BIOL 5140-Exam 3
Actual Vegetation
-1st step to vegetation mapping -Defined as the current vegetation that is present -Use aerial photography and ground truthing to verify patterns
Ordination Methods
-3D graphical representation -Correlate variables w/ axes: explain why stands located in space -*Association based on dominant species* -*Dominant species are important when determining distributions of stands in space* -*Provide info. about environmental variation*
Braun-Blanquet (relevé) technique
-A European way of sampling and creating differentiated tables (tabular method) 1) Get familiar with area 2) Choose representative stand (subjective) 3) Compile sp. list 4) Do species area curve (min quadrat size) 5) Place one minimal area quadrat (relevé) subjectively 6) Data: sp. abundances/distribution 7) Repeat many times
Pre-Human Vegetation (Potential Vegetation)
-A method used for vegetation mapping -Defined as vegetation prior to Native American or European influence -Determined by using early explorers' notes, witness trees, phytoliths, palynology, coprolite
Tabular Methods
-A way to sample and classify communities -American (dominance)/European (entire flora) Method -Sort species: discard widespread & rare -Shuffle columns to make differentiated table -Want high fidelity/constancy *1. Subjective* *2. Differential species are often NOT dominant* -Ex: Moss sp. on trees
Standing Biomass
-Above ground dry matter per unit area (B) -Ex: desert 100 kg/ha -Ex: rain forest 500,000 kg/ha
Net Primary Productivity
-Amount of energy to biomass per unit area per year -Measured in metric tons per ha/yr (Pn) -B is standing biomass -Lowest: Desert, Tundra -Highest: Mangrove forest, marsh, swamp
Light Gap
-An area in a dense forest where a tree falls down allowing light to reach the forest floor -Allows spp. needing light to establish -Ex: Tropical rain forest
Herbivory
-Animal consuming plant tissue -Generally animal (+), plant (-) -Affects plant distribution
Avalanche Chute
-Area frequently affected by avalanches. -Ex: Grasses and forbs need these to persist in the conifer forest
Tip-up Mounds
-Areas where trees fall down and create a depression in the soil -Provides microhabitats for other spp.
Organismic View
-Association concept created by Clements in 1920s -Along environmental gradients there are widespread species (B), and species that come in, peak and go out (C,D,E). -Comprised of nodes and ecotones -Concept: interdependence strong (if you remove a community member, it would negatively impact other members) -Took subjective samples so its not realistic
Continuum View
-Association concept created by Gleason in 1920s -Spp. respond individualistically to gradients -Nodes don't exist (messy) -Interactions & interdependence weak -Sampling scale/technique matter -Scale: communities change across large spatial scale -Technique: subjective samples vs. random samples
Plant:Insect Defense
-Associational plant defense where a plant uses a mutual relationship with insects -Insect gets home (domatia) or food and plant gets protection -Ex: Tilia americana -Ex: Acacia
Natural Enemies Hypothesis
-Associational plant defense where plant neighbor hosts an enemy of the herbivore. -Ex: Borrhichia frutescens & Iva frutescens parasitoids spill over & attack small galls on Iva
Attractant Decoy Hypothesis
-Associational plant defense where plants grow near a palatable neighbor to deter herbivores. -Ex: clover/alfalfa (trap crop) near strawberries keeps Lygus bugs from eating strawberry plants
Repellant Plant Hypothesis
-Associational plant defense where plants grow near a toxic/spiny/fragrant neighbor to deter herbivores. -Ex: purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) & sweet gale (Myrica gale) Myrica is aromatic and protects Lythrum from herbivorous beetles.
Summary Table
-Biomass, physiogenic complexity, and diversity increases -*Stability: Persistence and resistance increase, but resilience decreases* -Note: leaf orientation, life history strategies
Stress-Tolerant
-CSR Strategy -Allocates maintenance 1. Growth Form: lichens, perennial herbs, shrubs, trees 2. Seed production: small 3. Growth Rate: slow 4. Leaf longevity: long 5. Life span: long 6. Habitat: resources low, disturbance low
Competitive
-CSR strategy -Allocates growth 1. Growth Form: perennials, herbs, shrubs, trees 2. Seed production: small 3. Growth rate: rapid 4. Leaf longevity: short 5. Life span: long 6. Habitat: resources high, disturbance low
Ruderal
-CSR strategy -Allocates rapid reproduction 1. Growth Form: annuals 2. Seed production: large 3. Growth Rate: rapid 4. Leaf longevity: short 5. Life span: short 6. Habitat: resources high, disturbance high
Cyanogenic Glycosides
-Chemical defense that releases HSN (hydrogen cyanide) -Cyanide is emitted when plant tissue is damaged -Found in >2500 plant species
Allelopathy
-Chemical released into the environment that negatively impacts other species -Type of interference competition
Retrogressive Succession
-Climax has fewer species and less biomass 1. Sediment 2. Meadow (Carex) 3. Forest -Ex: Alaska floodplain sphagnum invades and insulates soil and permafrost layer rises. Kills the trees and left with Sphagnum Carex climax. -Ex: Pygmy forest
Nurse Plant Effect
-Commensalism (+,0) -Plant creates microhabitat for seedling of other sp. (+) -Seedling is small, therefore no effect on plant (0) -Ex: Palo Verde Trees provide cool moist habitat and protection from herbivores/frost for Saguaro Cactus seeds -Ex: Juncus roemerianus shading decreases evaporation: lower salinity aids Iva frutescens seedlings
Climax Community
-Community that will persist until a disturbance. (stable/long persistence) -Species regenerate -Composition determined by soil+climate 1. Edaphic: community determined by soil 2. Climatic: community determined by climate -Dynamic equilibrium (no net change)
Intraspecific Competition
-Competition between members of 1 species -Measure via (K-N)/K from logistic growth model -K = resource availability -N = resource use (competition)
Interspecific Competition
-Competition between members of multiple species -Resource availability for sp. 1: K1-N1-alpha N2 -Sp. 1 pop growth rate: dN1/dt=N1rmax1 (K1-N1-alpha N2)/K1 1. If no sp 2: use logistic growth equation for sp 1 2. If lots sp. 2: dN1/dt small
Exploitation Competition
-Competition where the competitor directly goes for the resource -Major for plants
Resistance
-Component of stability -Ability to remain unchanged during stress -Not worth quantifying
Persistence
-Component of stability -How long a community has been unchanged over time
Resilience
-Component of stability -Rate of a plant to return to normal after a disturbance
Interference Competition
-Direct competition -Go for competitor (directly affect the competitor) -Not common plants (except allelopathy)
Succession
-Directional change in sp. composition over time -Time: generally <1000 yr
CSR system for plants (by Grime)
-Emphasizes 3 allocation choices -Economic analogy: Supply, Process, Product, Profit
Subclimax
-Endpoint community with disturbance in place -Ex: If you exclude fire from jack pine (Pinus banksia), white pine (Pinus strobus) invades
Disturbance
-Episodic, random (stochastic: timing unpredictable) events w/large impact -Ex: Fire, windthrow, disease, avalanche, etc.
Dispersion Index (R):
-Equation used in distance method to determine pattern of individuals in a population -0.5*(mean distribution) / (sq. root density) 1. random distribution =1 2. regular distribution >1 3. clumped distribution <1
Nutrient Cycling
-Essential elements cycle -Communities differ in rates, where nutrients are located and how fast they cycle -Ex: Tropical rain forest c in wood (litter decays in weeks) -Ex: Subalpine c in litter/soil (litter decays in 1/2 life 10 yr)
Cluster Analysis
-Expresses similarity of stands graphically (2D) -2 Types: 1. Jaccard's index 2. Sorenson's index -Measure presence or cover ("weighted by cover") -Generate dendrogram to determine CC -Result: associations based on floristic similarity *-Dominant species are influential*
Coprolite
-Fossilized dinosaur poop -Can determine what grasses existed 70 mya
GIS
-Geographic information system -Create layers and integrate information (including vegetation)
Glacial Till
-Ground rock remaining after glacier retreats (no seed bank) 1. Pioneer: mosses/herbs (<15 yr) 2. Alder/willow (45 yr) 3. Spruce/Hemlock forest (200+ yr)
Sclerophyll Scrubland
-Growth form: dominated sclerophyll shrubs -Architecture: 1-2 m high, dense interlocking canopy -Found in 1. Chaparral: Western US -Ex: Arctostaphylos (manzanita) 2. Maquis: Medditerrianian 3. Fynbos: South Africa -Cape floristic region 70% endemic -Ex: Protea spp.
Apparent Competition
-Herbivore effects mimic compotition (danger for removal experiments) -Ex: Herbivore eats A and B -Remove A, herbivore leaves, B prospers 2. Interaction b/w A & B influenced 3rd species -Ex: chalk grassland (England) grass better competitor over forbs, but forbs persist because rabbits eat grass
National Vegetation Classification System (U.S.)
-Hierarchical classification: division is largest, association is smallest -Physiognomy (structure) important in upper levels (order-formation) -Floristics important in lower levels (alliance-association)
Contingency Table Analysis
-How association analysis is documented -Determines the distribution of spp. among quadrats to see if one spp. has an effect on the other -Calculates chi-squared for each pair of spp. and adds columns -Spp. A has greatest influence -Split stands into 2 groups: w/ A & w/o A, repeat -Continue subdivide until total chi-square is small and not larger than any other group -Ex: Salt marsh went from 70 to 8 associations
Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis
-Hypothesis that states that diversity is highest at the intermediate level of disturbance -Low disturbance: dominant spp. out-compete rare spp. -High disturbance: not enough time for spp. to persist in the habitat -Allows for coexistence
Escape Hypothesis
-Hypothesis that suggests that plants use seed dispersal to escape herbivores -Ex: Seed Shadow
Canopy Dominant/Emergent
-Individual trees that grow past the canopy -Ex: Tropical rain forest
K-selected
-K (carrying capacity) -Emphasizes competition ability/efficiency 1. Climate: constant/predictable 2. Seed bank: No 3. Reproduction: Polycarpic
Non-native invasive plants
-Major conservation problem (#1 in national parks) -Ex: privet (ligustrum spp.) -Ex: cogon grass (Imperata cylyndrica)
Leaf Area Index (LAI)
-Measure of the area of leaf (1 side only)/ground area -Deciduous and prairie habitats have similar values of this
Chronosequence
-Monitor succession by looking at similar communities of different ages -Challeges 1. age sites 2. isolate time as factor
Repeat Photography
-Monitor succession via photographs of photo points over time. -Challenging for long term seres -Ex: MacDougal Crater (volcanic), Mexico
Log-normal Model
-Most common pattern of rarity/commonness of plant communities worlwide -Few rare/common spp. most are intermediate -Normal curve on a log scale
Lichen
-Mutalism -Fungus + unicellular photosynthesizer (green alga or cyanobacterium) -Together they can colonize in harsh environments.
Root Grafts
-Mutualism -Root network connects between adjacent trees -160 tree sp., some intergeneric (ex, birch & alder: Betula & Alnus) -Can be parasitism because of disease spread -Radioactive tracers -Roots connected by michorhizzae -Ex: Dutch elm disease (American elm, Ulmus Americana) can spread via roots
Competition
-Mutually adverse interaction between organisms using shared resources in limited supply. -Interaction (-,-)
Principal Components Analysis (PCA)
-Ordination Method that extracts correlations of combinations of variation called components -Separate stands according to imaginary axis (ordination space) -Axes correlate with environmental information -Ex: PCA-1 correlates w/ stand age (open circles=young stands)
Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA)
-Ordination method similar to PCA -Still separates stands in ordination space -Similarities more accurate
Non-Metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS)
-Ordination method that uses stand similarity -Uses CC and raw data to do calculations to determine ordination of stands -Vectors: correlations with environmental variables (shows influences of environmental factors on distribution across space) -Ex: graph: K=soil potassium, BA=basal area, DEN=tree density, NO3=soil nitrate
Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA)
-Ordination method where environmental variables are part of the calculations -Vectors: relate variables and vary in length depending on relationship strength -Ex: graph
Sere
-Particular sequence of communities (succession) -Start with pioneer community and end with climax community
Geometric Model
-Pattern of rarity/commonness -One or two dominant species and others are rare (uncommon) - Found in severe environments: salt marsh (Juncus), boreal conifer forest
Overdispersed/Regular Distribution
-Pattern type with negative association -Distribution > expected
Random Distribution
-Pattern type with no influence
Clumped Distribution
-Pattern type with positive association -Distribution < expected (random)
Energy Conversion Efficiency
-Percent of incoming energy (sunlight) into plant mass -Max of 2% of solar energy is converted into plant biomass -Ex: tropical rain forest < 1.5%
Vegetation
-Physical description of plant cover of an area (forest, grassland, etc.) -Overlaps with association -Mapping: Important to agencies
Pattern
-Placement of individuals in an area. -Plants are important sessile organisms -May reveal ecological relationships 1. Positive: clustering 2. Negative: wide spacing
Overcompensation
-Plant can become more productive after an attack -Ex: Scarlet gilia (Ipomopsis) produces more flowers after damage
American Chestnut
-Plant example for lack of interdependence -Major winter deciduous overstory tree -Important food -Blight introduced in 1904 and wiped out all of the adults by 1950 -Some still sprout from roots -Community composition was not affected by the absence of this tree (proving clements wrong)
Tritrophic interactions
-Plants use predators against herbivores -3 trophic levels involved -Ex: When damaged by caterpillars, corn releases volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) to attract parasitic wasp to lay eggs on the caterpillars and the larvae eat them. -Ex, sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) & wild tobacco (Nicotiana attenuata) 1. Damaged sagebrush leaves releases methyl jasmonate (tobaccco increases defenses) 2. Tobacco by sagebrush takes 60% less damage from herbivores
Xerarch
-Primary succession started with exposed rock, volcanic ash, or sand bar. -Ex: Granite outcrop
Differentiated Table
-Product of releve technique (tabular method) -Has differential species (characteristic of similar stands) -Have hi fidelity: few stands outside association have them -Have hi constancy: most stands within association have them
Directional Succession
-Progressive change, sere pioneer to climax -Ex: secondary succession (piedmont SE US) 1. Annuals (1 yr): crabgrass (Digitaria), horseweed (Conyza) 2. Annuals (2 yr): Aster (Aster), ragweed (Ambrosia) 3. Perennials (3-5 yr): broomsedge (Andropogon) 4. Perennials (5-10 yr): broomsedge, pines, Rubus, Prunus 5. Trees (10-60 yr): Pines, hardwood understory 6. Trees (100+ yr): hardwood overstory (climax)
Remote Sensing
-Provides reflectance info: Ps pigments, water content, canopy structure -Can measure: 1. protein, lignin, cellulose 2. LAI, biomass 3. damage: pollutants (ex. ozone), diseases, pests -Involves ground truthing
Target-Neighborhood Experiment
-Remove competitors (inter and intra) around a specific plant and monitor that plant. -Ex: Creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) & burro bush (Ambrosia dumosa) in Mojave Desert -Found that intraspecific (same spp.) competition had no effect, but interspecific did
Stability
-Response of community to disturbance or stress -3 components: Resilience, resistance, persistence
Equal Effort Sampling
-Sample technique used to measure diversity -Sample at the same time at each location -Ex: count the number of species of 1 day of searching
Species Proportion Sampling
-Sample technique used to measure diversity -Species count/ number of individuals sampled -Ex: number of species/500 trees
Phytoliths
-Silica opal bodies that remain after grass epidermis decomposes -Extract from soil to determine dominant species/genera -Ex: Mediterranean grassland California (low elev.) are now annual grasses (were originally perennial bunchgrasses) from Eurasia
Physiognomy
-Similar growth forms of plants in different regions: recall Raunkiaer system -Architecture: 2D arrangement of plants -Ex: Sclerophyll scrubland growth form same across all regions
Mast Years
-Some trees have this such as pines, oaks, hickories etc. -Causes squirrels to decline during years where this doesn't occur
Keystone
-Species or guild that affects community more than expected based on abundance or biomass -Typically low densities but have a large impact relative to their abundance -Ex: Sea otters keep kelp forests alive
Diversity
-Species richness and species evenness combined. -Problem of rarity: sample size matters
Aspect Dominant
-Species that appear to be dominant than they actually are -Common in savanna (grassland with scattered trees)
Physiognomic Dominant
-Species that are dominant by composition -Importance Value (relative density, cover, frequency) is high
Sociologic Dominant
-Species that controls the reproduction of others -Ex: Ponderosa pine (Fetucsa arizona) reproduction is controlled by the bunch grasses bc of competition (lack of water)
Environmental Stress Gradients
-Stress varies according to environment -Spp. not tolerent in that area vs spp. that are -Ex: Serpentine vs. normal soils -Ex: Granite outcrop: Soils
Egg Mimics
-Structure or colored area that look like butterfly eggs. -Ex: Passiflora (passionflower)
Palynology
-Study of pollen fossils -Extract sediment core from lakes, oceans, bogs -Used to find dominant wind-pollinated species
Secondary Succession
-Succession that starts with established soil -Previous vegetation was destroyed/damaged -Soil, propagules (seeds, stems, roots) remain -Usually 5-10x faster than primary succession -Ex: Mount St. Helens many plants survived from roots and pocket gophers who brought seeds to the surface
Progressive Succession
-Succession where diversity/biomass is built over time until it reaches climax which has greatest complexity/biomass -Glacier Bay, Alaska Muir Glacier retreat (since 1800s)
American Method
-Tabular Method based on dominance (physiognomic) -Calculate importance values (highest) -Ex: Pinus ponderosa/Agropyron spicatum woodland
European Method
-Tabular method based on entire flora -Includes Braun-Blanquet (releve)Technique
Domatia
-Term for home predators -Ex: Tilia americana (basswood) leaf hair tufts are home to predatory mites that eat herbivorous mites -Ex: Acacia spines are home to acacia ants which feed on the fruits, beltain bodies, and extrafloral nectaries. They defend against herbivory from insects and large mammals.
Crypsis Plant Defenses
-Term for looking like what you're not 1. camouflage - look like surroundings -Ex: stone plants (lithops) 2. mimicry - look like another organism -Ex: Passiflora (passionflower) chooses leaf shape to avoid butterfly eggs (egg mimics)
Pyrethroids
-Toxin made up of isoprene units -Monoterpenes (10 carbons) from Crysanthemum -Includes: 1. Commercial insecticides 2. Nepetalactone from capnip
Dendrogram
-Tree diagram showing floristic similarities. -Y axis = "resolving power:" 40 great power, 0 no power, to distinguish diffs. b/w stands -Decide level similarity: 1. CC = 10 (threshold III): 2 associations 2. CC = 20 (threshold II): 7 associations 3. CC = 30 (threshold I): 15 associations
Behavioral
-Type of animal counter defense -Organisms choose to feed selectively to avoid plant defenses -Mass attack: multiple individuals attack one plant -Geophagy: consuming soil -Ex: Bursera have a squirt gun with toxins and beetle bites the vein to depressurize and drain toxins -Ex: Many pine bark beetles attack the resin canals all at once to depressurize resin system
Associational
-Type of animal counter-defense that includes microbial symbiosis -Ciliates/bacteria in gut -Stomach chamber or cecum (ruminant) -Leaf cutter ants: produce fungal gardens and eat the fungus
Chemical/Elemental
-Type of animal counter-defense that uses mixed function oxidases (MFO's) that detoxify plant chemicals -Evolve to build chemical tolerance -Herbivore can sequester (store chemicals) after building a tolerance over time -Ex: Milkweed (Asclepias) produce cardiac glycosides that monarch butterflies use against predators -Ex: Melanotrichus boydi eat Streptanthus polygaloides (Ni hyperaccumulator) and uses the Ni against predators (crab spiders)
Mechanical
-Type of counter-defense that animals use to tear up or pierce plant -Hypsodont teeth: high crowned tooth (horse) -Ever-growing teeth (beaver) -Insect mandible: piercing and sucking mouth parts
Parasitism
-Type of herbivory where herbivores only eat some part of a plant -Ex: folivores (leaf eaters) -Ex: aphids (tap into tissues to get to pholem)
Predation
-Type of herbivory where the plant is killed (body eaten) -Ex: granivores: finches, harvester ant, kangaroo rat
Cyclic Succession
-Type of succession that has no climax -Ex: NE US deciduous forest 1. Birch colonize (Betula) 2. Replaced by sugar maple (Acer saccharum) 3. Replaced by beech (Fagus grandifolia) -Ex: Larrea tridentata (creosote bush) & Opuntia leptocaulis (pencil cactus)
DeWit Replacement Series
-Useful way to measure competition for plants -Keeps density constant: 1. Vary proportions of 2 spp. and input ratios 2. After growing/competing, determine output ratios -Graph input & output ratios (log scale) -Points can be above/below the stability line (outcompetes other spp.) -If A or B is always a better competitor (experimental line), it will eventually eliminate the other species -Results: 1. m=1 above, A>B 2. m=1 below, A<B 3. m<1 (stable mixture): Lo input ratios A wins: hi input ratios B wins (happy coexistence) 4. m>1 (winning depends on starting ratios): Lo input ratios B wins: hi input ratios A wins
Association Analysis
-Uses differential species (influence on other spp.) -Uses contingency table analysis to document (chi-squared) -*associations defined by presence/absence of ecologically dominant (influential) species*
Predator Satiation
-When a plant produces so many seeds so its predators cant eat them all -Ex: Phyllostachys bambusoides blooms every 120 yrs (not cued by environment) seeds large/edible caused pandas to starve and pop to decline -Ex: Arundinaria gigantea flowers irregularly and produces huge seeds clonal repro
Wave Regeneration
-When forests regenerate along disturbed edges -Creates a gap opening in the canopy allowing the wind to reach the trees and damages the edge trees during the winter and summer -New trees regenerate in this area and waves move 1-3 m/yr creating age diversity -Ex: Balsam fir (Albies balsamea)
Associational Susceptibility
-When two plant neighbors hosts/attracts herbivore -Leads to herbivore spillover -Ex: Populus (cottonwood) & Acer negundo (box elder) both attract herbivorous moth (moth prefers Acer) so Populus under Acer have more moth larvae than Populus under Populus
Herbivore Spillover
-Where a plant neighbor hosts a herbivore and over population disperses to nearby plants. -Leads to more damage than expected
Association
-a formal/precise unit of basic plant classification -composed of stands -taxonomic analogy: species
Stand
-a particular member of an association -taxonomic analogy: individuals
Guilds
-groups of species with similar functions -community will only operate properly if there are individuals with different skills (carnivores, herbivores, etc.)
Assembly Rules
-interactions determine which species occur -operates on guilds (group of spp. with similar functions)
Maintenance
-making tissues tough or resistant -Ex: drought resistant leaves
Strategy
-pattern of resource allocation (time and space) to life functions -also called life history pattern
Polycarpic
-plants that reproduce repeatedly (most plants) -Bur oak: giant acorns (perennial)
r-selected
-r max (intrinsic rate of natural increase) -Emphasizes reproduction 1. Climate: variable, unpredictable 2. Seed bank: yes 3. Reproduction: Monocarpic
Root:shoot Ratio
-the allocation of roots vs shoots (documented by drying/weighing) -shoots: compete for light -roots: compete for water/nutrients
Ecotone
-when associations overlap (mix species 2 associations) -blend of two communities
Monocarpic
1 reproductive event at the end of life (big bang reproduction)
Lotka-Volterra Equations (interspecific competition):
1. Equation for sp.1: dN1/dt = N1*r1(max)*(K-N1-α*N2)/K1 -α = competition coefficient; effect of sp. 2 on sp. 1 2. Equation for sp. 2: dN2/dt = N2*r2(max)*(K2-N2-β*N1)/K2 -β = competition coefficient; effect of sp. 1 on sp. 2 *α ≠ β competition is asymmetric*
Plant Chemical Defenses
1. Organic defenses: a) indigestible carbohydrates: cellulose, lignin b) toxins: small molecule, low dose -ex: alkaloids (caffeine, codeine, cocaine) -ex: terpines/terpenoids (pyrethroids) -ex: cyanogenic glycosides: (release HCN) c) digestibility reducers: effect is dose-dependent; binds proteins -ex: tannins (polyphenols) 2. Elemental defenses (soil): a) phytoliths: cell walls in grasses produces silicone (causes silicosis, wears teeth) b) metal hyperaccumulation -ex: Senecio coronatus (high Ni) on serpintine soils
Associational Plant Defenses
1. Plant:Insect Defense 2. Repellent Plant Hypothesis (plant: plant) 3. Attractant Decoy Hypothesis (plant:plant) 4. Natural Enemies Hypothesis
Allelopathy Examples
1. Salvia sp. (sage): leaves release cineole and camphor which inhibit germination and growth of annuals; bare zones 2. J. nigra (black walnut): roots release juglone which inhibits other species roots from growing 3. C. ericoides (beach rosemary): releases ceratiolin that breaks down substances and inhibits growth of herbs 4. C. maculosa (knapweed): (invasive exotic) releases catechin which poisons roots of other plants, killing them.
Plant Physical Defenses
1. pointy things (thorn, spine, prickle) 2. trichomes (hairs) - sharp or sticky 3. sharp cells - astrosclerids
Seral Community
Community established during succession (not start or finish).
Ground Truthing
Correlating remote sensing technique to actual ground measurements of plants.
Species Evenness
Distribution of individuals among species.
1. wild oats (Avena) -Did a greenhouse experiment and got stable mixture (coexisting) -Out in the field, >90% ended up with 1 spp. (outcompeting)
Give a plant example of how DeWit Replacement Series is helpful.
1. similar floristic make-up (same species) 2. uniform physiognomy: physical structure (growth form/space) of the plant community in that area 3. consistent kind of habitat
How are stands clumped together into associations? (3)
Coefficient of Community (CC)
How close composition is between samples in a cluster analysis.
1) Isolate toxin (lab) 2) Demonstrate effects 3) Demonstrate effects in field by making sure toxin is active and in sufficient concentration.
How is allelopathy proven (3)?(hard to prove because of third step)
1. Rainwater leaches bark and leaves 2. volatiles released 3. root exudates 4. decay
In what four ways are plants considered leaky?
1. Resistance: plant defenses 2. Tolerance: outgrow herbivore damage
In what two ways can plants handle herbivory?
Witness Trees
Land surveys using large trees as markers.
Species Richness
Number of different species represented in an area.
Permafrost
Permanently frozen soil
Preformed Inducible Defense
Plant defense that is activated only when attacked (cyanogenic glycosides, etc)
Constitutive Defense
Plant defense that is always present (chemical, spines, etc).
Inducible Defense
Plant defense that is manufactured only when attacked.
1. Growth 2. Reproduction 3. Maintenance
Plants allocate resources towards what three things?
Non-native
Plants that are outside pre-industrial era range.
Invasive
Plants that grow in undisturbed/lightly disturbed habitats and have a negative impact on natives.
Facilitation
Positive effect of competition interactions (mutualism or commensalism).
Hydrarch
Primary succession with inundated land (wet area) at start.
Removal Experiment
Remove competitor and study response of the other competitor.
Pioneer Community
Starting community of sere.
Primary Succession
Succession that starts by creating new soil.
Weed
Term for plants that grow where we don't want them.
False: They still do photosynthesis, but get nutrients from prey.
True or False: Carnivorous plants get energy from their prey.
-False, can include commensalism (+, 0), mutalism (+,+), predation (+,-)
True or False: Herbivory is always negative.
1. Shed Leaves 2. Abort Fruits: yucca
What are some examples of behavioral plant defenses (phenology)?
1. Attraction 2. Capture 3. Digestion 4. Absorption *Must have at least 3 to be considered carnivorous plant*
What are the 4 adaptations for carnivorous plants?
1. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) 2. Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) 3. Nonmetric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) 4. Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA)
What are the 4 ordination methods?
1. Physical 2. Chemical 3. Behavioral 4. Crypsis (camouflage/mimicry) 5. Associational
What are the 5 types of plant defenses (resistance)?
1. pollination (large display) -Swertia radiata (monument plant) 80% pollinators -Agave 2. predator satiation -Phyllostachys bambusoides -Arundinaria gigantea
What are the advantages plants have for being monocarpic (1 reproductive event at the end of life) and what are some examples?
1. Pitfall trap -Ex: Sarracenia (NA) 2. Lobster Trap - easy entry, difficult exit (maze) -Ex: Genlisea attract protists with chemicals (Africa/SA) 3. Flypaper Trap - sticky trichomes -Ex: Drosera (sundews) (NA) -Ex: Pinguicula (butterworts) 4. Steel Trap - leghold trap -Ex: Dionaea (venus flytrap) (N/S Carolina) 5. Bladder Trap - pressurized trap -Ex: Utricularia (bladderworts) (N/S America and Australia)
What are the five different types of traps (modified leaves) that carnivorous plants have to capture prey? What are some examples of each?
1) Tabular methods 2) Cluster analysis 3) Association analysis 4) Ordination methods
What are the four major approaches to classify communities (determine if a stand is considered an association)?
1) Mechanical 2) Chemical 3) Associational 4) Behavioral
What are the four types of animal counter-defenses?
1. Competitive 2. Ruderal 3. Stress-tolerant
What are the three main strategies of plants according to the CSR system?
1. Eat insect herbivores 2. Defend plant 3. Clear below shrub: removes competitors, protects from fire
What are the three major benefits that plants get from housing ants?
1. Organismic view (Clements, 1920s) 2. Continuum View (Gleason, 1920s)
What are the two associations concepts?
1. Low herbivory stimulates productivity -Grasses: remove less productive leaves and reduces self-shading -Nutrients return to soil fast 2. Overcompensation -*r-selected plants* 3. Herbivore saliva can stimulate growth -Ex: Wasps and corn -Ex: Goats & Combretum (Africa)
What are three examples of mutalistic herbivory?
1. Nitrogen fixers -Trifolium repens -Rubus sp. -Morella cerifera -Alnus serrulata 2. Generalists parasites/predators -Cuscuta 3. Some non-native invasive weeds -Ligustrum
What are three examples of plant keystone species?
1. Diamorpha smallii: annual herb 2. Cladonia subtenuis: lichen 3. Polystricum commune: bryophyte
What are three examples using triangle diagrams?
1. Vegetative reproduction 2. Early age reproduction 3. No seed dormancy
What are three life history traits of woody invasive plants?
1) Herbivores 2) Disturbance 3) Phenology
What are three major factors that affect competition?
1. clumped 2. overdispersed/regular 3. random
What are three types of population patterns?
1. Repeat Photography: observations over time 2. Chronosequence 3. Summary Table
What are three ways we can study succession?
1. Simpson's Index (C) 2. Shannon-Wiener Index (H range 0 to 7)
What are two indices that can measure diversity?
1. Energy (light): above ground 2. Water: soil 3. Nutrients: mostly in soil 4. Mutualists: pollinators, seed disperses, etc. *not CO2*
What four things do plants compete for?
-good competitor of soil resources -occurs in areas where there is poor soil and high light (serpentine)
What happens if a plant has a high root:shoot ratio?
-good competitor of light -occurs in areas where there is rich soil and a lot of above ground competition (ag)
What happens if a plant has a low root:shoot ratio?
Benefit: flexible Drawback: very relative
What is one benefit and drawback of the r/K system?
1. quadrat method - useful for two spp -Measure presence/absence in each quadrat using a contingency table (chi-square) 2. distance method - pattern of individuals -measure distance between individuals -calculate mean distance -measure density in area use dispersion index (R)
What two methods are used to determine pattern and how?
Bottom-up Control
When plants influence herbivores (plant defenses).
Top-down Control
When predators control herbivores.
-trade-offs: seed size/seed dispersal/seedling establishment -Ex: many small vs few large seeds, roots/shoots
Why do strategies differ?
Growth
addition of modules (roots, stems, leaves)
Node
characteristic species peak in an association
Allocation
how resources are partitioned among processes to meet needs
Biennials
plants that live 2 years and flower the second year
Annuals
plants that live 4-9 months and die after flowering
Perennials
plants that live many years
Reproduction
production of flowers or seeds