiratory structures 2. sutaneous respiration is accompanied by the appearance of circulatory system that functions to transport gas from the skin to the tissues. 3. blood vessels close to the skin surfacge pick up the O2 and carry it to the tissues. 4. may only account for 20-50% of total gas exchange in these organims.
Regarding the carcadian rhythm what is an environmentally-independent component?
something that continues to largerly function in total darkness
What is Allocthonous?
something that originated or forms in a place other than where it is currently found; not indigenous.
What is the benifit of aphids having an asexual and sexual phase?
species capable of both asexual and sexual reproduction, when their sexual reproduction with peridos of environmental uncertainty (allows for genetic variance hoping for increase survival), and reproduction asexually when environmental conditions are more favorable (increase population quickly)
What is an example of an organism that scales isometric?
species of clam that exhibits a constant shape regardless of size, then the volume enclosed by its shell will be proportional to its L3.
What is a niche?
specific area that an organims inhabits (where it lives in nature)
What is a trait?
specific characteristic of an individual
What occurs in the egg when it comes incontact with a sperm that matches?
sperm undergoes a acrosome reaction that leads to exposure of highly positively charged protien in the egg mambrane that trigger electrostatic repulsion, thereby opening a hole for sperm penetration and fusion. and prevents all other sperm from binding with the egg.
What are pneumatophores?
spongy roots that extend above the water's surface and enhance gas exchange between the atmosphere and subsurface roots via lenticels for halophytes. common in xenophtyes too due to no stomata.
When does lake turnover occur?
spring and fall --> occurs when there is not thermocline
What is one main difference between squirrel and bear hibernation?
squirrel are food hibernators while bear are fat.
What is Stenohaline?
steno (narrow) haline(salt) decribing an organism that cannot tolerate a wide fluctuation in salinity.
What is the point of an animal going into T&H?
stratagy for coping with extreme conditions.
What environmental characteristics will result in increase evapotransiration from leaves?
strong winds, low humidity, and high temperatures.
what chemicals make acid rain?
sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NO) because these will bind to h20 creating H2SO2 sulfuric acid and H2NO3 nitric acid
The authors of this paper state that "foregut fermenters are constrained by [food] quality, while hindgut fermenters are more constrained by quantity". This hypothesis is ______ by data showing that foregut fermenters have a ______ preference for burned areas when the effect of ______ is accounted for.
supported; higher; body size
What is the trend of oxygen concentrations in the ocean?
surface O2 high because at equalibrium with atm. - bottom O2 high becuase it sinks with the flowing cold water from polar regions - intermediate depth O2 similar to surface but depleted some. - layers of decomposition create oxygen minimum zones -- dead zones
What is the universal surface area to volume ratio of any shape?
surface area to volume ratios are inversely proportional to size (length --> 1/L, mass -- 1/M
What is ram ventiliation and who uses it?
swimming through the water with the moth open, uded by tuna, mackerel, sharks, and paddlefish.
What do Osedax rely on to eat since they have no digestive tract?
symbiotic bacteria that aid in the digestion of whale preoteins and lipids and release nutrients that the worms can absorb.
When a cell presenting non-self MHC antigen proteins are?
targeted for elimination by an organisms immune system
What is Hyperoxia?
temp or permanent high levels of O2
Use information in the figure on the right to answer the following: What genotype has the highest catalytic activity at low temperatures? A. LDH-Bb4 (homozygote) B. LDH-Ba/Bb (heterozygote) C. LDH-Ba4 (homozygote) D. Genotype with the highest frequency E. None of the answers listed
temperatures? A. LDH-Bb4 (homozygote)
What is hypoxia?
temporary or permanent low level of O2
what hormone levels are high and low withing terminal phase males? why is this the case?
terminal phase males have low levels of cortisal and high levels of AVT, which the reverse is true for initial phase females and males. This is the case because behavioral sex change is associated with decrease in cortisol and an increase in AVT. High levels of cortisal in females promote the pathways for estrogen production in the gonads. which also required lower levels of AVT.
why does excretion use a lot of water?
terrestial organisms will have an excess of nitrogenous wastes that will tend to build up more in terrestial organisms therefore will beed to convert them to NH3 to the less toxic urea (mammals) and uric acid (birds)
How does local adaptations involve divergent natural selection?
that can lead to difference in trait values among populations for those traits that are heritable and impact organism fitness.
What is the overall conclusion of the Symbiodium experiments?
that pattern of symbiont abundance withing a coral is dynamic and relative to the contect of the environmental factors, irradiance.
what were the findings with the Diesease resistance in Arabidopsis?
the addiition of RPM1 into the genome into plants that initially lacked RPMS resulted in reduced fitness due to excess energy going to resistance.
What is the square-cube law?
the areas of an object (e.g. surface area of cross-sectional area) are proportional to the square of the object's length (L2). An object's volume is proportional to the cube of its length (L3)
What is the gene that stands out in the tibetan population compared to the Hans populatio in the case study?
the relative to the toher genes in the genome EPAS1 shows substantial differentation along the tibetan lineage.
What is epigenetics?
the study of changes in organisms caused by modification of gene expression rather than alteration of the genetic code itself. - this is a phenotype that can become methylated. This does not result in a change in a DNA letter but will alter the expression of the letter.
What is phenology?
the study of cyclic and seasonal natural phenomena, especially in relation to climate and plant and animal life. -- how periodic events of life cycle and how those interact with biological function
How does the surface area and volume ration of a cube respond wot increasing size?
the surface area to volume ratio of the cube decreases as the cube gets larger.
what does the EPAS1 encode for?
the transcription factor for hypoxia Inducible Factor 2 alpha (HIF-2alpha), a transcription factor active under hypoxia. (found to be 87% in tibetans and 9% in an)
What was the premise of the video on the evolution of human sexual reproduction that disputes the idea of its irreducible complexity?
the video deconstructs human sexxual reproduction to show how it mosly likely evolved. sex does not need to be perfect to work. The core of sexual reproduction is the start with two haploid cells that then merge to form a diploid cell (2 copies of each chromosome which undergoes meiosis to produce 4 haploid cells and then they divide. Everything else is fluff evolved to improve the rate and specificity of sexual reproduction as organisms evolved more complext multi-cellular forms
The rate at which any process of exchange can occur is largely dictated by ?
the volume of the cell or tissue served i.e. total demand depends on the biomass that must be supported but limited by surface area.
What is the distribution of bulk water with regard to cells?
there is little bulk water inside cells (most is bound or structured by charged molecules to form a hydration shell.
Why are there never more than two sexes?
there is not advantage in two microgametes (soerm) fusing, since the resultin gzygot would lack the nutrient it needs to be viable.
What are nasal turbinates?
these are convoluted structures of thin bone or cartilage located in the nasal cavity that are lined with vascular and mucous membranes that can warm and moisten air and retain moisture during exhale. --- the more convoluted the more gradual the temperature gradient from inside to outside and vice vera, resulting in increased water and heat recovery.
What are Epiphytic Plants
these are plants that grow on limbs and stems of other plants and don't connect to the ground. They obtain water and minerals from the reain and debris that collects on the supporting plants. These will comprise most of the photosynthetic surface in the canopy of a tropical forest.
What is the purpose of gills?
these are used for respiration in aquatic biomes. - must have water moement over gills otherwise water at the gil surface woul dpaidly deplete o2 becuase diffusion in water is relatively slow.
What are some adaptations that shade tolerant plants make?
they are adapted to be more efficient users of light and often are more efficient users of soil nutireitns, they are ale to utilize far-red light (730nm) and are better at utilizing soil nutrients. Also, grow broader and thinner leaves, tolerate lower daytime temperatures, and withstand high root competition.
How do mangroves reproduce?
they are viviparous. they produce seeds that germinate (called propagules) while sitll attached to the parent, wehre the seedling is not exposed to growth inhibition by high salt water.
What is one of the main risks to an organism going into T or H?
they do not have enough energy to survive and end up dying ( largest concern for fat hibernators) example is European groundhog 28% die over winter.
How do Freshwater teleosts osmo and iono regulate?
they face consent water influx and ion efflux. therefore they will perform iono and osmo regulation and use active transport to uptake and reuptake salts via gills, gut and kidney and excrete water via kidney. drink little water and produce copious volumes of dilute urine and cover body with impermeable coat to decrease water movement in.
How do vines locate a tree trunk?
they grow away from light and eventually develope light loving upper shoots and leaves when they break out into the sunshine while some will use voatiles to locate the host plant.
How do bird lungs operate?
they have a complicated air sac respiratory system that uses a bellows to constantly generate a unidirectional airflow of high 21% oxygen containing air over finely subdivided and invaginated lungs. --- parabronchus.
What is one of the hypothesis for smaller animals have shorter lives due to?
they have higher level of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species, than bigger animals
What is the summary with bird lungs?
they have unidirectional flow of the external environments media air over the lungs. 2. cross current exchange of gasses between the external environmental mediat and the blood in the air capillaries of parabronchi.
how do the spines decrease evaporation?
they reduce the airflow across the cactus's surface and by diminishing the body temperaure by providing shade, and provide a surface upon which to sondense dew.
How can large herbivores help the likelyhood that ground to the canopy of these trees?
they remove the lower vegitation which can reduce the incidence of crown flied, thereby stablizing communities in seasonally dry areas.
How does animals resting metabolic rate scale?
they scale to the M^0.75
What is the mechanism for coral of calcification?
they will pump in bicarb, create H+ by converting biocarb to caco3 then have to actively pump the H+ out of the tissue. which is an energetically demanding gradient.
How do running quadrupeds do with breathing and locomotion?
they will use locomotor respiration coupling that invloves posterior to anterior movement of the viscera that function as a piston to assist the diaphram in ventilation. will typically synchronize locomotion with respiratory cycles.
What is much of the variation of water loss from body surfaces attributed to?
thickness of the body covering and the amount of epicuticula wax (lipids) or dried muscus covering the body surface. and body temperature. ** the hydrocaron and phospholid chain length and degree of unsaturation are thus important for water conservation .
What is the fractural network?
this is a branched network that is designed to distribute and exchange resources (i.e. minimizes total resistance) - similar patterns repeat themselves at progessively smaller scales (e.g. a big artery branches into smaller ones and those branches into even smaller ones and so forth) - the fractural network allows multicelluar organism to be MORE complex.
What is the euphotic zone?
this is the above 100m depth in open ocean waters, there is sufficient light for photosynthesis
WHat is an ecosystem?
this is the biotic and aboitic components are regarded as linked together through nutrients cycles and energy flows. The network of interactions among organisms and their environment define ecosystems
What are lignified: sclerenchyma tissue?
this is the hard, woody cells that serve the function of support in plants. they dont have much of this because h2o have bouyancy in comparision to land dwellers
What is the p50 with regard to pO2?
this is the level in the external environment when half the internal blood hemoglobin (or other repiratory pigment protein) has oxygen bound to it.
What is the biome pyramid?
this is the relationship between temperature and precipitation/humidity in terrestrial biomes.
what is a benifit to a location that just had a surface fire?
this region will not likely have a crown fire in the near future. where these fires will cause high mortality.
What type of selection is thought to be occuring in the D. melanogaster populations in Eastern North America?
thought that there is little genetic drift and ample gene flow to homogenious allel frequences among population therefore balancing selection for genetic polymorphism in ADH is most likely maintaining this cline.
Where are excess divalent salts excreted in marine verterbates?
through the kidneys, via an isotonic urine in which concentrations of Mg+ and SO4 are unusually high.
What is the difference between Torpor and Hibernation?
torpor is a short-term reduction of body temperature and metabolism while hibernation is an extended form of torpor that consists of prolonged bouts of torpor interrupted by periodic arousal.
What is Osmolarity?
total concentration of all dissolved solutes (inorganic ions and small organ molecules or ions per unit volume)
What are mangroves?
trees and shrubs that grow in tropical and subtropical saline coastal habitats, usually between latitudes 25° N and 25° S. and are highly subject to climate change.
what are the special osmotic effector molecules that are used for osmoconformation in marine vertebrates?
trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO)
what is the MAIN iono and water regulation process that is used in marine vertebrates?
typically are osmo and iono regulators (teleosts, cetacean, and marine tetrapods. where they drink a **** ton of water and use active transport to both reuptake water from the kidneys and excrete salts via gills, gut, and kidney.
What is a dominate characteristic of plants in the tundra, why is this characteristic present?
typically are short because they cannot obtain enough water to grow larger (they also have shorter summer growing seasons and less soil). also moss and lichens.
What does HIF-2alpha do?
upregulated gene involved in vascularization thereby improving oxygen transporation
What are ways that terrestrial organisms will loss water?
urine, feces, secretions, evaporation, and respiration.
What is a osmole?
us a unit of measurement that defines the number of moles of solute that contribute to the osmotic pressure (tonicity) of a solution.
What are oxygen regulators?
use one or more ways to regulate oxygen levels in the body relative to the environment
What is daily torpor?
used by small animals as an emergency measure when they are low on energy or engery is difficult to obtain from the environment. where the body temperature is able to drop at specific periods of the day.
Where do succulents store water?
vacuoles of large parenchyma tissues
how does the blood flow in an avian lung?
via crosscurrent mechanism relative to airflow. similar to counter current system.
The rate of a physiological process is dictated by?
volume because the total amount of material that can be exchanged depends on the surface area, which decreases as volume increases.
What are the abiotic factors that influence aquatic biomes?
water light pressure (depth) dissolved gassess (O2, CO2, N2) nutrients (N & P) temperature salinity density (function of salinity and Temp) Freshwater specific waves stratification
What are the ways that terrestrial animals get water?
water inputs from drinking, eating and metabolic water which the the end of product of oxidative phosphorylation.
What is pump-like action and what utilizes it?
water is pumped over the gills, used by fish, crabs, and worms.
What is bulk water?
water not bound to charged molecules and free to function as a solvent.
Where do hydrophtyes get their nutrients?
water, and dissolved gases are absorved by the whole surface of the plant directly from the surrounding water, especially if submerges.
What are positive responses to ROS in cells?
when a body will have increases ROS the immune system will be able to know something is wrong with that cell then that will signal that the cell may be infected and so the immune system will target that area.
When does local mate competition occur?
when a female lay eggs on small isolated patches and offspring must mate with one another and the sex ratio will be more bias toward females so there is not as much competition to fertilize
What is hermaphroditism?
when an individual produces both micro- and macrogamets as an adult thus are both male and female
What does a barrier do in muscle usuage for a fish?
when behind the barrier the fish will only have to use its anterior muscles to be able to stay in the same location.and reprensents a departure from the pattern of propgating muscle activity characteristics of propulive, undulatory locomotion in the free stream. -- Fish can develope a gate that allows the slippery body of a fish to act as a self-correcting hydrofoil to deflect the vortex created by the turbulence caused by water flowing around the barrier.
When does ESS occur?
when evolution favors a stable ratio of traits rather than one dominant trait. and is used when a mutant using any different strategy connont indave a population using a working strategy.
When does balancing usually happen?
when the heterozygotes have a higher adaptive value than the homozygotes resulting in conservation of genetic polymorphism
What is an isozymes?
which are enzymes that perform the same function, but which are coded by genes located at different loci.
Regarding the circandian rhythm what is an environmentally-depended component?
whose clock is reset, or entrained, by light so that the endogenour rhythm stays matched to the natural day-night cycle
How does the surface are to volume ratio of a sphere respond to getting larger?
will decrease.
How does the SA to Volume ration respond to mass?
will decrease. ratio is SA (6L^2) / volume (L^3) and this ratio decreases with the larger an organism gets because volume is to the 3rd power.
Why would an aquatic organism take part in vertical migration?
will go between light zones for resources. Typically is a diurnal movement in and out of the euphotic zone. EZ. Zooplankton will move to the euph at night to feed and thereby avoiding the diurnal predators.
What is a way that mangroves are impacted from climate change
with rising sea levels. mangroves cant have deep rooted system and the water cant be too high or they wont be able to establish roots.
How fast can a blueheaded wrasse change from initial phase to terminal phase when the prexisting terminal phase fish was removed?
within a day and were distinct within four days. and mature sperm can be produced in as little as eight days after the initiation of sex changes.
What is the Bergmann's rules?
within and between species of endotherms (mammals) there tends to be a positive relationship between latitude and body size.
What is the benefit of storing mitrogenous material?
you do not have to excrete it therefore, prevent water loss. common with arthropods.
1. What are the 6 different approaches for studying adaption to determine if a trait is a spandrel?
§ 1. Clinal variation § 2. Reciprocal transplant experiments § 3. Mapping traits onto a phylogeny, § 4. Determine the correlation between genetic and environmental change. § 5. Transgene experiments § 6. Functional effects of variants.
1. What are examples of clinal variation?
§ 1. Longitudinal variation in Drosophila alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) § 2. Logitudinal temperature cline and variation in Lactate Dehydrogenase B (LDH-B) in the Teseost Fish, Fundulus heteroclitus (Killifish)
1. What were the two difficulties that emerged when attempting to classify traits as an adaption.
§ 1. Progress in the field of population genetics showed us that not all traits are expected to be adaptive (because of things like genetic drift, linkage, selection on correlated traits - shared developmental pathways.) § 2. Advert of analyzing allozymes with gel electrophoresis enabled the discovery of an unexpected large degree of heterozygosity in metabolic enzymes. Many polymorphisms began to look as if they are selectively neutral.
1. What is a phenotype?
§ Anything from a single observable characteristic (Size, Shape, Color, etc. ) or trait, to all conceivable ones (metabolic activities, patterns of movements)
1. How does the spandrel analogy for the adaptive narrative relate to an organism's trait?
§ Before this theory it was through that every adaption an animal evolved was function; however, they were able to say that spandrels (traits) do not appear to be adaptive in the current environment in which the organism lives or in how it is perceived scientifically. And these traits may have a neutral or even deleterious effects on fitness in the current environment/ scientific perspective. Alternative hypothesis proposed that non-adaptive by-products are also formed via the processes of natural selection but have not scientifically determined real or relative fitness but later develops an important function.
§ Through gel electrophoresis, western blotting and thus are part of the phenotype - human blood groups
§ Cognitive, personality, behavioral patterns and can be psychiatric disorders, and syndromes.
1. Who introduced the genotype and phenotype?
§ Danish plant physiologist and geneticist Wilhelm and Johnannse in 1909.
What is a genotype?
§ Denotes the constitution of parts or all of its genetic material (usually DNA but in the case of RNA viruses, RNA instead) passed to the organism by its parents.
1. What is biological adaptation?
§ Distinct variant of a phenotype that arose historically via natural selection.
What is an adaptive trait?
§ Distinctive variant of a phenotype that enhances fitness that arose historically as a result of natural selection for its current biological role.
What are the abiotic and biotic component of the environment
§ Genes & genomes § Transcription and transcriptions § Proteins and proteomes § Cells and tissues § Organisms § Population and species § Communities § Ecosystems and biomes
1. What must something do to be able to call it a true adaption?
§ Improve fitness
1. What is a spandrel in evolutionary biology?
§ Is a phenotypic characteristic that is a by-product of the evolution of some other characteristic, rather than a direct product of adaptive selection. - not all traits may be adaptions therefore not all traits may be functional.
1. What is Biological Fitness?
§ Measure of the number of an individual offspring that survives to reproduce in a particular environment.
What is Intrinsic resistance?
§ Mechanisms are fixed via in the core genetic make-up of an organism
1. What is acquired resistance?
§ Mechanisms are generally obtained by horizontal gene transfer of functional genes from another organism of the same species, different species, or even an organism in a very, very distantly related taxa (e.g., plasmids with bacterial species; Neanderthals and Denisovan DNA in humans)
1. What are mechanisms that could aid in antibiotic resistance?
§ Membrane permeability § Metabolism § Horizontal gene transfer § Enzyme break down § Mutation § Conjugation § Binding § Increased tolerance, alter genome expression § Resistance
1. What is a clinal variation approach to studying adaption?
§ Occurs when traits or allele frequencies are repeated correlated with latitude or other spatial change in an environmental variable.
1. Who was Steven J. Gould and Richard Lewontin?
§ Steven was a paleontologist and evolutionary biologist who though that many things in evolution are the result of chance events that leave lasting impacts. § Richard was a population geneticist who was one of the first to discover high levels of polymorphism in metabolic enzymes (allozymes); these came to be interpreted in terms of genetic drift and neutral evolution.
1. What is a spandrel?
§ The almost triangular space located at the junction of curved arches, which support a domed ceiling and aired a consequence initially provided no functional purpose but later became a location for artwork thus gaining a meaningful functional in themselves.
1. What is an example of a spandrel in natura?
§ The domestication of the silver fox in Russia § The foxes were selected for tameness, tameness became the adaptive feature being selected for and all other traits that changed with it would be spandrels. Changed traits were different color patterns and became coming into heat every 6 months becoming more "dog-like"
What is a Phenome?
§ The sum of the total and individual organisms' phenotypic traits. And morphological, developmental, biochemical or physiological, subcellular, individual behavior, and products of behavior, is a phenotypic characteristic
1. What did the scientists from Kishony Lab at HMS and Technion designs to investigate?
§ They designed a simple way to observe how bacterial evolve as they become resistant to the drug (antibiotic trimethoprim). Large scale glimpse of the maneuvers of bacterial as they encounter increasingly higher doses of antibiotics and adapt to survive.
1. What is a special adaptive trait that Velvetbean Caterpillars do?
§ They will adapt to crowding by changing their color from green to black. Due to density-dependent phase polymorphism. Where black has the ability to have stronger migration capability, and increased immunicompacity.
1. Most molecules and structures coded by the genetic material and not visible in the appearance of an organism, so how are they visible?
§ Through gel electrophoresis, western blotting and thus are part of the phenotype - human blood groups
1. What was the way to determine in something was an adaptation pre-1980?
§ Used a nondeterministic approach, where an observed a trait, measured or speculated on its adaptive features and voila determined it was an adaptation.
