Biology exam 1

B. What is the appendix, where do you find it and does it have a function?

Appendix- small fingerlike pouch>> extends from cecum. It has no known digestive function

C. What are the molecules that can be absorbed into the intestine?

Proteins, lipids, fats

A. Pharynx - Where is this located?

The pharynx makes up the part of the throat situated immediately behind the nasal cavity, behind the mouth and above the esophagus and larynx. The human pharynx is conventionally divided into three sections: the nasopharynx, the oropharynx and the laryngopharynx

F. Explain how phospholipids are used to create a cell membrane.

The plasma membrane forms a barrier between the cytoplasm and the environment outside the cell. ... The plasma membrane is primarily composed of phospholipids arranged in a bilayer, with the hydrophobic tails on the interior of the membrane, and the hydrophilic heads pointing outwards

A. Why are proteins important in our diet? B. Does your body use proteins as a primary food source if diet is adequate? Explain.

A) Amino acids are unded to build new myscle, and convert other biological molecules. They're building blocks B) ?

B. Name the four main types of tissues found in the body.

- Epithelial tissue Sheets of cells that line/convert various surfaces and body cavities Often smooth to reduce friction Some are highly specialized>> absorb h2o and nutrients across intestines in blood>> excrete waste products across tubules of kidneys to eliminate unneeded/toxic materials in urine Classified types are squamous, cuboidal, and columnar - Single layer> simple - Multiple layers> stratified - Connective tissue Supports softer organs of the body against gravity and connects parts together>> stores fat and produces cells of blood>> most consist of nonliving extracellular material in matrix Consists of collagen fibers (made of protein>> confer strength, slightly flexible), elastic fibers (strength w/o breaking), or reticular fibers (interconnect w/ each other>> internal structural framework) - 4 kinds are loose connective tissue (surrounds internal organs, muscles and blood vessels>> flexible but less strength), dense connective tissue (found in tendons, ligaments, and lower layers of skin>> more collagen fibers>> strongest when pulled), elastic connective tissue (surrounds organs that have to shape/size regularly>> stretch, recoil easily), reticular connective tissue (serves as internal framework of some organs>> thin, branched reticular fibers) -Muscle tissue Consists of cells that are specialized to shorten/contract in movement of some kind Composed of muscle fibers The three types are: -Skeletal muscle tissue: connects to tendons, which attach to bones>> when they contract, cause body parts move>> voluntary -Cardiac muscle tissue: only found in heart>> cells are parallel to each other>> gap junctions>> involuntary -Smooth muscle tissue: surrounds hollow organs and tubes, plus blood vessels, digestive tract, uterus and bladder>> aligned parallel to each other>> gap junctions>> involuntary Nervous tissue Consist primarily of cells that are specialized for generating and transmitting electrical impulses through body>> rapid communication network for body>> brain, spinal cord and nerves Consist of neurons (nervous system tissue cells that generate and submit electrical impulses) Three parts are cell body, dendrites (receive signals from neurons), and axon (submits electrical impulses) Also glial cells>> doesn't submit electrical impulses>> surround/protect neuron and supplying them with nutrients

A. Name and describe the six types of special connective tissues we discussed in class and where in the body you would find them. F

- fibrous connective tissue- connect various body parts, providing strength, support and flexibility>> consist of fibers (collagen, elastic and reticular), and cells (fibroblasts, fat cells, mast cells and white blood cells) -There are subclasses, where there is areolar connective tissue (most commonly) found in internal organs, muscles, and blood vessels>> lots of flexibility and some strength -Also dense connective tissue, found in tendons, ligaments, and lower layers of skin, with more collagen>> strongest connective tissue when pulled Loose connective tissue: They're mostly collagen and elastin fibers in no particular pattern; more ground substance>>flexible but moderately strong surrounds internal organs, muscles, and blood vessels>> very flexible but less strength Cartilage Primarily collagen fibers in a ground substance containing lots of water>> serves as flexible internal framework Found in embryonic tissue that becomes bone. Also nose, vertebral disks and lining of joint cavities Bone Primarily hard material deposits of calcium and phosphate>> maintains shape and resists compression Forms the skeleton Adipose tissue Primarily adipocytes cells filled with fat deposits>> stores energy (fat) Under skin, around some internal organs Blood Red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma>> transports materials and assists in defense mechanism Within cardiovascular system

6. List the organ systems described in class. Give a brief description of the function of each system.

-Integumentary system: protects from injury, infection and dehydration, temp control, receives sensory input from outside Nervous system- detects external/internal stimuli, controls/coordinates rapid responses to stimuli integrates activities from other organ systems Skeletal system- protects, supports, anchors body parts, provides structural framework for movement, produces blood cells, stores minerals Muscle system- provides movement, generates heat Digestive system- provides body w/ water and nutrients, liver synthesizes proteins and lips and inactivates many chemicals Endocrine system- produces hormones that regulate body functions, participates w/ nervous system to integrate functions Circulatory system- transports materials from/in cells, participates in maintenance of body temp and mechanism of defense against disease/injury Lymphatic system- returns excess tissue fluid to circulatory system, general specific defense responses Respiratory system- exchange gases, between air and blood, vocalization Urinary system- maintain volume/composition of body fluid/ excrete waste products Reproductive system- produce eggs, nurturing fertilized embryo, produce sperm, delivery of sperm to female

Describe the structure of fibrous connective tissues.

-Loose connective tissue- mostly collagen and elastin fibers in no particular pattern; more ground substance. They're flexible but moderately strong and surrounds internal organs, muscle, and blood vessels -Dense connective tissue- mostly collagen in a parallel arrangement of fibers; less ground substance. They're strong and in tendons, ligaments, and lower layers of skin Elastic connective tissue- high proportion of flexible fibers>> stretches/recoils easily>> surrounds hollow organs that change shape/size regularly -Reticular connective tissue- mostly thin, interconnecting fibers of collagen. Serves as a flexible internal framework and in soft organs like the liver, spleen, tonsils and lymph glands

How many electrons are in the outer electron shell of an atom? What about these electron shells makes an atom stable or unstable? How is this related to forming chemical bonds?

1st shell: 2 electrons, 2nd shell: 8, 3rd shell:8 Atomic stability: The stability of atoms depends on whether or not their outermost shell is filled with electrons. If the outer shell is filled, the atom is stable. Atoms with unfilled outer shells are unstable, and will usually form chemical bonds with other atoms to achieve stability. The strongest chemical bonds are covalent (stable) to weak (polar)

C. What is the approximate pH of gastric juice?

2

2. Be able to read an article or part of an article critically. A. Be able to distinguish between anecdotes and evidence. B. Be able to determine whether the author is an expert and if the author has any conflicts of interest. C. Be able to determine the most reliable source of scientific information.

A) Anecdote and evidence Anecdotal evidence- takes the form of a testimonial or short unverified report. It doesn't imply scientific/statistical certainty. It can't be generalized to the larger population because it isn't based on empirical evidence. Advertising agencies usually use it. Evidence is usually verified, has replicated statistical certainty, generalized to larger population and used by experts usually. It's much for certain. It would be with a person and in a scientific study b) What are the qualifications of the speaker? Is speaker being paid? Why does it matter? c) scientific website and books from library

A. Name and describe the four basic steps involved in cellular respiration. B. Where in the cell does each step of cellular respiration take place?

A) Cellular repiration takes place in the mitochodrion. The 3 phases of cellular respiration are Glycolysis(Fermentation), Krebs Cycle, and Electron Transport. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm. The Krebs cycle and electron transport takes place in the mitochondria.

2. For the following organelles of the animal cell, describe their function(s): A. plasma/cell membrane, B. nucleus (chromosomes, chromatin, nuclear envelope) C. ribosomes

A) Plasma membrane- all cells are surrounded by an outer membrane- encloses materials inside cell Mostly made of water and ions, as well as enzymes and other structures B) The center of a cell, contains most of cell's genetic materials>> DNA controls cellular functions Chromosomes- a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes Chromatin- he material of which the chromosomes of organisms other than bacteria (i.e., eukaryotes) are composed. It consists of protein, RNA, and DNA. Nuclear envelope- made up of two lipid bilayer membranes which surrounds the nucleus, and in eukaryotic cells it encases the genetic material. c) Composed of RNA and certain proteins in cytoplasm and attached to endoplasmic reticulum Responsible for making specific proteins into folds of ER Packed in membrane-bound vesicles, transported to cell membrane secretes

A. What is the form of energy that cells can use? Describe the structure of this molecule. How come they can't use glucose, lipids or amino acids directly?

ATP ATP> ADP+Pi+energy It's because there are many processes

Give some examples of acidic and basic substances.

Acidic: low PH: lemons, tomato juice, coffee Basic substances: high PH: ammonia, ocean, milk of magnesia

A. What does the pH scale measure?

Acidity

1. A. Name the three tenets of the cell theory.

All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms. Cells arise from pre-existing cells.

8. A. What is the monomer group for proteins?

Amino acids

B. Name some functions of lipids in living organisms

An energy source triglycerides are formed in adipose (fat tissue) and important source of stored energy Phospholipids prime structural component of cell membranes Steroids help make cholesterol, which is another structural component of animal cell membranes and source of several hormones

B. Saliva contains the enzyme salivary amylase. What does this enzyme do? C. What is another purpose of saliva?

B) It digests carbohydrates and starches of sugars c) To break down starches into carbs

B. How does the cell convert the energy in glucose, lipids and amino acids into this molecule?

B/c first, glycolysis breaks sugar, which makes 2 ATP and NAPH. Then citric acid cucle, which makes 2 ATP>> they convert fatty acids and amino acids into cellular respiration. Then high energy electrons pass to O2 forming water, and enegry released from them carry is used for ATP synthesis

Describe some characteristics of carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates have a backbone of carbon atoms with hydrogen and water Costs of carbon, hydrogen and water in a 1-2-1 ration Most common ⅚ carbon atoms arranged in numbered ring Most important carbs: ribose, deoxyribose, glucose and fructose>>

A. For each macromolecule (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids) state where/how its chemical digestion takes place.

Carbohydrates- Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and the duodenum through the action of three main enzymes: pepsin, secreted by the stomach, and trypsin and chymotrypsin, secreted by the pancreas. During carbohydrate digestion the bonds between glucose molecules are broken by salivary and pancreatic amylase. Proteins- Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and the duodenum through the action of three main enzymes: pepsin, secreted by the stomach, and trypsin and chymotrypsin, secreted by the pancreas. During carbohydrate digestion the bonds between glucose molecules are broken by salivary and pancreatic amylase. Lipids- The digestion of certain fats begins in the mouth, where short-chain lipids break down into diglycerides because of lingual lipase. The fat present in the small intestine stimulates the release of lipase from the pancreas, and bile from the liver enables the breakdown of fats into fatty acids.

C. Describe the three types of cell junctions and the type of tissue where they would be found. Give an example of one tissue for each.

Cell junctions -Tight junctions: seal plasma membranes of adjacent cells so tightly that nothing can pass between them>> important with epithelial layers that must control movement of substances in/out of body -Adhesion junction: looser in structure>> protein filaments of adhesion junctions allow for some movement so that tissue can bend and stretch -Gap junction: connecting channels that permit movement of cans in water between 2 adjacent cells

. A. Describe nervous tissue and its function.

Consist primarily of cells that are specialized for generating and transmitting electrical impulses through body>> rapid communication network for body>> brain, spinal cord, and nerves

What is a molecule? How is it held together?

Consists of a stable association between two/more atoms Because they're bonded together

Distinguish between correlation and causation, including when reading a graph.

Correlation- a close pattern or relationship ex) close correlation between ice cream sales and drowning>> when ice cream sales go up, so does drowning. It doesn't mean that they cause eachother but because of a third factor, where the weather is warmer Although a correlation doesn't necessarily cause prove causation, it can be a strong hint that you may have found the true cause. Overall, correlation doesn't mean there's a causation, even though it might possible have a cause

A. What are the three types of chemical bonds?

Covalent Ionic Hydrogen

How is each type of bond formed?

Covalent: electron sharing Ionic: electron transfer Hydrogen: attracted between partial charges on polar molecules

hat is the process called that allows this to happen?

Dehydration synthesis- macromolecules are built (synthesized) within cell itself>>when smaller molecules (subunits) are joined by covalent bonds

B. What are the two main functions of the small intestine?

Digestion- partially digest proteins to smaller peptides w/ acids and pepsin>> protein digestion continues to small intestine>> will diges carbs and lipids and proteins which involves nuetralizing gastric juice and adding digestion enzymes Absorption- protein, carb and lipids are broken to single amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids and glycerol>> transported across mucosol cells into blood

E. golgi complex F. lysosomes G. vesicles (peroxisomes, endocytic, secretory) H. mitochondria I. flagella, cilia J. cytoskeleton

E) Cell's refining, packaging and shipping center It contains enzymes to refine products of ER into final form F) Contain powerful digestive enzymes>> fuse w/ endocytic vesicles within enzymes, digesting bacteria and other objects G) Peroxisomes- contain enzyme>> both produced by golgi apparatus Endocytic- enclose bacteria and raw materials from extracellular environment Secretory- contain products destined from export from the cell>> they migrate to plasma membrane and release contents outside cell>> derive from golgi apparatus membrane H) Organelles responsible for providing most of the usable energy>> often called power plant of cell They manufacture ATP Some cells store energy in raw form>> aren't enclosed Store energy as lips (fat) Fat cells are specialized that they can't be reduced, only grow/shrink Others store energy in glycogen granule>> muscle cells rely on them b/c ATP can be produced more quickly I) Flagella- longer, extend from surface Cilia- hair-like J) Consists of loosely structured network of fibers called microtubules and microfilaments>> both composed of protein>> attached to glycoproteins It forms the framework for soft plasma membrane

A. Absorption - how do villi aid with absorption?

Each villus has many microvilli. So, it's almost like the villi are fingers protruding from the small intestine wall, and microvilli are hairs on those fingers. Both work to increase surface area so more nutrients can be absorbed

C.Show/describe where fat products are absorbed and where amino acids/monosaccharides are absorbed.

Fat digestion: absorbed in stomach- small intestine Amino acids: small intesine

A. Stomach - what are two different functions of the stomach.

Food storage- (until it can be digested and stored) Digestion (digest proteins, using strong acid and protein digesting enzymes>> also kill bacteria>> mix sementians with food, assist in mechically breaking down food and push mixture into small int.

. Where is the energy stored in this "cellular energy" molecule? How is it released?

Glucose and other sugars are cell food - they are the power source for cell activities in almost all living things. When glucose is stored as glycogen or taken in as starch, it must be broken down into individual molecules before cells are able to use it. Chemical energy is stored in the bonds of sugars.Cellular Respiration - organic molecules are broken down to release energy for use by the cell.

E. What are the types of complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides) learned in class? Briefly tell about each: What are they made of? What are they used for? Are they found in animals or plants?

Glycogen- storage polysaccharide (animals) Starch- storage (plants) cellulose= fiber>> structural support (plants)

B. Folded deep in the wall of the stomach are gastric glands. What are the three substances produced by these glands and what are their functions?

Hydrochloric acid- Lowers pH to around 2 Pepsin- protein-digesting enzyme Water

What is the process called that allows this to happen?

Hydrolysis- breakdown of large molecules into smaller units>> requires a molecule of water and release of stored energy. The subunits come from food you eat

D. What is the composition of feces?

Indigestible material and bacteria

B. Where is the gallbladder located and what does it do?

It concentrates bile by memoring most of water and storing concentrated bile until its needed>> after meal, bile is secreted into small intestine via bleduct Location:beneath liver

A. Small Intestine - give approximate length and diameter.

It digests food

E. What is meant by aerobic respiration? Which parts of cellular respiration can't happen without oxygen?

It means it doesn't need oxygen Only glycolysis

A. What are the four main groups of organic compounds or macromolecules studied in class?

Lipids Nucleic acids Carbohydrates Proteins

A. Name the molecules your body needs for proper nutrition and give the caloric value for each

Lipids- 9.4 Carboydrates- 4 Porteins- 4

. A. Name and describe the important properties of water as learned in class.

Liquid is a liquid at room temp Water can absorb and hold heat energy Water participates in essential chemical reactions Water helps regulate body temp Water is a solvent

D. What type(s) of digestion occurs in the mouth (mechanical/chemical)? Explain

Mechanical and chemical>> teeth/tongue and enzymes in saliva

What is the monomer group for a carbohydrate?

Monosaccharide

A. Mouth/Oral Cavity - name and explain the function(s) of each of the following structures: teeth, tongue, salivary glands.

Mouth- chew food, taste Teeth- there are sharp edge (cut food) teeth, pointed canines (tear), flat surfaces and premolars and molars ?(grind and crush food) Tongue- positions food over teeth and smashes it over roof of mouth. It consist of skeletal muscle enclosed in mucous glands Salivory glands- produce saliva>> parotid glands in back of jaw

Name and briefly explain the five stages of food processing as discussed in class.

Movement- moving food through body Secretion- adding chemical to food to help w/ digestion Digestion- when food is broken into smaller pieces Absorption- small pieces are absorbed into blood to be transported Elimination- gets rid of rest of food

Esophagus - describe its structure and function.

Moves food from pharynx to stomach The esophagus is a muscular tube connecting the throat (pharynx) with the stomach. The esophagus is about 8 inches long, and is lined by moist pink tissue called mucosa. The esophagus runs behind the windpipe (trachea) and heart, and in front of the spine

B. What is the monomer unit for nucleic acids?

Nucleotides

A. Why do we need to breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide?

Oxygen for ATP b/c of electrong transport chain Breathe out carbon dioxide This is important because if we couldn't remove carbon dioxide from our blood, it would take up all the carrying capacity of our blood and we wouldn't be able to get oxygen to the rest of our body.

E. What is denaturation and how can this occur?

Permanent disruption of protein structure, leading to loss of biological function Can be damaged by high temp/changes in pH Denaturation disrupts the normal alpha-helix and beta sheets in a protein and uncoils it into a random shape. Denaturation occurs because the bonding interactions responsible for the secondary structure (hydrogen bonds to amides) and tertiary structure are disrupted

C. What are the four levels of protein structure? Briefly explain/describe and be able to recognize the four different levels.

Priming structure- represented by its amino acids sequence>>indicated by 3 letter code Secondary structure- how chain of amino acids are orcented in space>> alpha helix (right hand spiral that's stabilized by hydrogen bonds between amino acid internals)>> beta sheet- ribbon of stabilized hydrogen bonds Tertiary structure- how the proteins twist and fold to form 3D shape>> shape depends on sequence of amino acids bc locations of polar and changed groups determine location Quaternary structure- refers to how many polypeptide chains make up protein and associate w/ each other

Why is a constant pH important for maintaining homeostasis? (think especially about how the levels of protein structure are formed)

Regulation of body fluid pH is one of the most important physiological functions of homeostasis, because activity of most chemical reactions via enzyme proteins is dependent on fluid pH. ... Proton transport across the plasma membrane of muscle cells is important for maintaining the appropriate intracellular pH

endoplasmic reticulum (R.E.R., S.E.R)

S.E.R Synthesizes macromolecules and then proteins>> mostly lipids and hormones>> numerous enzymes facilitate chemical reactions for macromolecule synthesis Also responsible for packaging proteins and lipids for delivery to golgi apparatus R.E.R. Synthesizes most of the chemical compounds made by cell Is extensively folded surrounded by fluid-filled space>> dotted w/ ribosomes Involved in synthesis of proteins from presence of ribosomes>> will go to smooth ER

4. Name and describe the three types of muscle tissues and where in the body you would find them and what their main function is.

Skeletal muscle tissue- connects to tendons, which attach to bones>> when they contract, causes body parts to move>> voluntary muscle. They're activated only by nerves They're found in muscle around bones Cardiac muscle tissue- cells are parallel to each other>> are involuntary>> gap junctions. It helps pump blood throughout body Only found in heart Smooth muscle tissue- involuntary>>forms the supporting tissue of blood vessels and hollow internal organs surrounds hollow organs and tubles, plus blood vessels

1. A. What is an atom? .

Smallest unit of any particle that still retains physical and chemical properties of that element>> smallest functional unit of matter Central core is a nucleus in an atom>> made of protons and neutron

D. Choose one mineral and know what foods it is found in, what it does in the body and what happens if you don't get enough of it.

Sodium Celery, beets, milk Eating salt raises the amount of sodium in your bloodstream and wrecks the delicate balance, reducing the ability of your kidneys to remove the water. The result is a higher blood pressure due to the extra fluid and extra strain on the delicate blood vessels leading to the kidneys. Hyponatremia or low sodium blood levels may result from excess fluid in the body relative to a normal amount of sodium, or it may be due to a loss of sodium and body fluid caused by chronic conditions like kidney or congestive heart failure.

C. Name at least two functions of the large intestine.

Stores now nearly solid waste material until eliminated Absorbs most of the remaining nutrients and water

Which is the strongest? Which is the weakest?

Strongest- covalent Weakest: hydrogen

What are the types of simple sugars? Give many examples of each type.

Sugars are found in a variety of natural food sources including fruit, vegetables and milk, and give food a sweet taste. But they also raise blood glucose levels quickly. Sugars can be categorised as single sugars (monosaccharides), which include glucose, fructose and galactose, or double sugars (disaccharides), which include sucrose (table sugar), lactose and maltose.

What is atherosclerosis and how can you avoid it?

The build-up of fats, cholesterol, and other substances in and on the artery walls. Healthy food and exercise

Why should you eat whole wheat bread rather than white bread?

There's only missing enriched tolic acids, while white misses nutrients

A. Why are lipids (fats and oils) important in your diet?

They also provide energy

F. Enzymes are functional proteins - what do they do?

They are catalyst- substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction w/o being altered/consumed by the reaction. They help biochemical reactions to occur but don't change final result of reaction>> just speed it up

Why are carbohydrates important for nutrition?

They provide energy>> tissues can only use glucos as an energy source

B. Also, be able to identify the accessory organs that aid in digestion.

They're Salivary organs, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas

1. A. Describe the term tissue. Give some examples.

Tissue- groups of specialized cells that are similar in structure and that perform common functions Four major types: ex) Epithelial tissues: sheets of cells that line/cover various surfaces and body cavities>> protect underlying tissues, often smooth to reduce friction, some are specialized for transporting materials Also connective, muscle, and nervous ex) heart, skin, around organs to protect them

Under what circumstances would humans want to build molecules?

To control certain things/life

A. Name and explain two important reasons why you ingest food.

To get nutrients and get energy

A. Name and briefly describe the three main categories of lipids learned in class.

Triglycerides (fats and oils)- neutral fats>> synthesized from a molecule of glycerol and three fatty acids>> saturated and unsaturated fats Phospholipids- modified form of lipid>> priming structural component of cell membrane>> have a molecule of glycerol as backbone and two fatty acid tails. Third fatty acid is negative and phosphate group is (+) charged Steroids- classified as lips b/c they're relatively insoluble in water>> costs of backbone of 6 membered carbon rings. Also consist of cholesterol

E. Explain the difference between triglycerides and phospholipids.

Triglycerides- form in adipose (fat) tissue and are important source of energy/ Most energy is located in bonds between carbon and hydrogen in fatty acid tails Phospholipids- modified form of lipid>> structural component of cell membrane>> have molecule of glycerol as backbone and two fatty acid tails

B. Choose one vitamin and know what foods it is found in, what it does in the body and what happens if you don't get enough of it.

Vitamin D Found in fish oil, fortified milk, egg yolk, produced by skin Promotes absorption of calcium, needed for bones and teeth Deficiency- bone disformities in children, bone weakening in adults

What does hydrophobic mean?

Water fearing

Because of the above properties, describe why water is has important implications for human life.

Water is the ideal solvent b/c it is a polar liquid at body temp>> substance where many chemical reactions take place. It can transport solute solutes from one place to another and it prevents large increases in body temp when excess heat is produced>> also holds heat well when there's a danger of too much heat loss. It prevents rapid changes in body temp when changes occur in metabolism or environment

9. A. What are nucleic acids? Give some examples.

a complex organic substance present in living cells, especially DNA or RNA, whose molecules consist of many nucleotides linked in a long chain. ex) foods include fish, organ meats (e.g., liver), and certain vegetables (beans, asparagus, and mushrooms). High-RNA foods also include superfoods such as chlorella, spirulina, and nutritional yeast

2. A. Describe the function of epithelial tissues and where in the body you would find them. B.Describe the shape classification of epithelial tissues. C. Describe layering of epithelial tissues.

a) Function: they protect underlying tissues, smooth to reduce friction, and some are highly specialized to transport materials like absorbing water and nutrients across intestinal into blood or excreting waste products across tubules of kidneys to eliminate toxins into urine Location: the outer surfaces of organs and blood vessels throughout the body, as well as the inner surfaces of cavities in many internal organs b) Squamous epithelium- one/more layers of flattened cells>> outer surface of skin and inner surfaces of others -Cuboidal epithelium- composed of cube shaped cells>> forms on kidney tubules and outer surface of ovaries - Columnar epithelium- composed of tall, rectangular cells>> lines digestive tract, reproductive organs and larynx c) Simple epithelium- single layer of cells Stratified epithelium- multiple layers of cells

D. Why is the three dimensional structure of a protein so important?

allow chemicals to react with the enzyme. They are important to living things because they allow cells to reproduce and grow To help the enzyme properly carry out it's chemical reaction

B. What are some functions of proteins in animals?

assists in creating body chemicals like hormones and enzymes that are needed for normal function. It provides energy (like carbohydrates do) and keeps the immune system strong. Proteins are made up of amino acids

B. What are the two basic types of cells? Describe each and give examples. C. How are they different?

b) - Eukaryotes Animal cells Includes plasma membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, and organelles Nucleus "core" Cytoplasm- includes everything except nucleus, composed of cytosol Contains organelles - Prokaryotes Bacteria cells Have a plasma membrane Genetic makeup concentrated without cell membrane Also lack organelles from eukaryotic Also no nucleus C)

What happened to your original glucose at the end of the citric acid cycle? It was broken down D. In which step is most of the ATP made?

electron transport chain with oxygen as the "terminal electron acceptor". Most of the ATP produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by oxidative phosphorylation.

C. Why are minerals important for proper nutrition?

essential for a variety of bodily functions. They are important for building strong bones and teeth, blood, skin, hair, nerve function, muscle and for metabolic processes such as those that turn the food we eat into energy.

E. What is heartburn? .

form of indigestion felt as a burning sensation in the chest, caused by acid regurgitation into the esophagus

. Large Intestine (Colon): name the different parts of the large intestine

he cecum plus the ascending colon, the transverse colon, the descending colon, the sigmoid colon, and the rectum.

What does the epiglottis do when you swallow?

he main function of the epiglottis is to seal off the windpipe during eating, so that food is not accidentally inhaled.

D. Why doesn't your stomach digest itself?

it is lined with epithial cells, which produce mucus. This forms a barrier between the lining of the stomach and the contents. Enzymes, which make up part of the digestive juices are also secreted by the stomach wall, from glands with no mucus barrier

A. Chemical digestion: For each structure listed, explain what part it plays in chemical digestion of food in the small intestine (what molecule it works on and what results in): liver, pancreas, intestinal glands.

liver- produces bile>>fat digestion Pancreas- amylase (digest carbohydrates), protease (protein), lipases (lipids), bicarbonate (neutralizes stomach acid pH to 7)

5. A. Describe some characteristics of an organic molecule.

molecules that contain carbon and other elements held together by covalent bonds Can have almost any shape Four types are: carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acid

A. Follow the path of food in the gastrointestinal tract in humans (write out in order) and be able to identify them on a diagram.

mouth>> pharynx>> esophogus>> stomach>> small intestine>> large intestine>> rectum>> anus

Give examples of cells that might have lots of mitochondria and some that have very few. Why is there a difference in the mitochondria content of these cells?

red muscle and hepatocytes have very high number of mitochondria, Prokaryotic cells don't have mitochondria White adipocyte The more needed depends on how much energy is needed

D. Explain the difference between fats and oils (include a definition of saturated vs. unsaturated fats.)

saturated fat- tails are fairly straight, generally solid at room temp and fat (hydrophilic) Unsaturated- squiggly tail, oils, fewer than 2 hydrogen in tails, double bonds form between adjacent carbons, generally liquid at room temp (hydrophobic)

D. What is peristalsis?

the involuntary constriction and relaxation of the muscles of the intestine or another canal, creating wavelike movements that push the contents of the canal forward.

A. Why are vitamins important for proper nutrition?

they perform hundreds of roles in the body. They help shore up bones, heal wounds, and bolster your immune system. They also convert food into energy, and repair cellular damage.