BIOL 1215 Principles of Nutrition CH 1-3

Identify nutrition-related claims the FDA allows on food and dietary supplement labels.

-A health claim describes how a food, food ingredient, or dietary supplement may reduce the risk of a nutrition-related condition. -The FDA only allows claims on food labels that: 1) indicate the product has health benefits when it is consumed with other foods that make up a daily diet; 2) are complete, easy to understand, honest, and not misleading; 3) refer to a product that has 10% or more of the DVs for fiber, protein, calcium, iron, potassium, or vitamin D before being fortified with nutrients. A food manufacturer, for example, wants to fortify its orange juice with calcium to boost the juice's calcium content from 2%DV to 35%DV. The FDA would not allow the manufacturer to place a health claim about the juice's calcium content on the label because the original juice had less than 10%DV for the vitamin; 4) are for a product intended for people who are 2 years of age or older; 5) use may or might to describe the relationship between the product and disease. For example, "Diets containing foods that are good sources of potassium and that are low in sodium may reduce the risk of high blood pressure and stroke" is an allowable claim. However, the claim "Reduces the risk of stroke" would not be permitted on a label; 5) do not quantify any degree of risk reduction. For example, a claim that states, "Reduces risk of cancer by 41%" would not be allowed because it specifies the degree of risk reduction; and 6) indicate that many factors influence disease. Certain lipids and heart disease "While many factors affect heart disease, diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol may reduce the risk of this disease." Diet and heart disease "Diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol and rich in fruits, vegetables, and grain products that contain some types of dietary fiber, particularly soluble fiber, may reduce the risk of heart disease, a disease associated with many factors." Calcium, exercise, and osteoporosis (a disease that weakens bones) "Regular exercise and a healthy diet with enough calcium help teen and young adult white and Asian women maintain good bone health and may reduce their high risk of osteoporosis." Sodium (a mineral) and high blood pressure "Diets low in sodium may reduce the risk of high blood pressure, a disease associated with many factors." Folate (a B vitamin) and neural tube defects (conditions in which the skull and spine do not form properly before birth) "Healthful diets with adequate folate may reduce a woman's risk of having a child with a brain or spinal cord defect." Fruits and vegetables and risk of cancer "Foods that are low in fat and contain dietary fiber, vitamin A, or vitamin C may reduce the risk of some types of cancer, a disease associated with many factors. Broccoli is high in vitamins A and C, and it is a good source of dietary fiber." As of July 2020, the FDA would not approve health claims for foods that contain more than 13 g of fat, 4 g of saturated fat, 60 mg of cholesterol, or 480 mg of sodium per serving.17 For example, calcium is a mineral that strengthens bones and protects them from osteoporosis, a condition in which bones become brittle and break easily. Whole milk is a rich source of calcium. Nevertheless, the label on a carton of whole milk cannot include a health claim about calcium and osteoporosis because the milk contains more than 4 g of saturated fat per serving In 2016, FDA officials reevaluated the 3 g or less per serving limit for a "healthy" food claim. Many nuts are high in fat, but the kinds of fat they contain are considered healthy. The FDA issued guidance that a "healthy" claim could be made for products not low in total fat if the majority of their fat content is healthy monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats A structure/function claim describes the role a nutrient or dietary supplement plays in maintaining a structure, such as bone, or promoting a normal function, such as digestion. The FDA allows structure/function claims such as "calcium builds strong bones" or "fiber maintains bowel regularity" (Fig. 3.14). Structure/function statements cannot claim that a nutrient, food, or dietary supplement can be used to prevent or treat a serious health condition. For example, the FDA would not permit a claim that a product "promotes low blood pressure" because that claim implies the product has drug-like effects and can treat high blood pressure. The FDA permits manufacturers to include claims on labels that describe levels of nutrients in packaged foods. Such nutrient content claims can use the terms free, high, or low to describe how much of a nutrient is in the product. Additionally, nutrient content claims can use terms such as more or reduced to compare amounts of nutrients in a product to those in a similar product. This claim is often used for an item that substitutes for a reference food, which is a similar and more familiar food. For example, a "reduced-fat" salad dressing has considerably less fat than its reference food, regular salad dressing. Note that a product may contain a small amount of a nutrient such as fat or sugar, yet the Nutrition Facts panel can indicate the amount as "0 g." For example, the Nutrition Facts panel may indicate that a serving of food supplies "0" grams of trans fat, even though the food actually supplies less than 0.5 g of trans fat. Sugar Sugar free: The product provides less than 0.5 g of sugar per serving. Reduced sugar: The food contains at least 25% less sugar per serving than the reference food. Calories Calorie free: The food provides fewer than 5 kcal per serving. Low calorie: The food supplies 40 kcal or less per serving. Reduced or fewer calories: The food contains at least 25% fewer kcal per serving than the reference food. Fat Fat free: The food provides less than 0.5 g of fat per serving. Low fat: The food contains 3 g or less fat per serving. Two-percent milk is not "low fat" because it has more than 3 g of fat per serving. The term reduced fat can be used to describe 2% milk. Reduced or less fat: The food supplies at least 25% less fat per serving than the reference food. Cholesterol Cholesterol free: The food contains less than 2 mg of cholesterol and 2 g or less of saturated fat per serving. Fiber High fiber: The food contains 5 g or more fiber per serving. Foods that include high-fiber claims on the label must also meet the definition for low fat. Good source of fiber: The food supplies 2.5 to 4.9 g of fiber per serving. Meat and poultry products regulated by USDA Extra lean: The food provides less than 5 g of fat, 2 g of saturated fat, and 95 mg of cholesterol per serving. Lean: The food contains less than 10 g of fat, 4.5 g of saturated fat, and 95 mg of cholesterol per serving According to the FDA, a light or lite food has at least one-third fewer kilocalories or half the fat of the reference food According to federal law, every dietary supplement container must be properly labeled (Fig. 3.15). The label must include the term "dietary supplement" or a similar term that describes the product's particular ingredient, such as "herbal supplement" or "vitamin C supplement." Dietary supplement labels are also required to display the list of ingredients, manufacturer's address, and suggested dosage. Furthermore, the label must include facts about the product's contents in a special format—the "Supplement Facts" panel (see Figure 3.15). The panel provides information about the serving size; amount per serving; and percent Daily Value (%DV) for ingredients, if one has been established. DVs are standard desirable or maximum intakes for many nutrients, but DVs have not been established for nonnutrient products, including herbal supplements. According to the FDA, dietary supplements are not intended to treat, diagnose, cure, or alleviate the effects of diseases. Therefore, the agency does not permit manufacturers to market a dietary supplement product as a treatment or cure for a disease, or to relieve signs or symptoms of a disease. Although such products generally cannot prevent diseases, some can improve health or reduce the risk of certain diseases or conditions. Thus, the FDA allows supplement manufacturers to display structure/function claims on labels. Manufacturers of iron supplements, for example, may have a claim on the label that states: "Iron is necessary for healthy red blood cell formation." If the FDA has not reviewed a claim, the label must include the FDA's disclaimer indicating that the claim has not been evaluated by the agency The FDA does not require dietary supplement manufacturers or sellers to provide evidence that labeling claims are accurate or truthful before they appear on product containers. However, manufacturers that include structure/function claims on labels must notify the FDA about the claims within 30 days after introducing the products into the marketplace. If FDA officials question the safety of a dietary supplement or the truthfulness of claims that appear on supplement labels, manufacturers are responsible for providing the agency with evidence that their products are safe and the claims on labels are honest and not misleading. The FDA requires dietary supplement manufacturers to evaluate the purity, quality, strength, and composition of their products before marketing them. The regulations are designed to result in the production of supplements that contain the ingredients listed on the label, are wholesome, contain standard amounts of ingredients per dose, and are properly packaged and accurately labeled.

Identify factors that influence personal food choices: See Figure 1.1 on page 3.

-family -childhood experiences -peers -ethnic background -education -occupation -income -rural vs urban residence -food composition, convenience, and availability -food flavor, texture, and appearance -religious beliefs -nutritional beliefs -health beliefs -current health status -habits -advertising and media -moods

Describe how people can become more critical and careful consumers of nutrition information, including information on the internet.

-To be a careful consumer, do not assume that all nutrition information presented in the popular media is reliable. The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees freedom of the press and freedom of speech, so people can provide nutrition information that is not true. Thus, the First Amendment does not protect consumers with freedom from nutrition misinformation or false nutrition claims. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) can regulate nutrition- and health-related claims on product labels, but the agency cannot prevent the spread of health and nutrition misinformation published in books or pamphlets or presented in television or radio programs. As a consumer, you are responsible for questioning and researching the accuracy of nutrition information, as well as the credentials of the people making nutrition-related claims. -Promoters of worthless nutrition products and services often use sophisticated marketing methods to lure consumers. For example, some promoters of dietary supplements claim their products are "scientifically tested," or they include citations to what appear to be scientific journal articles in their ads or articles. Consumers, however, cannot be certain if the information is true. In some instances, these products have been scientifically tested, but much of the research that has been conducted using reliable methods has shown that most dietary supplements, other than vitamins and minerals, provide little or no measurable health benefits -If you are like most people, you do not want to waste your money on things you do not need or that are useless or potentially harmful. How can you become a more careful, critical consumer of nutrition-related information or products? The following questions should help you evaluate various sources of nutrition information: 1. What motivates the authors, promoters, or sponsors to provide the information? Do you think they are more interested in your health and well-being or in selling their products? 2. Is the source scientific, such as an article from a peer-reviewed nutrition journal? 3. If a study is mentioned (cited), how was the research conducted? Did the study involve humans or animals? If people participated in the study, how many subjects were involved in the research? Who sponsored the study? 4. To provide scientific support for claims, does the source refer to articles in respected nutrition or medical journals or mention reliable experts? -To obtain information about a nutrition expert's credentials, enter the person's name at an Internet search engine and evaluate the results. For example, is the person associated with an accredited school of higher education or a government agency such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention or U.S. Department of Agriculture? Be wary if the site discusses benefits of dietary supplements and enables you to purchase these products online. Furthermore, a site is likely to be unreliable if it includes comprehensive disclaimers such as "The manufacturer is not responsible or obligated to verify statements." Also avoid sites that publish disclaimers such as "The nutrition and health information at this site is provided for educational purposes only and not as a substitute for the advice of a physician or registered dietitian nutritionist. The author and owner of this site are not liable for personal actions taken as a result of the site's contents." Be wary of websites that are authored or sponsored by one person, or sites that promote or sell products for profit (*.com) because such sources of information may be biased. In general, websites sponsored by nationally recognized health associations such as the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (www.eatright.org) and nonprofit organizations such as the American Cancer Society (www.cancer.org) are reliable sources of nutrition information (*.org). Government agencies (*.gov) such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (www.cdc.gov) and nationally accredited colleges and universities (*.edu) that have nutrition and dietetics programs are also excellent sources of credible nutrition information.

Explain the importance of having controls when performing experiments: control group vs. treatment group, variable, placebo.

-When conducting an experimental study involving human subjects, researchers usually randomly divide a large group of people into treatment and control groups. This kind of experiment is called randomized controlled trial (RCT). Random assignment helps ensure that the members of the treatment and control groups have similar variables, such as age, weight, and other characteristics. All subjects will be instructed to maintain their usual lifestyle during the duration of the study, except for the activities required by their participation in the research. -After conducting the literature review, the researchers design an in vivo experimental study to provide answers relating to their hypothesis. The scientists divide 100 genetically similar, healthy, 3-week-old mice into two groups of 50 mice. One group (treatment group) is fed a certain amount of chemical X daily for 52 weeks; the second group (control group) does not receive the treatment during the period -Why is a control group necessary? Having a control group enables scientists to compare results between the two study groups to determine whether the treatment had any effect. -A variable is a characteristic or other factor that can change and influence an outcome. Variables include physical activity, air temperature, blood pressure, and sodium intake. Many variables can influence the outcome of an experimental study. Therefore, scientists who want to determine the effect or effects of a single variable, such as chemical X intake, need to control the influence of other variables. Therefore, all other conditions, including timing of feedings and amount of handling by caregivers, must be the same for both groups of mice. If researchers design an experiment in which they fail to control variables that are not being tested, their findings are likely to be unclear or inaccurate. -Then the scientists provide all study participants with the same instructions and a form of intervention, in this example, a bottle containing pills. However, only members of the treatment group actually receive the form of intervention. Subjects in the control group are usually given a placebo. -Placebos are not simply "sugar pills"; they are a fake treatment, such as a sham pill, injection, or medical device. The placebo mimics the treatment. Providing placebos to members of the control group enables scientists to compare the extent of the treatment's response with that of the placebo. -Human experimental studies are usually double-blind studies; that is, neither the investigators nor the subjects are aware of the subjects' group assignments. Subjects who suspect they are in the control group and taking a placebo may report no changes in their condition because they expect a placebo should have no effect on them. On the other hand, subjects who think they are in the treatment group could insist that they feel better or have more energy as a result of the treatment, even though the treatment may not have produced any measurable changes in their bodies. Ideally, subjects should not be able to figure out their group assignment while researchers are collecting information from them. If, for example, a patient believes a form of treatment will improve his or her health, the patient is more likely to report positive results for the therapy. Such wishful thinking is called the placebo effect. On the other hand, a patient who expects a medical treatment will be harmful may report unwanted effects of the therapy, even though the treatment was harmless. In this case, the reported side effects indicate a nocebo -placebos can produce beneficial physiological and psychological changes, particularly in conditions that involve pain.3 Because subjects in the control group believe they are receiving a real treatment, their faith in the "treatment" can stimulate the release of chemicals in the brain that alter pain perception, reducing their discomfort. Therefore, when people report that a treatment was beneficial, they may not have been imagining the positive response, even when they were taking a placebo.

Identify the various Dietary Reference Intakes and how they can be used: Estimated Average Requirement (EAR), Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA), Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL), Estimated Energy Requirement (EER), Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDR)

1) Estimated Average Requirement (EAR)- is the daily amount of the nutrient that meets the needs of 50% of healthy people who are in a particular life stage/sex group. To establish an EAR for a nutrient, the FNB identifies a physiological marker, a substance in the body that reflects proper functioning and can be measured. This marker indicates whether the level of a nutrient in the body is adequate. A marker for vitamin C, for example, is the amount of the vitamin in certain blood cells 2) Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)- are standards for recommending daily intakes of several nutrients. RDAs meet the nutrient needs of nearly all healthy individuals (97 to 98%) in a particular life stage/sex group. To establish an RDA for a nutrient, nutrition scientists first determine its EAR. Then scientists add a "margin of safety" amount to the EAR that allows for individual variations in nutrient needs and helps maintain tissue stores (Fig. 3.2). For example, the adult EAR for vitamin C is 60 mg for women who are not pregnant or breastfeeding and 75 mg for men.3 However, the adult RDA for vitamin C is 15 mg higher than the EAR: 75 mg for women who are not pregnant or breastfeeding and 90 mg for men. Thus, the margin of safety for vitamin C is 15 mg. Because smoking cigarettes increases the need for vitamin C, smokers should add 35 mg to their RDA for the nutrient. 3) Adequate Intake (AI)- In some instances, nutrition scientists are unable to develop RDAs for nutrients because there is not enough information to determine how much is required by people. Until such information becomes available, scientists set Adequate Intakes (AIs) for these nutrients. To establish an AI, scientists record eating patterns of a group of healthy people and estimate the group's average daily intake of the nutrient. If the people who are being observed show no signs of the nutrient's deficiency disorder, the researchers conclude that the average level of intake must be adequate and use that value as the AI. Vitamin K is one of the nutrients that has an AI instead of an RDA. 4) Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL)- The UL is the highest average amount of a nutrient that is unlikely to harm most people when they consume that amount daily. The risk of a toxicity disorder increases when a person regularly consumes amounts of a nutrient that is more than its UL. The UL for vitamin C, for example, is 2000 mg/day for adults. 5) Chronic Disease Risk Reduction Intake (CDRR)- CDRRs are nutrient intake levels that reduce chronic disease risk within a healthy population. For example, excess dietary sodium intake increases the risk of high blood pressure and heart disease. According to the CDRR for sodium, adults should limit their sodium intake to less than 2300 mg/day to reduce the risk of chronic disease 6) Estimated Energy Requirement (EER)- is the average daily energy intake that meets the needs of a healthy person who is maintaining his or her weight. Registered dietitian nutritionists (RDNs) can use EERs to evaluate an individual's energy intake. The EER takes into account the person's physical activity level, height, and weight, as well as sex and life stage. Because the EER is an average figure, some people have energy needs that are higher or lower. 7) Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR)- indicate ranges of carbohydrate, fat, and protein intakes that provide adequate amounts of vitamins and minerals and may reduce the risk of diet-related chronic diseases.4 The AMDR for carbohydrates, for example, is 45 to 65% of total energy intake. If a person's total energy intake is 2300 kcal/day, then his or her recommended carbohydrate intake is 1035 to 1495 kcal/day.

List major food groups and identify foods that are typically classified in each group: Major groups: grains, dairy foods, protein-rich foods, fruits, vegetables. Other foods: oils, solid fats, sugary foods.

1) grains -wheat, rice, and oats. Pasta, noodles, and flour tortillas are members of this group because wheat flour is their main ingredient. -A serving of a grain food is equivalent to 1 slice of bread, 1 cup of ready-to-eat cereal, or ½ cup of cooked rice, pasta, or cereal such as oatmeal -Although corn is a type of grain, it is often used as a vegetable in meals. Cornmeal and popcorn, however, are usually grouped with grain products. -whole grains have more fiber than refined grains. According to the FDA, whole grains are the intact, ground, cracked, or flaked seeds of cereal grains, such as wheat, buckwheat, oats, corn, rice, wild rice, rye, and barley -refined grain products are commonly consumed and can be good sources of several vitamins and minerals when they have undergone enrichment or fortification. In general, enrichment replaces some of the nutrients that food loses during processing. Fortification is the addition of any nutrient to food to boost its nutrient content, such as adding calcium to orange juice, vitamins A and D to milk, and numerous vitamins and minerals to ready-to-eat cereals, and snack and energy bars. 2) dairy products -include milk and products made from milk that retain (keep) their calcium content after processing, such as yogurt and hard cheeses. Such dairy foods are also excellent sources of protein, phosphorus (a mineral), and riboflavin (a B vitamin). Most of the milk sold in the United States is fortified with vitamins A and D -Foods and beverages made from soybeans (soy "milk" and soy "cheese") can substitute for cow's milk if they are fortified with calcium and other micronutrients. Milk-based desserts such as ice cream, pudding, and frozen yogurt are often grouped with dairy products, even though they often have high added sugar and fat contents. -Although cream cheese, cream, and butter are made from cow's milk, they are not included in this group because they have little or no calcium and are high in fat. -Most dietary guides, including MyPlate (USDA) recommend choosing dairy products that have most of the fat removed, such as fat-free or low-fat milk. (Fat-free milk may also be referred to as nonfat or skim milk.) Compared to whole milk, which is about 3.25% fat by weight, low-fat milk contains only 1% fat by weight and is often called "1% milk." -One cup of fat-free milk generally substitutes for 1 cup of plain, low-fat yogurt or frozen yogurt; 2 cups of low-fat cottage cheese; 1½ ounces of natural cheese such as Swiss or cheddar; or 2 ounces of processed cheese, such as American cheese. 3) protein-rich foods -include beef, pork, lamb, fish, shellfish, and poultry. Beans, eggs, nuts, and seeds are included with this group because these protein-rich foods can substitute for meats. -A serving of food from this group generally equals 1 ounce of meat, poultry, or fish; ¼ cup cooked dry beans or dry peas; 1 egg; 1 tablespoon of peanut butter; or ½ ounce of nuts or seeds. One-fourth cup of tofu, a food made from soybeans, can substitute for 1 ounce of meat, fish, or poultry. Most dairy products are also protein rich. -Dry beans and peas, eggs, tofu, nuts, and seeds are protein-rich foods that can substitute for meat. 4) fruits -include fresh, dried, frozen, sauced, and canned fruit, as well as 100% fruit juice. -One serving of food from this group generally equals 1 cup of fruit or fruit juice, or ½ cup of dried fruit, such as raisins or dried apricots -Most fruits are low in fat and good sources of phytochemicals and micronutrients, especially the mineral potassium and vitamins C and folate. Additionally, whole or cut-up fruit is a good source of fiber. Although 100% juice is a source of phytochemicals and can count toward one's fruit intake, the majority of choices from this group should be whole or cut-up fruits 5) vegetables -include fresh, cooked, canned, frozen, and dried/dehydrated vegetables, and 100% vegetable juice -Vegetables may be further grouped into dark green, orange and red, starchy, and "other" categories. Some guides include dried beans and peas in the vegetable group as well as in the protein-rich foods group. -One serving of food from this group generally equals 1 cup of raw or cooked vegetables, 1 cup vegetable juice, or 2 cups of uncooked leafy greens, such as salad greens oils -Oils include canola, corn, and olive oils, as well as other fats that are liquid at room temperature. -Certain spreadable foods made from vegetable oils, such as mayonnaise, soft or "tub" margarine, and salad dressing, are also classified as oils. Peanuts and peanut butter, walnuts, sunflower seeds, olives, avocados, and some types of fish have high fat contents, but these kinds of fat are "healthy" fats that do not contribute to heart disease. Some food guides group these foods with oils. Oils are often good sources of fat soluble vitamins. solid fats -such as beef fat, butter, stick margarine, and shortening, are fairly hard at room temperature -Solid fat is a source of "unhealthy" saturated fats that are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Although cream and coconut oil are liquid or soft at room temperature, these foods are classified as solid fats because they are rich sources of saturated fat sugary foods -include candy, regular soft drinks, jelly, and other foods that contain high amounts of sugar added during processing or preparation. Sugary foods and beverages typically supply energy but few or no micronutrients. The alcohol in alcohol-containing beverages is another source of empty calories.

Identify common red flags that are signs of nutrition misinformation.

1. Promises of quick and easy remedies for complex health-related problems 2. Claims that sound too good to be true 3. Scare tactics that include sensational, frightening, false, or misleading statements about a food, dietary practice, or health condition 4. Personal attacks on the motives and ethical standards of registered dietitian nutritionists or conventional scientists 5. Statements about the superiority of certain dietary supplements or unconventional medical practices 6. Testimonials and anecdotes as evidence of effectiveness 7. Information that promotes a product's benefits while overlooking its risks 8. Vague, meaningless, or scientific-sounding terms to impress or confuse consumers 9. Sensational statements with incomplete references of sources 10. Recommendations based on a single study 11. Information concerning nutrients or human physiology that is not supported by reliable scientific evidence 12. Results disclaimers, usually in small or difficult-to-read print

Explain how the FDA regulates medicines differently than dietary supplements.

According to the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 (DSHEA), a dietary supplement is a product (other than tobacco) that -adds to a person's dietary intake and contains one or more dietary ingredients, including nutrients or botanicals (herbs or other plant material); -is taken by mouth; and, -is a concentrate, metabolite, constituent, or extract -Before marketing a new drug, the manufacturer must submit evidence to the FDA indicating that the product has been tested extensively and is safe and effective. If FDA experts have serious concerns about a medication's side effects or if they question its usefulness, the agency may reject the manufacturer's petition to sell the product -When consumed, many dietary supplements act as drugs in the body. However, the FDA does not regulate dietary supplements as medications. The agency classifies dietary supplements as a nontraditional category of foods and uses different sets of rules to regulate dietary supplements, conventional foods, and medications -As a result, dietary supplement manufacturers can bypass most of the strict regulations that the FDA applies to the introduction of new medications into the marketplace. Supplement manufacturers, for example, generally do not need FDA approval before manufacturing or marketing their products. Additionally, the manufacturers are not required to provide the FDA with scientific evidence indicating their products provide measurable health benefits. Manufacturers, however, must notify the FDA and provide the agency with information about the safety of any supplement that contains dietary ingredients that were not marketed in dietary supplements prior to 1994, unless the substance had been used in foods. -According to the FDA, dietary supplements are not intended to prevent, diagnose, treat, or cure diseases. Thus, dietary supplement manufacturers are not allowed to make claims that are appropriate for medications, such as "reduces pain," "prevents polio," or "treats diabetes." The agency regulates the labeling of dietary supplements, including health-related claims that are permitted on labels. -The FDA has set standards designed to help ensure the identity, purity, strength, and composition of dietary supplements. The agency, however, does not test dietary supplements to determine whether they meet such quality standards. Manufacturers of dietary supplements can have their products tested for quality by certain nongovernmental agencies, including U.S. Pharmacopeia and ConsumerLab.com. Products that pass this testing may include "seals of approval" on labels, but these seals are no guarantee that the dietary supplements are safe or effective. -The FDA's role in reviewing the safety of dietary supplements begins after products enter the marketplace. Supplement manufacturers are required to keep records concerning reports they receive about serious adverse (negative) health effects that may have been caused by their products. Furthermore, the manufacturers must also inform the FDA about such reports. Consumers and health care professionals can also report health problems that are possibly associated with supplement use directly to the FDA. -When the FDA determines that a particular supplement presents a significant or unreasonable risk of harm, the agency alerts consumers about the risk and seeks to recall the product, that is, initiates efforts to have it removed from the market. In most instances, the manufacturer voluntarily recalls the product after determining there is a problem with it or being notified by the FDA about the problem. In some cases, however, the FDA requests a recall. If the FDA determines that the manufacturer's response to the recall is inadequate, the agency can take enforcement steps, such as initiating legal action against the company to seize products or stop producing the items.

List overarching guidelines of the 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. See Table 3.3 on page 71. I won't ask you to know the recommendations for specific populations (p. 72).

Follow a healthy dietary pattern at every life stage. Customize and enjoy nutrient-dense food and beverage choices to reflect personal preferences, cultural traditions, and budgetary considerations. Focus on meeting food group needs with nutrient-dense foods and beverages, and stay within calorie limits. Limit foods and beverages higher in added sugars, saturated fat, and sodium, and limit alcoholic beverages.

Compare Americans' current typical diet to the population's typical eating patterns in 1970.

In general, the population now eats more peanuts and tree nuts, poultry, fish and shellfish, yogurt, and cheese than amounts that they ate in 1970. Americans have reduced their intakes of other protein-rich foods, including fluid milk, red meat (beef, veal, pork, and lamb), and eggs, since 1970. Although today's Americans consume more fruits and vegetables, they do not eat the recommended amounts.7 Compared to amounts eaten in the past, Americans now consume more foods that contain too much added sugars. The population's current diet also supplies more food energy from total grains, including flour and cereal products than in 1970, but foods made from refined grains, such as white bread and pizza dough, make up the majority of these products.

Explain why nutrition information derived from anecdotes and testimonials is not evidenced based.

In the past, nutrition facts and dietary practices were often based on intuition, common sense, "conventional wisdom" (tradition), or anecdotes (reports of personal experiences). Today, registered dietitian nutritionists (RDNs) and other nutrition experts discard conventional beliefs, explanations, and practices when the results of current scientific research no longer support them Scientists ask questions about the natural world, such as: "How do cells make proteins?" and "What factors increase the risk of stomach ulcers?" To obtain answers for their questions, researchers design studies that follow generally accepted methods

Describe key basic nutrition concepts, such as the importance of eating a variety of foods and why food is the best source of nutrients: including physiological dose vs. megadose.

Most naturally occurring foods are mixtures of nutrients. Variety can help ensure the nutritional adequacy of a diet. -No natural food is "perfect" in that it contains all nutrients in amounts that are needed by the body. To help ensure the nutritional adequacy of your diet, choose a diet that contains a variety of foods from each food group that is shown in MyPlate (dairy, grains, fruits, veggies, protein) There are no "good" or "bad" foods. Enjoy eating all foods in moderation. For each nutrient, there is a range of safe intake. -By eating a variety of nutrient-dense foods, you are likely to obtain adequate and safe amounts of each nutrient. The physiological dose of a nutrient is the amount that is within the range of safe intake and enables the body to function optimally. Consuming less than the physiological dose can result in marginal nutritional status. In other words, the person's body has just enough of the nutrient to function adequately, but that amount is not sufficient to overcome the added stress of infection or injury. If a person's nutrient intake falls below the marginal level, the individual is at risk of developing the nutrient's deficiency disease. -Most people require physiological amounts of micronutrients. A megadose is an amount of a vitamin or mineral that greatly exceeds the recommended amount of the nutrient. When taken in high amounts, many vitamins act like drugs and can produce unpleasant and even toxic side effects. For example, physicians sometimes use megadoses of the B-vitamin niacin to treat high blood cholesterol levels, but such amounts may cause painful facial flushing and liver damage. Minerals have very narrow ranges of safe intakes. Food is the best source of nutrients and phytochemicals. -The most natural, reliable, and economical way to obtain nutrients and beneficial phytochemicals is to base your diet on a variety of "whole" and minimally processed foods. Plant foods naturally contain a variety of nutrients and phytochemicals, but processing the foods often removes some of the most healthful parts. -It is important to understand that nutrient supplements do not contain everything one needs for optimal nutrition. For example, they do not contain the wide variety of phytochemicals found in plant foods. Although dietary supplements that contain phytochemicals are available, they may not provide the same healthful benefits as consuming the plants that contain these compounds. Why? Nutrients and phytochemicals may need to be consumed together to provide the desirable effects in the body. Food naturally contains combinations of these chemicals in very small amounts and certain proportions. There is nothing "natural" about gulping down handfuls of supplements. -healthy adults should consider taking such supplements as a dietary "insurance policy" and not a substitute for eating a variety of nutrient-dense foods. There is no "one size fits all" approach to planning a nutritionally adequate diet. Foods and the nutrients they contain are not cure-alls. Malnutrition includes undernutrition as well as overnutrition. Nutrition is a dynamic science.

Describe the USDA's three labeling categories for organic foods.

A food product cannot be labeled "organic" unless its production meets strict national standards. Note that certain foods can have the organic symbol on the package, yet they may contain small amounts of ingredients that are not considered organic by the USDA. "100% Organic" (may use USDA organic seal) -100% certified organic ingredientsMust identify organic ingredients "Organic" (may use USDA organic seal) -Contains at least 95% certifed organic ingredients -Remaining 5% of ingredients are on USDA's list of allowed ingredientsMust identify organic ingredients "Made with organic ______" (may not use USDA organic seal) -Contains 70 to 95% certified organic ingredients -Must identify organic ingredients

Use the caloric values of energy-yielding nutrients to estimate the amount of energy (kcal) in a serving of food: calories per gram of carbohydrate, fat, and protein.

A gram of carbohydrate (sugars and starches) and a gram of protein each supplies about 4 kcal a gram of fat provides about 9 kcal Although alcohol is not a nutrient, it does provide energy; a gram of pure alcohol furnishes 7 kcal. For example, if a serving of food contains 15 g of carbohydrate, 3 g of protein, and 7 g of fat, multiply 15 g by 4 (the number of kcal each gram of carbohydrate supplies). Next, multiply 3 g by 4 (the number of kcal each gram of protein provides). Then multiply 7 g by 9 (the number of kcal each gram of fat supplies). By adding the three caloric values (60 kcal from carbohydrate, 12 kcal from protein, and 63 kcal from fat), you will determine that this food provides 135 kcal/serving.

Compare a macronutrient to a micronutrient.

Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are referred to as macronutrients because the body needs relatively large amounts (grams) of these nutrients daily. Vitamins and minerals are micronutrients because the body needs very small amounts (milligrams or micrograms) of them to function properly. In general, a serving of food supplies grams of carbohydrate, fat, and protein, and milligram or microgram quantities of vitamins and minerals. It is important to understand that macronutrients supply energy for cells, whereas micronutrients do not. Although the body requires large amounts of water, this nutrient provides no energy and is not usually classified as a macronutrient. Amounts of nutrients present in different foods vary widely, and even the same food from the same source can contain different amounts of nutrients.

Use dietary analysis software to estimate the nutritional value of foods. This will be done in the Personal Dietary analysis -- no questions on the exam.

Dietary analysis software and websites can be quick and easy tools for determining nutrient and energy contents of a specific food. However, the values provided by these resources are not necessarily exact amounts. The same type of plant food may vary in nutrient content depending on hereditary factors, age, growing conditions, and production methods. Therefore, scientists generally analyze several samples of a particular food to determine their nutrient contents, and then the researchers average the results. In many instances, values for certain nutrients are missing. This occurs when accurate data concerning the complete nutrient analysis of the food are unavailable.

Apply the Dietary Guidelines to improve the nutritional quality of diets.

Increase the variety of protein foods consumed; choose more plant sources of protein including beans, peas, lentils; and incorporate about 8 ounces per week of various seafood into meals. Consume more nutrient-dense fruits and vegetables. Choose 100% whole grain and enriched grain products. Make at least half your grains whole grains. Choose lower-fat versions of milk, yogurt, and cheese, or fortified soy beverages. Season foods with herbs and spices, and add little to no salt; compare sodium in foods and choose the foods with the lowest sodium content. Drink water, fat-free and low-fat milk, and 100% juice instead of drinks with added sugars. Choose nutrient-dense foods that provide potassium, dietary fiber, calcium, and vitamin D, which are "nutrients of public health concern," because Americans tend to consume them in limited amounts. Consume as little cholesterol and trans fats as possible while following a healthy diet. If one consumes alcohol, the beverage should be consumed in moderation and only by adults of legal drinking age (see Chapter 6). Certain individuals should not consume alcohol, especially pregnant women. White bread and rolls. replace w Whole-wheat bread and rolls Ready-to-eat cereals with added sugar. replace w High-fiber cereal with no more than 5 g added sugar per serving; sweetened with berries, bananas, peaches, or other fruit Cheeseburger, French fries, and a regular (sugar-sweetened) soft drink. replace w Roasted chicken or turkey sandwich, baked beans, fat-free or low-fat milk, or soy milk Potato salad or cole slaw. replace w Leafy greens or three-bean salad Regular soft drinks and other sugar-sweetened beverages. replace w Water, fat-free or low-fat milk, or 100% fruit juice Breaded and fried meat, fish, or poultryBroiled or roasted meat, fish, or poultryFatty meats such as barbecued ribs, sausage, and hot dogs. replace w Chicken, turkey, or fish; lean meats such as ground round Whole or 2% milk, cottage cheese with 4% fat, or yogurt made from whole milk. replace w 1% or fat-free milk, low-fat cottage cheese (1% fat), or low-fat yogurt. Ice creamFrozen yogurt or "lite" ice cream Creamy salad dressings or dips made with mayonnaise or sour cream. replace w Oil and vinegar dressing, reduced-fat salad dressings, or dips made from low-fat sour cream or plain yogurt Salt added to season foods. replace w Herbs, spices, or lemon juice Doughnuts, chips, or salty snack foods. replace w Unsalted nuts, dried fruit, or a small bran muffin or whole-wheat bagel topped with peanut butter or other nut butter

Explain differences between the production of organic foods and the production of conventional foods.

Instead of producing a variety of crops, big farms often focus on growing corn, soybeans, or wheat. These crops require conventional farming methods that include heavy use of fertilizers and products to control pests (pesticides). In some parts of the country, large farms also need considerable amounts of water for irrigating crops. As a result, underground water supplies are being depleted in these regions. The rise in agribusiness helped fuel interest in sustainable agriculture. As mentioned in Chapter 1, sustainable agriculture focuses on producing adequate amounts of food without reducing natural resources, such as the water supply, and harming people as well as the natural environment.19 Such agricultural methods promote crop variety, soil and water conservation, and recycling of plant nutrients. Additionally, sustainable agriculture can support small farms, particularly organic farms. Technically, organic substances have the element carbon bonded to hydrogen (another element) in their chemical structures. Therefore, all foods are organic because they contain substances composed of carbon bonded with hydrogen. The term organic, however, also refers to certain agricultural methods that can promote sustainability. Organic farming and the production of organic foods do not rely on the use of antibiotics, hormones, synthetic fertilizers and most synthetic pesticides, genetic improvements, or ionizing radiation ORGANIC VS NONORGANIC Synthetic fertilizers are not allowed. Limited restrictions on fertilizers Sewage sludge products are not allowed. Sludge products may be used on some fields. Restrictions on use of raw manure on fields used for food crops. Few restrictions on raw manure use for edible crop fields Most synthetic pesticides are not allowed; natural pest management practices are encouraged. Any government-approved pesticide may be used according to label instructions. Natural pest management practices may also be used. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are not allowed. Government-approved GMOs are permitted. Feeding livestock mammal and poultry by-products and manure is not allowed. Certain mammal and poultry by-products are allowed in livestock feed. Use of growth hormones and antibiotics in livestock production is not allowed. Government-approved hormone and antibiotic treatments are permitted. Food irradiation (a food safety method) is not allowed. Food irradiation may be used. Detailed record keeping and site inspections by regulators are required. Some records are required, but no on-site checks by regulators are necessary. ***In general, organic food crops are not more nutritious than conventionally grown food crops

Explain why there is so much nutrition misinformation: testimonial, pseudoscience, quackery.

Much of the information from such popular sources is not evidence based, that is, it is not supported by scientific evidence. -Popular sources of nutrition information, such as magazines and the Internet, generally do not subject articles or blogs to peer review or other scientific scrutiny, and as a result, they may feature faulty, biased information -For example, a health news column in a popular magazine may report findings from a few nutrition journal articles that support the use of garlic supplements for reducing blood cholesterol levels. However, you may conclude that the column is biased if it excludes results of other studies that do not indicate such benefits -Although the actress's health history appears to be compelling evidence that the weight-loss supplement is effective, her information is a testimonial, a personal endorsement of a product. People are usually paid to provide their testimonials for advertisements; therefore, their remarks may be biased in favor of the product. -Your friend's experience with taking the same weight-loss product is intriguing, but it is an anecdote and not proof that FatMegaMelter promotes weight loss. When your source of nutrition information is a testimonial, anecdote, or advertisement, you cannot be sure that the information is based on scientific facts and, therefore, reliable. -Consumers also need to be alert for promoters' use of pseudoscience, the presentation of information masquerading as factual and obtained by scientific methods. In many instances, pseudoscientific nutrition or physiology information is presented with complex scientific-sounding terms, such as "enzymatic therapy" or "colloidal extract." Such terms are designed to convince people without science backgrounds that the nutrition-related information is true. Often, promoters of nutrition misinformation try to confuse people by weaving false information with facts into their claims, making the untrue material seem credible too. -Practicing medicine without the proper training and licensing is illegal. However, providing nutrition information and advice without the proper training and licensing is legal. Quackery involves promoting useless medical treatments, such as copper bracelets to treat arthritis

Discuss how various ethnic and religious groups influence Americans' dietary patterns. This will be done in the Chapter Discussion -- no questions on the exam.

Northwestern European Influences Immigrants from northwestern European regions or countries such as the United Kingdom, Scandinavia, and Germany established the familiar "meat-and-potatoes" diet that features a large portion of beef or pork served with a smaller portion of potatoes. In the past, the potatoes were either boiled or mashed; today, they are usually fried. This mainstream American diet, often referred to as a "Western" diet, provides large amounts of animal protein and fat, and lacks fruits, whole grains, and a variety of green vegetables. Such diets are associated with high rates of serious chronic diseases, particularly CVD and type 2 diabetes, which are discussed in later chapters of this textbook. Hispanic Influences The Hispanic (people with Spanish ancestry) population is now the largest ethnic minority group in the United States. Many Hispanic-Americans migrated to the United States from Mexico. The traditional Mexican diet included corn, beans, chili peppers, avocados, papayas, and pineapples. Many supermarkets in the United States sell other plant foods that are often incorporated into Mexican meals, such as fresh chayote, cherimoya, jicama, plantains, and cactus leaves and fruit. Such fruits and vegetables add fiber and a variety of nutrients, phytochemicals, vivid colors, and interesting flavors to Mexican dishes. Authentic Mexican meals are based primarily on rice, tortillas, and beans, depending on the region. However, many non-Hispanic Americans do not like to eat meals limited to these inexpensive yet nutritious plant foods. To appeal to people with more Western food preferences, "Mexican" fast-food restaurants in the United States often serve dishes that contain large portions of high-fat beef topped with sour cream and American cheese. Diets that contain high amounts of these and other solid fats are associated with excess body fat, CVD, and type 2 diabetes. Italian and Other Mediterranean Influences The traditional Italian diet of pasta and other grain products, olive oil, fish, nuts, fruits, and vegetables is healthier than the Western diet. Pasta, a product made from wheat flour and water, is the core of the traditional Italian diet. To many Americans, pasta is spaghetti topped with tomato sauce, meatballs, and grated Parmesan cheese. However, Italians eat a variety of different forms of pasta, such as penne, linguini, acini de pepe, and rotini, along with sauces that are often meatless. Pizza, a dish from southern Italy, is one of the most frequently consumed foods in the United States. Unlike traditional Italian pizza that has a thin crust and is lightly covered with tomatoes, basil (a leafy herb), and mozzarella cheese, many Americans choose thick-crust pizza topped with tomato sauce and plenty of shredded mozzarella cheese, and dotted with fatty pork sausage or pepperoni. African Heritage Influences Over the past several decades, the diets of African-Americans changed significantly so they now incorporate regional food preferences. In some parts of the United States, for example, the traditional African-American diet includes sweet potato pie, fried chicken, pork, black-eyed peas, and "greens," the nutritious leafy parts of plants such as kale, collards, mustard, turnip, and dandelion. To add flavor, greens may be cooked with small pieces of smoked pork. Although sweet potatoes, dried peas, and leafy vegetables provide fiber and a variety of vitamins and minerals, fried foods and salt-cured pork products contribute undesirable levels of fat and sodium to the diet. High-fat diets are associated with obesity, and high-sodium diets raise the risk of hypertension. You will learn more about the role of diet in the development of hypertension in Asian Influences Traditional Asian foods, such as Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese, Thai, and Korean cuisines, are similar and generally feature large amounts of vegetables, rice, or noodles combined with small amounts of meat, fish, or shellfish. The variety of vegetables used in Asian dishes adds color, flavor, texture, phytochemicals, and nutrients to meals. Additionally, Asian dishes often include flavorful sauces and seasonings made from plants, such as soy sauce, rice wine, ginger root, garlic, scallions, peppers, and sesame seeds. The Asian Diet Pyramid, shown in Figure 3.20, illustrates the traditional Asian dietary pattern, which generally provides inadequate amounts of calcium from milk and milk products. However, using calcium-rich or calcium-fortified foods can add the mineral to diets. Native American Influences In the past, some Native Americans were hunter-gatherers, depending on wild vegetation, fish, and game for food. Other Native Americans learned to grow vegetable crops, including tomatoes, corn, and squash. In general, the traditional Native American diet was low in sodium and fat and high in fiber. During the last half of the twentieth century, many Native Americans abandoned their traditional diets and adopted the typical Western diet. The negative health effects of this lifestyle change have been significant. Before the 1930s, for example, members of the Pima tribe in the southwestern United States primarily ate native foods that included low-fat game animals and high-fiber desert vegetation. By the end of the century, most American Pima had abandoned their native diets and had adopted a more Western diet. Today, obesity and type 2 diabetes are extremely prevalent among the Pima, whereas in the past, these conditions rarely affected tribal members. The traditional native Alaskan diet was composed of fatty fish and sea mammals, game animals, and a few plants. Alaskan natives who still follow traditional dietary practices have CVD rates that are lower than those in the general North American population, but those who switched to a more Western diet have developed CVD at rates similar to those of the general population.

Use the Nutrition Facts panel to make more nutritious food choices: Daily Values.

The Nutrition Facts panel requires most food manufacturers to provide information about the food's total fat, saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol, sodium, total carbohydrate, fiber, total sugars, added sugars, protein, vitamin D, potassium, calcium, and iron contents in the Nutrition Facts panel. Additionally, the panel must display the total amount of energy, indicated as the number of calories, in a serving. The panel uses grams (g) and milligrams (mg) to indicate amounts of nutrients in a serving of food. Food manufacturers can also include amounts of polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats, as well as micronutrients that are not required to be listed on the label. If the manufacturer has fortified the food with the nutrients or made claims about the product's nutrient contents, listing these particular food components is required. Fresh foods such as chopped meat and poultry and their major cuts are required to have a Nutrition Facts label. Fresh fruits and vegetables, fish, and shellfish are not required to have Nutrition Facts labels. However, many food suppliers and supermarket chains provide consumers with information about their products' nutritional content on posters or shelf tags displayed near the foods. The Nutrition Facts panel displays the number of calories per serving in very bold print, so it is highly visible. Under "Total Sugars," ". . . Added Sugars" differentiates between ingredients that are added to foods or beverages to sweeten them, such as high-fructose corn syrup, and sugars that are naturally in a food or beverage, such as those in fruit and cow's milk. Such information is helpful for people who want to monitor their intake of empty calories and compare foods for their added sugar contents. The Nutrition Facts panel also displays amounts of potassium, calcium, iron, and vitamin D. Many Americans have less-than-adequate intakes of these particular micronutrients. Nutrient standards such as the RDA and AI are sex-, age-, and life stage-specific. Because the RDAs and AIs are so specific, it is not practical to provide nutrient information on food labels that refers to these complex standards. To help consumers evaluate the nutritional content of food products, FDA developed the Daily Values (DVs) for labeling purposes. Compared to the RDAs, the DVs are a more simplified and practical set of nutrient standards. The adult DV for a nutrient is based on a standard diet that supplies 2000 kcal/day. Most nutrients have DVs, including total fat, total carbohydrate, added sugars, fiber, vitamins, and several minerals. As of January 2021, there were no DVs for total sugars and trans fat. -The DVs are generally based on the highest RDA or AI for a particular nutrient, but in some instances, they are based on recommendations of public health experts. -When evaluating or planning nutritious menus, your goal is to obtain at least 100% of the DVs for fiber, vitamins, and most minerals each day. On the other hand, you may need to limit your intake of foods that have high %DVs of total fat, saturated fat, added sugars, and sodium. -The general rule of thumb: A food that supplies 5%DV or less of a nutrient is a low source of the nutrient; a food that provides 20%DV or more is a high source of the nutrient -Percents of DVs are designed to help consumers compare nutrient contents of packaged foods to make more healthful choices. However, most people do not eat just packaged foods. Fresh fruits and vegetables, as well as many full service restaurant meals, do not have labels or menus with information about %DVs per serving. Therefore, many consumers will underestimate their nutrient intakes if they do not consider the contribution that unlabeled foods make to their diets.

Explain the basic steps of the scientific method: also know order of basic steps: observation, hypothesis, review of current scientific literature, design study, analyze data, peer-review.

The steps in scientific method are Make observations that generate questions; Formulate hypotheses to explain events; Review current scientific literature (published studies) that relate to the questions; Design studies, perform tests, and collect data (facts); Analyze data and draw conclusions based on the results; Share results with peers (report findings); Conduct more research, the results of which may confirm or refute previous findings. -An experiment that uses whole living organisms, such as mice, is called an in vivo experiment. -These studies are in vitro or "test tube" experiments. Researchers are cautious when drawing conclusions from results of in vitro experiments because cells removed from a living thing may not function the same way they do when they are in the entire life form. -Two types of research that involve human subjects are experimental (intervention) studies and observational studies. -Before articles are accepted for publication, they undergo peer review, a critical analysis conducted by a group of "peers." Peers are investigators who were not part of the study but are experts involved in related research. If peers agree that a study was well conducted, its results are fairly represented, and the research is of interest to the journal's readers, these scientists are likely to recommend that the journal's editors publish the article

Explain how to identify reliable nutrition experts: registered dietician (RD & RDN).

Today, registered dietitian nutritionists (RDNs) and other nutrition experts discard conventional beliefs, explanations, and practices when the results of current scientific research no longer support them. -you cannot always rely on someone who refers to him- or herself as a "nutritionist" or "nutritionalist" for reliable nutrition information because there are no standard legal definitions for these descriptors -Physicians are not necessarily the best sources of nutrition information because most doctors do not have extensive college coursework in the subject. -A registered dietitian (RD) or registered dietitian nutritionist (RDN) is a college-trained health care professional who has extensive knowledge of foods, nutrition, and dietetics, the application of nutrition and food information to help treat many health-related conditions. The titles "registered dietitian (RD)" and "registered dietitian nutritionist (RDN)" are legally protected. This means people cannot legally refer to themselves as RDNs unless they have been certified by the appropriate accrediting agency.

Explain why it is important to learn about food and nutrition: diet, nutrients

diet - usual pattern of food choices. enjoy, afford, prepare easily. ethnic/cultural influence. friends/ food advertising, beliefs, mood influence. food - basic human need for survival. supplies nutrients and satisfies hunger. comforts (anxiety/boredom). social/economic/ceremonial/religious significance nutrients - chemicals necessary for proper body functioning (life-sustaining substances in food). needed for growth, maintenance, and repair of body cells to eat well, learn nutritional value of food and effects that diet has on health. motivation as well as information about nutrients and food and effects on health is needed to make changes (want to lose/gain weight, concern of health - motivation) the food/beverage you eat contribute to health now and in future, so care about your diet! poor eating habits = contribute to causes of death nutrition is study of nutrients, chemicals necessary for proper body functioning and how the body uses them

Use the MyPlate to develop nutritionally adequate daily menus.

includes a variety of food, nutrition, and physical activity resources for consumers that are based on the recommendations of the Dietary Guidelines. MyPlate differs from the MyPyramid Plan in that it no longer has six food groups shown in boxes or stripes within a pyramid. MyPlate focuses on five different food groups: fruits, vegetables, protein foods, grains, and dairy. It is important to note that MyPlate does not have a portion of the plate for "oils." According to the USDA, "oils" is not a food group. The government agency, however, notes the need for fat in the diet because some kinds of fat are dietary essentials. MyPlate Plan has 12 different nutritionally adequate daily food patterns that supply from 1000 to 3200 kcal/day for people who are 2 years of age and older. Each food pattern is individualized to meet a person's age, sex, and physical activity level. Other personal information, such as food likes and dislikes, cultural background, and food budget, can also be considered when developing an individual's dietary plan. MyPlate: Recommendations for Average, Healthy 20-Year-Old Adults Kilocalories 1800-2400 (women) 2600-3200 (men) Fruit 1.5-2 cups (women) 2-2.5 cups( (men) Vegetables 2.5-3 cups (women) 3.5-4.0 cups (men) Grains 6-8 oz (women) 9-10 oz (men) Protein foods 5.0-6.5 oz (women) 6.5-7 oz (men) Dairy 3 cups (women) 3 cups (men) Oils*5-6 tsp (women) 6-7 tsp (men) MyPlate dietary patterns emphasize nutrient-dense foods and beverages that contain little or no empty calories. After a person consumes recommended amounts of nutritious foods from each food group (and oils), fewer than 15% of calories remain. According to information about healthy eating patterns (2020-2025 version of the Dietary Guidelines), these extra calories may be consumed as limited amounts of saturated fat and added sugars. The 2000 kcal dietary pattern, for example, has fewer than 300 kilocalories remaining, which is almost the same amount of energy in two 12-ounce sugar-sweetened, cola-flavored, carbonated soft drinks. Instead of choosing to eat more sources of empty calories, people can use up these remaining calories by choosing more servings of healthy foods such as dried beans and peas, lentils, seeds, nuts, fresh fruits, and vegetables. MyPlate includes a "Strive for a healthy weight" recommendation for adults. Following a healthy diet, however, is just one aspect of achieving a healthy weight. You should also spend some time each week engaging in physical activities, especially those that are moderately intense. Such activities can include brisk walking, dancing, and swimming

Identify factors that contribute to undernutrition in the United States.

Chronic undernutrition is a condition that occurs when a person's long-term energy and nutrient intakes are insufficient to meet his or her needs. Chronically undernourished people are underweight and often hungry. The factors that lead to chronic undernutrition are food distribution problems (such as lack of good roads), war and political / civil unrest, disease, overpopulation, parasites, depleted farmland and other natural resources, cultural traditions, and lack of sanitary water supplies. Undernutrition also occurs in wealthy, developed nations such as the United States. In some instances, undernutrition is not due to poverty in these countries. For example, people suffering from anorexia nervosa (an eating disorder) and chronic alcoholism are undernourished despite often having enough money to purchase food. Nevertheless, Americans with low incomes have a higher risk of malnutrition than members of the population who are in higher income categories.

Explain why similar scientific studies often have different results.

Scientists expect other researchers to avoid relying on their personal attitudes and biases ("points of view") when collecting and analyzing data and to evaluate and report their results objectively and honestly. This process is important because much of the scientific research that is conducted in the United States is supported financially by the federal government, nonprofit foundations, and drug companies and other private industries. Some funding sources can have certain expectations or biases about research outcomes, and as a result, they are likely to finance studies of scientists whose research efforts support their interests. The beef industry, for example, might not fund scientific investigations to find connections between high intakes of beef and the risk of certain cancers. On the other hand, the beef industry might be interested in supporting a team of scientists whose research indicates that a high-protein diet that contains plenty of beef is useful for people who are trying to lose weight. Scientists whose research efforts depend on food, dietary supplement, or pharmacological industry support may emphasize positive research findings and minimize negative findings. In these instances, the scientists may have "conflicts of interest" because they have to choose between reporting the facts and keeping their financial support. Peer-reviewed nutrition journals usually require authors of articles to disclose their affiliations and sources of financial support. Such disclosures may appear on the first page or at the end of the article. By having this information, readers can decide on the reliability of the findings. Although peer review helps ensure that the scientists are as ethical and objective as possible, it is impossible to eliminate all research bias.

Identify basic units of the metric system often used in nutrition: gram, liter, calorie, kilocalorie (Calorie).

meter - length gram - weight liter - volume kilo- (k) = one thousand (1000) deci- (d) = one-tenth (0.1) centi- (c) = one-hundredth (0.01) milli- (m) = one-thousandth (0.001) micro- (μ or mc) = one-millionth (0.000001) There are approximately 28 g in an ounce and 454 g in a pound. A kilogram (kilo = 1000) equals 1000 g or about 2.2 pounds. To determine your weight in kilograms (kg), divide your weight in pounds by 2.2. 1000 milligrams (mg) equal 1 gram (g) normal blood glucose level for a healthy fasting person is 90 milligrams/deciliter (90 mg/dl). A calorie is the heat energy necessary to raise the temperature of 1 g (1 ml) of water 1° Celsius (C). A calorie is such a small unit of measurement, the amount of energy in food is reported in 1000-calorie units called kilocalories or Calories. Thus, a kilocalorie (kcal) or Calorie is the heat energy needed to raise the temperature of 1000 g (a liter) of water 1° Celsius (C). calories is interchangeable with food energy or simply energy.

Explain the difference between a nutrient requirement and nutrient standard.

-A requirement can be defined as the smallest amount of a nutrient that maintains a defined level of nutritional health. In general, this amount, when consumed daily, prevents the nutrient's deficiency disease. A person's age, sex, general health status, physical activity level, and use of medications and drugs are among the factors that influence his or her nutrient requirements. Many nutrients are stored in the body, including vitamin D and most minerals. Major storage sites include the liver, body fat, and bones. Other nutrients, such as vitamin C and most B vitamins, are not stored by the body. For optimal nutrition, you need to consume enough of those nutrients to maintain storage levels. When your consumption of certain nutrients is more than enough to meet your needs, the body stores the excess. When your intake of a stored nutrient is low or needs for this nutrient become increased, such as during recovery from illness, your body withdraws some from storage. As a result of having optimal levels of stored nutrients, you may recover more quickly and avoid or delay developing deficiencies of those nutrients. -Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) encompass a variety of daily energy and nutrient intake standards that nutrition experts in the United States use as references when making dietary recommendations. DRIs are intended to help people reduce their risk of nutrient deficiencies and excesses, prevent disease, and achieve optimal health.

Describe the risks and benefits of taking dietary supplements.

-Herbal supplements, however, are made from plants that may have toxic parts. -The use of botanical products can also evoke allergic or inflammatory responses that often result in signs and symptoms of skin, sinus, or respiratory illnesses. Herbal teas may contain pollens and other parts of plants that can cause allergies, particularly in people who are sensitive to the herbs or their related species. -In some instances, inflammatory responses, such as asthma attacks, can occur after exposure to echinacea or other plant -Consumers also need to be aware that medicinal herbs may contain substances that affect the usefulness or safety of prescription or over-the-counter medications as well as other herbs. If you use or are thinking about using one or more dietary supplements: 1. Determine whether the supplement is necessary. Some people have medical reasons for taking dietary supplements that contain one or more micronutrients. 2. Discuss your need for the supplement with your physician or a registered dietitian nutritionist before you purchase or use the product. This action is particularly important if you are pregnant, are breastfeeding a baby, or have a chronic medical condition such as diabetes or heart disease. 3. Consult a physician before giving such products to children. Treat dietary supplements as drugs: Store them away from children. 4. Consult a physician as soon as you develop signs and symptoms of a serious illness. Using supplements to treat serious diseases instead of seeking conventional medical care that has proven effectiveness is a risky practice. In these instances, delaying or forgoing useful medical treatment may result in the worsening of the condition or even be life threatening. 5. Be wary of claims made about a supplement's benefits and investigate the claims used to promote the product. 6. Determine hazards associated with taking the supplement. Information about the risks and benefits of various dietary supplements can be found at the Office of Dietary Supplements' website: https://ods.od.nih.gov/. 7. Avoid using dietary supplements as substitutes for nutritious foods. Plant foods provide a wide array of phytochemicals, many of which may have health benefits when taken in their natural forms—foods. When these substances are isolated from plants and manufactured into supplements, they may lose their beneficial properties.

Identify the leading causes of death in the United States and lifestyle factors that contribute to them: See Figure 1.2 on page 4. Which diseases shown here are related to diet? Which are chronic? How does diet relate to COVID-19 infection (p. 6) and deficiency diseases.

-heart disease (23.1%) - diet, excessive alcohol, tobacco -cancer (21.1%) - diet, excessive alcohol, tobacco -accidents (5.9%) - excessive alcohol -chronic lower respiratory infection (5.6%) - tobacco -stroke (5.2%) - diet, excessive alcohol, tobacco -Alzheimer's disease (4.3%) - diet -diabetes (3.0%) - diet -influenza and pneumonia (2.0%) -kidney disease (1.8%) - diet, tobacco -suicide (1.7%) -other causes (26.2%) leading causes of death are heart disease, some cancers, stroke, type 2 diabetes (CHRONIC ALL OF THEM, meaning long term, and difficult to treat) healthy diet = proper immune response to infectious dz (like COVID) -people with healthier diets are less likely to die prematurely from all causes and especially heart dz than people who did not improve their diets (more whole grains and veggies, less salty foods) malnourished individuals, older adults, and ppl with preexisting individuals have higher risk of developing severe COVID-19 requiring hospitalization and may die. people with healthy diet can avoid infectious diseases bc body uses nutrients for maintaining ability to prevent and fight infection (immune functioning). and help recover quicker!

Explain why people should be concerned about their lifestyle and risk factors for chronic diseases.

-heart disease and cancer are chronic. -chronic dz take many years to develop and have complex causes. contribute to leading causes of death -risk factor is personal characteristic that increase chance of developing chronic dz. genetics/family history are risk factors for heart dz. *however, family history of chronic dz does not mean you certainly develop it *other risk factors of health are age, environment, psychological factor, access to health care, lifestyle practices -lifestyle is a person's way of living (diet practices, physical activity habit, use of drugs like tobacco/alcohol, other patterns of behavior). can reduce or increase chance of developing chronic dz or delay it. Poor diet, cigarette smoking, and excess alcohol consumption, for example, are risk factors that increase the likelihood of heart disease, stroke, and many forms of cancer.

Explain how to determine whether a substance is a nutrient, an essential nutrient, a nonnutrient, a phytochemical, or a dietary supplement.

-nutrient is life-sustaining substance in food -About 50 nutrients are dietary essentials. An essential nutrient must be supplied by food because the body does not synthesize the nutrient or make enough to meet its needs. Water is the most essential nutrient. 1) if nutrient is missing from diet, a deficiency disease may result (signs of dz = visible or measurable changes like rash, high BP, failure to grow. symptoms are complaints of health like dizzy, fatigue, headache) 2) when missing nutrient is added to diet, abnormal physiological change is corrected 3) After scientists identify the nutrient's specific roles in the body, they can explain why the abnormalities occurred when the substance was missing from the diet. -nonnutrients are substances that are not nutrients but have healthful benefits -plants make nonnutrients called phytochemicals (caffeine is stimulating). many are antioxidants that reduce risks of heart dz/cancer (protect cells from damage). -not all phytocehmicals have beneficial effects (nicotine in tobacco leaves, ricin in castor beans, oxalic acid in rhubarb leaves are toxic and interfere with absorption of nutrients -dietary supplement (like vitamin pills and herbal extracts) improve health. is a product (excluding tobacco) containing a vitamin, mineral, herb, or other plant product, amino acid, or dietary substance that supplements the diet by increasing total intake. some like vitamin and herbs have beneficial effects on body. some may be harmful.

You do not need to know the different types of Epidemiological Studies (pp. 37-40)

Epidemiology (eh-peh-dee-mee-ah′-luh-jee) is the study of the occurrence, distribution, and causes of health problems in populations. Epidemiologists often use data collected from physical examinations and blood samples of a specific population to determine factors that affect the group's health. In 2017, for example, U.S. public health officials discovered 30 new cases of lead poisoning among a state's 50,000 preschool-aged children (occurrence). Epidemiologists determined that 95% of the affected children lived in a major city of the state; the remaining children lived in smaller cities or towns (distribution). As a result of their investigation, the scientists determined that lead was in the drinking water. This water was from a new source and had not been properly treated. As a result, the water damaged the lead pipes that carried water into older homes, enabling the poisonous mineral to enter the water (cause). Nutritional epidemiologists study how long-term dietary choices influence people's health. By conducting studies that explore differences in dietary practices and disease occurrences among populations, nutritional epidemiologists may learn much about the influence of diet on health. If one group of people is more likely to develop a certain health disorder than another group and the two populations consume very different diets, the scientists can suggest the role that diet plays in this difference. Epidemiological studies cannot establish causation, that is, whether a practice is responsible for an effect. When two different natural events occur simultaneously within a population, it does not necessarily mean they are correlated. A correlation is a relationship between variables

Identify features of healthy eating patterns.

Includes: A variety of vegetables; Fruits, especially whole fruits; Grains, especially whole grains; Fat-free or low-fat dairy products; A variety of protein foods; and Oils. A healthy eating pattern limits: Saturated fats, trans fats, added sugars, sodium, and alcohol Across the lifespan, people should choose a healthy dietary pattern that has an appropriate number of calories to achieve and maintain a healthy body weight, is nutritionally adequate, and reduces the risk of diet-related chronic diseases. A healthy dietary pattern contains: Vegetables of all types, including red, orange, and dark green; beans, peas, and lentils; and starchy vegetables. Fruits, especially whole or cut-up fruit. Grains, at least half of which are whole-grain products. Dairy, especially fat-free or low-fat milk, yogurt, and cheese, and/or fortified soy beverages and yogurt as alternatives. Protein foods, such as lean meats, poultry, and eggs; seafood; dried beans, peas, and lentils; nuts; seeds; and soy products. Oils, especially vegetable oils and oil-rich protein foods, such as seafood and nuts. Less than 10% of total calories from saturated (solid) fat, and less than 10% of total calories from added sugars. Less than 2300 mg of sodium per day.

Describe the nutrition-related goals and objectives of Healthy People 2030.

Since the late 1970s, health promotion and disease prevention have been the general focus of public health efforts in the United States. A primary component of such efforts is developing educational programs that can help people prevent chronic and infectious diseases, birth defects, and other serious health problems. Healthy People 2030 overarching goals encourage Americans to: attain healthy, thriving lives and well-being that are free of preventable disease, disability, injury, and premature death; eliminate health disparities, achieve health equity, and attain health literacy to improve the health and well-being of all; create social, physical, and economic environments that promote attaining the full potential for health and well-being for all; promote healthy development, healthy behaviors, and well-being across all life stages; and engage leadership, key constituents, and the public across multiple sectors to take action and design policies that improve the health and well-being of all. The main nutrition-related goal of Healthy People 2030 is to improve health by promoting healthy eating and making nutritious foods available. To help meet this goal, Healthy People 2030 has several nutrition-related objectives: 03Reduce the proportion of adults who are obese 04Reduce the proportion of obese children and adolescents 06Increase fruit intake of people who are 2 years of age and older 07Increase the intake of vegetables by people who are 2 years of age and older 09Increase whole grain intake by people who are 2 years of age and older 10Reduce intake of added sugars by people who are 2 years of age and older 12Reduce intake of added sugars by people who are 2 years of age and older 13Increase calcium intake by people who are 2 years of age and older

Give examples of foods that contain a lot of empty-calorie and foods that are energy-dense and/or nutrient-dense.

Some foods and beverages, such as bacon, candy, pastries, snack chips, and sugar-sweetened drinks, provide much of their energy from unhealthy solid fats and added sugars (sometimes called "SoFAS"). Such items are described as sources of "empty calories.Alcohol-containing drinks may also be considered a source of empty calories. Eating too many foods and beverages that are high in empty calories may displace more nutritious foods from the diet. a nutrient-dense food supplies more key beneficial nutrients, such as potassium and calcium, in relation to its total calories per serving (protein, fiber, vit a,c,e, and Ca, Fe, K, Mg). a nutrient-dense food has little or no solid fats, added sugars, refined starches, and sodium.13 Broccoli, leafy greens, fat-free milk, orange juice, lean meats, and whole-grain cereals are examples of nutrient-dense foods Energy density describes the energy value of a food in relation to the food's weight. For example, a plain, cake-type, chocolate-frosted doughnut that weighs 3 ounces provides about 400 kcal. Seven medium strawberries also weigh about 3 ounces, but they provide only 28 kcal. A person would have to eat 100 of the strawberries to obtain the same amount of food energy that is in the doughnut (Fig. 1.9). Therefore, the doughnut is an energy-dense food in comparison to the berries. In general, high-fat foods such as doughnuts are energy dense because they are concentrated sources of energy. Most fruits are not energy dense because they contain far more water than fat. Not all energy-dense foods are high in empty calories. Nuts, for example, are high in healthy kinds of fat and, therefore, energy dense. However, nuts are also nutrient dense because they contribute protein, vitamins, minerals, and fiber to diets. Most forms of fiber are classified as carbohydrates.

Identify major federal U.S. food assistance programs and the populations served by each program: Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Nutrition Program (SNAP), Women, Infants, Children (WIC), Child Nutrition Programs listed on page 22. Compare food security to food insecurity.

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) -Low-income individuals and families -Participants use an electronic benefit transfer (debit) card to purchase allowable food items. Commodity Distribution Program -Certain low-income groups, including pregnant women, preschool-age children, and the elderly -In some states, state agencies distribute U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) surplus foods to eligible people. Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) -Low-income pregnant or breastfeeding women, new mothers who are not breastfeeding, infants, and children under 5 years of age who are at nutritional risk -Participants receive checks or vouchers to purchase a variety of nutritious foods, such as milk, cheese, fruits and vegetables, certain cereals, and infant formula, at grocery stores. Nutrition education and support for breastfeeding mothers are also provided. Child Nutrition Programs: School Breakfast Program, National School Lunch Program, Summer Food Service Program, Child and Adult Care Food Program, Special Milk Program -Low-income children of school age Low-income adults (Child and Adult Care Food Program) -Certain schools and child-care facilities receive subsidies from the government to provide free or reduced-price nutritionally balanced meals and snacks. Nutrition Program -Age 60 or older (no income guidelines) -Provides grants for sites to provide nutritious congregate and home-delivered meals Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations -Low-income American Indian or non-Indian households on reservations; members of federally recognized Native American tribes -Distribution of monthly food packages. This program is an alternative to SNAP and provides grants for a nutrition education component. Most American households are food secure, which means the people in those households have access to and can purchase sufficient food to lead healthy, active lives. In 2019, food insecurity was reported in an estimated 10.5% of all households in the United States.29 Food insecurity describes individuals or families who are concerned about running out of food or not having enough money to buy more food. People who are unemployed, work in low-paying jobs, have excessive medical and housing expenses, or are homeless often experience food insecurity. Food insecurity may also affect older adult Americans who live on fixed incomes, especially if they are forced to choose between purchasing nutritious food and buying life-extending medications.

List the six classes of nutrients and identify a major role of each class of nutrient in the body: carbohydrates, fats and other lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals and water. See Table 1.1 on page 6. Compare the nutrient composition of men and women.

chemistry is composition of matter and changes to it. matter takes up space and has mass/weight. food is matter so it contains chemicals, some of which are nutrients: 1) carbohydrates (<1% for men and women) -Source of energy (most forms of carbohydrate) 2) fats and other lipids (16% = men, 25% = women) -Source of energy (fat) -Cellular development, physical growth and development -Regulation of body processes (certain chemical messengers, for example) -Absorption of certain vitamins 3) proteins (16% = men, 13% = women) -Production of structural components, such as cell membranes, and functional components, such as enzymes -Cellular development, growth, and maintenance -Regulation of body processes (certain chemical messengers, for example) -Transportation of many nutrients -Immune function and fluid balance -Source of energy 4) vitamins (so small, % not shown) -Regulation of body processes, including cell metabolism -Maintenance of immune function, production and maintenance of tissues, and protection against agents that can damage cellular components 5) minerals (6% = men, 5% = women) -Regulation of body processes, including fluid balance and metabolism; formation of certain chemical messengers; structural and functional components of various substances and tissues; physical growth, maintenance, and development 6) water (62% = water, 57% = women) -Maintenance of fluid balance, regulation of body temperature, elimination of wastes, and transportation of substances -Participant in many chemical reactions women have less water and protein but more fat than men body uses nutrients for energy, growth/development, regulation of processes, repair/maintenance of cells (cells do not need food, but nutrients in food for metabolism which is the chem processes in cells like chemical rxn, generate energy, make proteins, eliminate waste). physiology is how body functions.