Biology final
anatomical directions
(image)
New forms of gene therapy
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Principles of evolutionary medicine
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Purposes and basics of cellular respiration and photosynthesis
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Purposes of transcription, translation, and DNA replication
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Role of ATP, electron carriers, and enzymes
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Structure and importance of the cell membrane
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Structure of one typical example of each type of macromolecule
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Hypotheses about aging in humans
**Our telomeres get shorter as our life progresses and we think that shortening telomeres has something to do with aging They have tried to slow down and stop the shortening of telomeres in mice, but they end up getting cancer and dying
Types and uses of biotechnology
53) Medical marijuana a) As of 1970 cannabis is a Schedule I drug, i) Can't use it, hard to have for research ii) Stigma b) Cannabinoids and Terpenes i) At least 108 known cannabinoids in cannabis plants (1) Delta-9, THC is the primary psychiatric components ii) Approximately 140 Terpenes (1) Give distinct atoms (2) Differentiate effects of cannabinoids c) Probe with plant production i) Cannabis sativa (1) Too long to mature ii) Cannabis indica (1) Florida clusters gold moisture and develope gray mold (a) Crop losses (b) Fungal contamination, threatens some patients iii) Winds-pollinated iv) Pests v) % of other cannabinoids<<<<% of THC and CBD d) Solutions to plant problems i) Desirable trains (1) Gray mold resistance (2) Pest resistance (3) Increased concentration of medically valuable compounds (4) Tolerance of extreme environments (5) Sexual sterility ii) Transfer cannabinoid biosynthesis gees coding to a less sensitive species e) Taking biotechnology to the next level i) Biosynthesis of cannabinoids (1) increases efficiency (2) Increases control for quantity demanded (3) Alternative methods of drug administration (a) Capsule, oral strips, creams/lotions, etc. (4) Not organisms based f) Biosynthetic Example i) Marinol (dronabinol) (1) FDA approved (2) Dronabinol is synthetic delta -9 THC g) Destimatzing Cannabis i) Recreational use (1) Innocent (a) Almost 50% of candidates to next reduced through the heat and smoke (b) Limits the resources available ii) Legislation (1) Classified as a schedule-I iii) THC is the only psychoactive compounds within cannabis (1) There are more than 100 other cannabinoids that have more potential h) Conclusion i) Has so many uses ii) Biotechnics is vital in order to promote efficiency and availability to cater to medical needs iii) More research can be used once the stigma is gone
Functions of the plant hormones
Auxin: elongation of cells i) Elongation-the lengthening of something, goes to one side (1) causes the plant to branch and grow outwards b) Gibberellin: germination of seeds and development of flowers and fruit c) Cytokinin: Sprouting of lateral buds, prevention of leaf senescence d) Ethylene: ripening of fruit and abscission of leaves e) Abscisic acid: Maintaining dormancy
Differences between monocots and dicots
Monocots Leaves: Narrow Leaves Parallel Veins Fibrous Root System Vascular Bundles: Scattered in Stem Only primary growth 3 flowers Orchids, Wheat, Rice, Bananas Dicots Broad Leaves Branching Veins Taproot system Vascular Bundles: Arranged in ring on stem Secondary Woody Growth 4 or 5 flowers Oak/Maple Trees, Cacti, Sunflowers
Risk factors versus causes
Risk factors are things that make one prone or more likely to develop a certain disease. For example, the BRCA mutation is known to make one be at a high risk factor for breast cancer. Or smoking will make a person more likely to develop lung cancer. A cause however is the exact thing that happens to make the disease develop. The DNA mutating is something that causes the cancer
What complement is and what it does
That complement is and what it does a) The complement system is composed of plasma proteins. When one is activated it has a domino effect which then activates the other plasma proteins. Together they lyse pathogenic cells or promote phagocytosis. They are activated by an antigen bound to an antibody or just an antigen on its own.
Vascular tissue xylem
Two types of cells make up the water-conducting portions of xylem tissue: -tracheids -vessel elements Both are dead in their mature, working state
Basics of variety of non-angiosperm reproduction
a) ** b) non-angiosperms depended upon rain and wind tactics to disperse their pollen
Concentration gradients
a) Concentration gradients occur when the concentration of particles is higher in one area than another. b) In passive transport, particles will diffuse down a concentration gradient, from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration, until they are evenly spaced. c) In active transport molecules move from an area of lower concentration to one of higher concentration i) "Against" the concentration gradient d) Facilitated Diffusion moves from an area of higher to lower concentration with the help of proteins to help move polar things against hydrophobic areas. i) Move down their concentration gradient
Describe and differentiate the four different types of mammal tissue and specific subtypes within each
a) 4 types: b) Epithelial, i) Epithelial: lines body's surface, cavities ducts and tubes. There is one free surface that either faces a body fluid or the environment. Consists of densely compacted cells. ii) Simple epithelium: single layer of cells. Either squamous, cuboidal, or columnar. iii) Stratified epithelium: 2 or more layers thick. Functions as protection (skin) cells may be of any shape. iv) Glands: glandular epithelium. secretory organs that are derived from epithelium (1) Exocrine glands: secrete products into free epithelial surface via ducts or tubes (2) Endocrine glands: ductless and release hormones into fluids that surround glands c) Connective tissues: i) Most abundant in body. The cells are scattered within an extracellular matrix. They are not densely compacted together. There are 6 types: Loose connective tissue, dense connective tissue, cartilage, adipose tissue, bone tissue, and blood. (1) Loose connective tissue: hold organs and epithelial in place. In lower layer of skin. (2) Dense connective tissue: provides stretchable attachments between body parts. In tendons and ligaments (3) Cartilage: provides support and cushioning between bones (4) Adipose tissues: body's main energy reservoir. Provides insulation and cushioning. (5) Bone: stores minerals, produces blood cells, bulk of skeleton. (6) Blood: fluid connective tissue, transport medium. Red and white cells and platelets are dispersed in plasma. d) Muscle i) Composed of cells that contract when stimulated ii) Helps move the body and specific body parts iii) Three types of muscle tissue (1) Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth (2) Skeletal and cardiac are striated iv) Skeletal (1) Located in muscles that attach to bones (2) Long cylindrical cells are striated (a) Multinucleated (3) Cells are bundled closely together in parallel arrays (4) Voluntary muscles v) Smooth (1) In walls of many internal organs and some blood vessels (2) Cells are not striped and taper at the ends (3) Involuntary muscles vi) Cardiac (1) Present only in the heart (2) Cells are striated and branching (3) Ends of cells are joined by communication junctions that allow the cells to contract as a unit (4) Involuntary muscle vii) Nervous (1) Detects stimuli, integrates information, and relays commands for response (2) Consists of excitable neurons and supporting neuroglial cells
Flower organs and how they are related to reproduction
a) A complete flower is composed of four parts (incomplete flowers are missing one or more of the following organs) i) Incomplete flowers that lack either their stamen or carpels is called imperfect flowers ii) Imperfect flowers produce separate male and female flowers iii) Sepals (1) Located at base of flower (2) In dicots, they are usually green/leaflike. In monocots, they resemble petals (3) Purpose is to surround and protect flower bud as the remaining structures develop within in. iv) Petals (1) Located above sepals (2) Advertise location of flower to potential pollinators v) Stamens (1) Male reproductive structure (2) Located just above petals (3) Consists of slender filaments which bear an anther (produces pollon) vi) Carpal (1) At least one present (female reproductive structure.) (2) Located in center of the flower (3) Contains a sticky stigma on top of style (a) Pollination occurs when the pollon from another stamen comes in contact on the stigma of the carpal (b) Style connects with the ovaries at the base of the carpal b) Ovary i) Contains one or more ovules (female gametophyte develops in each ovule) ii) After fertilization, each ovule becomes a seed (small embryonic plant and stored food for the embryo) iii) Ovary develops into fruit to enclose seeds
Bioprinting
a) Additive manufacturing of tissue or organs i) Creating organs or added to them with human tissue based on a computer model b) What doe we need i) Supply, applicator (nozzle), and structure (scaffold) c) Benefits i) Uses the patient's own cells (1) Reduces transplant rejection (2) Allows organs and tissues to be created to the quantity and necessity of the patient (3) Cheaper and faster ii) Can be used in reconstructive surgery (1) Severe burn victims iii) Full function tissues (1) Can replace the use of animal testing d) Ethical concerns i) "Playing God" ii) Quality control (1) FDA regulations (2) Arent any legal recommendations (3) Are some regulations on the material iii) Avaibaility (1) Only the wealthy or those who can pay will be able to afford it iv) Immortality (1) Cheap and continual replacement of one's organs e) Bioprinting underfunded i) Most companies are small and in the developmental phase ii) Its expensive and takes time to make the process, but many can't keep up f) Why the short funding i) "Waiting a long time isn't good" ii) People are greedy, capitalism sucks iii) The people with money aren't familiar with the science, so they don't know the science behind it (1) How long it takes, the advancements probable opportunity iv) Keep universities funded to have them develop them
How the immune system works in organ rejection, allergies, autoimmune diseases, and immunotherapy
a) Allergies: immune reaction to a harmless substance. Mast cells and basophils release histamine even though the allergen is harmless. Histamine causes inflammatory symptoms. b) Immunotherapy: treatment that uses parts of a person's immune system to fight disease such as cancer. White blood cells are trained to target and kill cancer cells. The MHC complex on a cancerous cell may present an abnormal protein → WBC are trained to recognize that protein and attack that cell c) Autoimmune disease: The immune system makes antibodies against self antigens. (self antigen is any molecule or chemical group of an organism which acts as an antigen in inducing antibody formation in another organism but to which the healthy immune system of the parent organism is tolerant.) i) Rheumatoid arthritis: T cells attack joints ii) Multiple Sclerosis: T cells attack myelin sheaths of nerve cells iii) Type I diabetes: T cells attack insulin producing cells of pancreas
Fruit development and its dispersal
a) Angiosperm seeds are unique in the plant world due to being wrapped in a layer of tissue called fruit i) Fruit that is edible functions in angiosperm seed dispersal because animals will eat & digest the fruit but then excrete the tough seeds inside, often in a different location b) Fruit is the mature ovary of a flower c) Fruits are classified based on their developmental origin i) Simple fruits develop from a single or several fused carpels ii) Aggregate fruits result from a single flower with multiple separate carpels iii) Multiple fruits develop from a group of flowers called an inflorescence iv) Accessory fruits develop from other tissues d) Dispersal i) Animals eat them and poop them out ii) Attach themselves to animals and get spread iii) Spread by wind/water
What antigens, antibodies, and MHC markers are
a) Antigen: the molecule or marker signature to a pathogen or foreign body that the immune system recognizes as foreign and attacks b) Antibodies: A large Y shaped protein produced by the body to counteract a specific antigen c) MHC markers: set of cell surface proteins essential for the acquired immune system to recognize foreign molecules
Three embryonic tissue layers and what they become
a) Ectoderm: form surface structures such as skin, hair, and nails, and the nervous system b) Endoderm: lining of digestive and respiratory tracts and the liver and pancreas c) Mesoderm: forms structures that are generally located between the skin and lining of the digestive tract, including muscles, the skeleton, and the circulatory system
Medical marijuana
a) As of 1970 cannabis is a Schedule I drug, i) Can't use it, hard to have for research ii) Stigma b) Cannabinoids and Terpenes i) At least 108 known cannabinoids in cannabis plants (1) Delta-9, THC is the primary psychiatric components ii) Approximately 140 Terpenes (1) Give distinct atoms (2) Differentiate effects of cannabinoids c) Probe with plant production i) Cannabis sativa (1) Too long to mature ii) Cannabis indica (1) Florida clusters gold moisture and develope gray mold (a) Crop losses (b) Fungal contamination, threatens some patients iii) Winds-pollinated iv) Pests v) % of other cannabinoids<<<<% of THC and CBD d) Solutions to plant problems i) Desirable trains (1) Gray mold resistance (2) Pest resistance (3) Increased concentration of medically valuable compounds (4) Tolerance of extreme environments (5) Sexual sterility ii) Transfer cannabinoid biosynthesis gees coding to a less sensitive species e) Taking biotechnology to the next level i) Biosynthesis of cannabinoids (1) increases efficiency (2) Increases control for quantity demanded (3) Alternative methods of drug administration (a) Capsule, oral strips, creams/lotions, etc. (4) Not organisms based f) Biosynthetic Example i) Marinol (dronabinol) (1) FDA approved (2) Dronabinol is synthetic delta -9 THC g) Destimatzing Cannabis i) Recreational use (1) Innocent (a) Almost 50% of candidates to next reduced through the heat and smoke (b) Limits the resources available ii) Legislation (1) Classified as a schedule-I iii) THC is the only psychoactive compounds within cannabis (1) There are more than 100 other cannabinoids that have more potential h) Conclusion i) Has so many uses ii) Biotechnics is vital in order to promote efficiency and availability to cater to medical needs iii) More research can be used once the stigma is gone
Characteristics of life
a) Assimilate energy: Organisms acquire and use materials and energy i) Can be anything such as water, minerals, other chemical building blocks ii) Can take them in from the water, soil, and air, and bodies of other living things b) Are highly organized compared to inanimate objects: Organisms Actively Maintain Organized Complexity i) Levels of Organization - ii) Living Things (1) 1. Atom (2) 2. Molecule (3) 3. Organelle (4) 4. Cell (5) 5. Tissue (6) 6. Organ (7) 7. Organ system iii) Levels of Organization - The Biosphere (1) 8. Organism (2) 9. Population (3) 10. Community (4) 11. Ecosystem (5) 12. Biosphere c) Maintain Homeostasis i) Living things maintain a relatively constant internal environment - this is homeostasis ii) Examples (1) Hydration (2) Blood sugar (3) Temperature control d) Respond to their environment: Organisms Perceive and Respond to Stimuli i) Living things respond to their environment ii) Stimulus: something that triggers a response iii) Ex: (1) Phototropism- Plants growing towards light (2) Brain detects low blood sugar (internal stimuli), Mouth waters (external stimuli) e) Organisms Grow: i) Require organisms to obtain material from the outside world ii) Living things can take in (assimilate) and use energy iii) Metabolism: process that all organisms use to acquire the energy needed for cellular functions f) Possess an inherited information base, encoded in DNA, that allows them to function. i) Living things possess an inherited information base, encoded in DNA, that allows them to function g) Organisms Reproduce i) All living things can reproduce through use of the information encoded in DNA ii) Two forms of reproduction (1) Asexual: an individual makes an exact copy of itself. (a) Examples: binary fission, regeneration, fragmentation (2) Sexual: gametes of two individuals combine to form a unique offspring h) Are evolved from other living things: Organisms, Collectively Have the Capacity to Evolve i) All living things evolved from other living things ii) DNA changes within a population i) Are composed of one or more cells. i) Unicellular: having only one cell. (1) Examples: ALL prokaryotes (bacteria), some protists, some fung ii) Multicellular: 2 or more cells. (1) Examples: ALL plants and ALL animals
Major plant hormones
a) Auxin: elongation of cells i) Elongation-the lengthening of something, goes to one side (1) causes the plant to branch and grow outwards b) Gibberellin: germination of seeds and development of flowers and fruit c) Cytokinin: Sprouting of lateral buds, prevention of leaf senescence d) Ethylene: ripening of fruit and abscission of leaves e) Abscisic acid: Maintaining dormancy
Three lines of defense our bodies have against foreign invaders
a) Barriers: body surfaces (skin, mucous membranes), flushing effect and low pH of urine, normal flora. b) Innate immunity: nonspecific and inflammatory response c) Adaptive immunity: specific responses and immune responses
Where blood cells are made
a) Bone marrow i) Primarily reside in lymphatic organs
Carbon's special properties
a) Carbon has 4 electrons in its outer shell b) It can form up to 4 covalent bonds c) This allows C to bond with other carbon atoms and a variety of other elements i) "Molecule of Life" because it can bond with so many things
Processes of both types of specific immune responses
a) Cell mediated response: attacks pathogens inside body cells. i) An antibody presenting cell, like a macrophage, ingests a pathogen. ii) The macrophage then processes the pathogen and presents the antigen to the pathogen on a MHC protein. iii) A helper T cell binds to the MHC site and triggers the activation of other T cells iv) The activated T cells differentiate into cytotoxic T cells which kill the pathogen infected cells. The T cells after differentiate into memory cells which remember the antigen and help produce a faster immune response upon subsequent exposure b) Antigen (or humoral) mediated immune response: attacks pathogens outside body cells i) Antigen is displayed on cell membrane ii) A specific B cell recognizes the pathogen and is stimulated to divide iii) The B cell divides by mitosis and forms plasma cells and memory cells iv) The plasma cells secrete antibodies and then bind to the foreign antigens acting as labels for phagocytes to destroy them v) The memory cells are "saved for later" and if the pathogen is reintroduced they can divide again to form plasma cells which release antigens and process is repeated but done faster.
Chromosomes, the cell cycle, and the basics of cancer
a) Chromosomes* i) Chromosomes are the X shapes (1) Have 46 of them (2) 2 sex 44 regular ones ii) 2 chromatids make up 2 chromosomes (1) Chromatids are the half, boomerang things (2) "Sister chromatids" (a) Connected at the centromere iii) DNA is a in a double helix wound in histones (1) Histones are the protein molecules that bind the DNA (2) Sets of the DNA protein interactions are the chromatins iv) Chromatids→ Chromatids→ Chromosome b) Cell Cycle i) interphase = longest phase and chromosomes are duplicated: (chromatin) ii) g1 - growth after cell division iii) s - time of DNA synthesis (replication) and chromosome duplication iv) g2 - after replication (1) Gaps are normal functions v) mitotic phase = nucleus and cytoplasm divide (1) when chromosomes become visible - they condense beforehand vi) Cytokinesis = division of the cytoplasm c) Cancer i) Cell cycle control system: a set of molecules in a cell that triggers and coordinates events in the cell cycle - needs to go through checkpoints ii) Cancer cells pass through the checkpoint and ignore them: due to damaged DNA / mutation of checkpoint genes (1) p53 gene is the culprit iii) Grow and divide abnormally and quickly iv) Altered plasma membrane and cytoplasm v) Weakened capacity for adhesion = metastasis (1) Cells cannot stay anchored to their proper tissue and travel around (2) How stage 4 cancers form vi) the development of secondary malignant growths at a distance from a primary site of cancer. vii) More often, cancer cells that break off from the main tumor travel through the bloodstream. Once in the blood, they can go to any part of the body. Many of these cells die, but some may settle in a new area, begin to grow, and form new tumors. This spread of cancer to a new part of the body is called metastasis.
Unifying principle of biology
a) Evolution: gradual modification of populations in living things over time b) Modification can lead to speciation c) Organisms share common ancestors d) Diverse organisms share many traits inherited from earlier forms e) Evolution helps explain the vast majority of biodiversity f) Natural Selection- process by which organisms with certain inherited traits survive and reproduce better than others in a given environment g) Mutations-Changes in genes, such as those caused by random copying errors h) Divergent Evolution i) Things evolving from a common ancestor for different functions ii) I.e.: bats wing, human arm, etc i) Convergent Evolution: i) Things evolving from different common ancestors into things with the same function ii) I.e.: Shark and Dolphin fin
Major milestones of human embryonic/fetal development
a) Fertilization, occurs in uterine tube→zygote forms and undergoes cleavage. While traveling to the uterus the zygote becomes a morula. By day 5 the zygote is a blastocyst. b) The blastocyst attaches and burrows into the lining of the uterus. This is called implantation. i) The blastocyst has an outer and inner layer of cells. The outer layer of cells becomes the chorion. The inner layer of the cells have the potential to differentiate into anything. ii) The inner cells of the blastocyst will become the embryo and the three other extraembryonic membranes: amnion, allantois, and yolk sac iii) The inner cells are also the source of embryonic stem cells c) The chorion and the endometrium intermingle and form the placenta. d) During the second week, the inner cell mass grows and splits, forming two fluid-filled sacs/ cavities that are separated by a double layer of cells called the embryonic disk i) One layer of cells is continuous with the yolk sac ( in humans there is no yolk) ii) The second layer of cells is continuous with the amnion e) Towards the end of the second week, gastrulation occurs. Cells from the amnion side of the disk migrate into the disk where they will now form the mesoderm, endoderm, and the fourth extraembryonic membrane, the allantois. f) Organogenesis begins during weeks 3-8 i) During the third week of development, the embryo begins to form the spinal cord and the brain. ii) The heart starts beating about the beginning of the fourth week iii) The embryo bulges into the uterine cavity, bathed in fluid contained within the amnion iv) Meanwhile, the umbilical cord forms from the fusion of the yolk stalk and body stalk v) The yolk stalk connects the yolk sac to the embryonic digestive tract g) Organogenesis continues.... i) The body stalk contains the allantois, which contributes the blood vessels that will become the umbilical arteries and vein ii) The umbilical cord now connects the embryo to the placenta, which has formed from the merger of the chorion of the embryo and the lining of the uterus h) During the fourth and fifth weeks, the embryo develops a prominent tail and pharyngeal (gill) grooves—indentations behind the head that are homologous to the fish embryo's developing gills i) These structures are reminders that we share ancestry with other vertebrates that retain their gills in adulthood. In humans, however, they disappear as development continues i) By the seventh week, the embryo has rudimentary eyes and a rapidly developing brain, and the webbing between its fingers and toes is disappearing j) As the second month draws to an end, nearly all of the major organs have at least begun to develop i) The gonads appear and develop into testes or ovaries. Sex hormones are secreted—either testosterone from the testes or estrogen from the ovaries ii) These hormones will affect the development of many structures, including the reproductive organs and brain k) After two months, the embryo is recognizably human i) At the end of the second month, the embryo has taken on a generally human appearance and is now called a fetus. ii) The first two months of pregnancy are a time of extremely rapid differentiation and growth for the embryo, and a time of considerable danger. l) The fetus grows and develops for another seven months. As the brain and spinal cord grow, they begin to generate behaviors. i) As early as the third month of pregnancy, the fetus can move, respond to stimuli, and evensuck its thumb-The lungs, stomach, intestine, and kidneys enlarge and become functional m) Although a full-term pregnancy lasts about 38 weeks, nearly all fetuses 32 weeks or older can survive outside the womb with medical assistance i) Most infants born as early as 26 weeks survive if they are given intensive care
Major steps of animal development
a) Gamete formation: sperm and egg form and mature b) Fertilization: fusion of sperm and egg creating a zygote c) Cleavage: Cleavage is a series of extremely rapid mitotic divisions wherein the enormous volume of zygote cytoplasm is divided into numerous smaller cells. d) As cleavage continues, a cavity opens within the morula, and the cells become the outer covering of a hollow structure called the blastula. The cells are called blastomeres, and by the end of cleavage, they generally form a sphere known as a blastula. e) Gastrulation: The blastomeres move around and change their positions. In result, three germ layers are formed: the ectoderm, the endoderm, and the mesoderm. f) Once the three germ layers are established, the cells interact with one another and rearrange themselves to produce tissues and organs. This process is called organogenesis. i) Differentiation of genes to form organs, master genes are turned on and off. Homeobox genes control this. ii) Extra cells are "chiseled" away to form body structures, like marble. g) Growth: organs increase inside, adult body form attained
Gravitropism, thigmotropism, and phototropism
a) Gravitropism i) Plants are able to sense their orientation with respect to the Earth and direct the growth of their roots and shoots accordingly—roots into the Earth, shoots toward the sky b) Thigmotropism i) Growth of a plant in response to touch (1) Some plants can climb upward on other objects by making contact with them and then encircling them in growth to gain additional access to light c) Phototropism i) Plants will bend toward a source of light to gain additional access through the process of phototropism, meaning a curvature of shoots in response to light
Process of inflammation**
a) Histamine is released by mast cells b) Capillaries dilate and leak c) Complement proteins attack pathogen d) Macrophages eat the pathogen \\\\ a. When skin breaks, pathogens enter a wound. b. Platelets release blood-clotting proteins at the wound site. c. Wound tissues and macrophages at the wound site secrete chemokines, signaling molecules that recruit immune cells by forming a gradient to mark the path to the site. d. Mast cells release chemical messengers that constrict blood vessels near the wound - reducing blood flow and thus blood loss. Mast cells also secrete histamine and other signaling molecules, which constrict blood vessel at wound but dilate blood vessels near wound. e. Neutrophils and macrophages remove pathogens by phagocytosis - engulfing and digesting foreign particles. Macrophages secretes chemical messengers called cytokines that attract other immune system cells to the site, stimulate bone marrow to make and release additional phagocytes, induce fever, and activate cells involved in repair and wound healing.
Homeostasis and its three components
a) Homeostasis: i) Each living cell of an animal body executes basic metabolic activities to ensure its survival ii) Combined contributions of cells, tissue, organs, and organ systems maintain stable external environment (extracellular fluid) iii) Homeostatic control mechanisms help maintain physical and chemical levels most favorable for cell activities b) Receptor: Picks up "signal" or notes change i) I.e. Free nerve endings in the skin c) Control Center: Responds accordingly to signal or change i) Such as the brain d) Effector: receives message from control center and produces a change or response i) A muscle or a gland
Hydrogen bonding and the universal solvent
a) Importance of Hydrogen Bonding i) in water (1) holds water molecules together and allows water to stay liquid at room temperature (2) bonds become more rigid as water freezes, making water less dense. explains why ice floats ii) in macronutrients (1) DNA (a) complementary strands of DNA are held together with hydrogen binds (2) protein (a) enzyme structure determined by hydrogen bonds b) Properties of water i) polar ii) good solvent (1) relates to polarity. (2) water can dissolve polar substrates (3) allows dissolved nutrients to diffuse iii) high specific heat (1) more energy is needed to raise the temperature of water (2) water helps keep things cool iv) adhesive and cohesive (1) water sticks to itself (2) this explains why water is wicked up through plant vasculature c) Solutes, solvents, and solutions i) solute (1) what is being dissolved ii) solvent (1) what is doing the dissolving iii) solution (1) combination of solvent and solute
Biotechnology Issues Presented by Students:
a) Make sperm and egg from human skin cells i) Enable to produce induced gametes and have their own biological children ii) Worked in Mice b) It helps others i) It helps people who can have a child currently due to age, condition, etc. ii) Legal processes is easier (1) Legal issues with surrogate mothers, if she wants to keep the child c) Mitochondria issue i) Men don't pass them on, women, which one do you chose?
Same sex biological parenthood
a) Make sperm and egg from human skin cells i) Enable to produce induced gametes and have their own biological children ii) Worked in Mice b) It helps others i) It helps people who can have a child currently due to age, condition, etc. ii) Legal processes is easier (1) Legal issues with surrogate mothers, if she wants to keep the child c) Mitochondria issue i) Men don't pass them on, women, which one do you chose?
How immune system and lymphatic system are related
a) The immune system is technically not a system as it does not have it's own organs. The functions of the immune system occur within the lymphatic system and its vessels, organs and nodes.
Mitochondrial replacement therapy
a) Mitochondrial disorders, Treatments i) Have a cell fertilized, and then have the mitochondria inpt ii) Do it before, and insert mondrian DNA b) Could the person have 3 parents? i) Most of the DNA comes from the nucleus, not the mitochondria c) Can't use mitochondrial designer babies to "play god" i) It's like IVF ii) Kids are bored no matter what, the way they do it doesn't know d) Mitochondrial replacement therapy is illegal in the US, not the UK i) February 2014, panel came around and said we need more research ii) 2016, they said it was ethically permissible to conduct clinical investigations iii) Researcher at Oregon university bred 4 monkeys with MRT, and got the Mitochondria from female nucleus and it worked (1) In anyone, mitochondria can only come from female DNA nucleus iv) It's a study to "green light" it (1) FDA dragging their feet e) Safety: Current studies i) Any new research ii) In the UK, it only allows eggs and embryos that have not had their nuclear or mitochondrial DNA altered to be used for treatment f) mtDNA percentage i) The possible rate could be 60% g) Efficiency i) Possibilities for families to have children they couldn't already ii) Medicine
Purposes, locations, and differences between mitosis and meiosis
a) Mitosis- Cell Division, occurs whenever there needs to be more cells. b) Meiosis- occurs in diploid cells and is used to make sex cells or gametes for reproduction i) Occurs in the reproductive systems (1) Females- Ovaries; Oogenesis (Egg creation) (2) Males- Testes; Spermatogenesis (Sperm creation) c) Differences i) Mitosis Produces diploid cells, (1) Meiosis produces haploid cells ii) Mitotic daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as the parents (1) Meiosis, the daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes as the parent. iii) Mitosis, cells are identical (1) Meiosis, the cells are different because of crossing over that happens in Prophase 1 iv) Meiosis; includes homologous chromosomes pairing up, crossing over, and lining up along the metaphase plate in tetrads. v) Meiosis has two rounds of cell division
Transmission rate hypothesis
a) Natural selection favors high rates of virulence when partner exchange is frequent, low rates of virulence when partner exchange is infrequent. i) Virulence = tendency of pathogen to cause disease in host, is a function of pathogen population growth rate.
Purpose of each organelle
a) Nucleus i) Keeps DNA separated from cytoplasm ii) Makes it easier to organize DNA and copy it before division iii) Site of transcription of DNA to RNA, DNA replication iv) Made up of the nuclear envelope (2 phospholipid bilayers), nucleoplasm, nucleolus (builds ribosomes), chromosomes and chromatin b) Ribosomes i) Site of protein synthesis ii) 2 types (1) Free ribosomes (a) Produce proteins for use within the cell's cytoplasm or nucleus (2) Ribosomes attached to rough ER (a) Produces proteins to be exported from the cell c) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) i) Rough (modifies proteins) (1) Modifies polypeptide chains and folds them into more complex structures ii) Smooth (1) Assembles lipids d) Golgi Complex (the post office) i) Puts finishing touches on proteins and lipids that arrive from ER ii) Packages finished material to be shipped to its destination e) Vesicles i) Membranous sacs that move through cytoplasm f) Lysosomes i) Digest cell parts ii) Moves waste out of the cell g) Mitochondria (the powerhouse) i) ATP producing powerhouse (REQUIRES OXYGEN) ii) Carries out most efficient energy-releasing reaction h) Chloroplasts i) Converts sunlight energy to ATP through photosynthesis i) Central Vacuole i) Stores amino acids, sugars, wastes ii) Expansion of vacuole forces cell wall to expand (turgor pressure) j) Cell Wall i) Structural component that wraps around plasma membrane ii) Provides structural strength/ rigidity iii) Protection k) Cytoskeleton i) Basis for cell shape/ internal organization ii) Cell motility iii) Allows for organelle movement
Differences between passive and active immunizations
a) Passive immunizations: A person is immunized with someone else's antibodies. The "loaned" antibodies help prevent or fight certain infectious diseases. The protection offered by passive immunization is short-lived, usually lasting only a few weeks or months. But it helps protect right away. b) Active immunization: Antigen containing material (dead or disabled pathogen) is injected and the body creates antibodies. Long lasting immunity
Terminology of pathogen, vector, and virulence
a) Pathogen: organism that causes disease b) Vector: an organism that itself does not cause disease but carries pathogens from one host to another (ex: a mosquito carrying malaria)' c) Virulence: the severity or harmfulness of a pathogen, the ability of a pathogen to infect a resistant host
Alternation of generations
a) Plant life cycle in which successive plant generations produce either spores (the sporophyte generation) or gametes (the gametophyte generation) b) Within a given species, these two generations can differ greatly in size and structure
Double fertilization
a) Pollen grain attaches to stigma i) Pollen grain develops pollen tube down the Style into the ovary (1) Deposits 2 haploid sperm cells (a) 1) fertilizes egg cell (i) Develops into diploid zygote (b) 2) combines with the two polar nuclei of the large central cell of the megagametophyte (i) Develops into endosperm for embryo nutrition
Primary growth in plants
a) Primary Growth i) The entire plant develops from meristematic cells in regions called apical meristems ii) Meristematic cells remain perpetually embryonic (stem cells), able to continually give rise to cells that differentiate into all the plant's tissue types iii) In a plant with a taproot, each lateral root tip has its own apical meristematic tissue (1) In the shoot, meristematic tissue lies at the tip of each stem (2) The tissue forms lateral buds in the area between each leaf and stem \\ Primary growth is how plants grow longer and taller • Primary plant growth only takes place at the tips of their roots and shoots • Plant growth can go on for the entire life of most plants How plants grow -The entire plant develops from meristematic cells in regions called apical meristems -Meristematic cells remain perpetually embryonic (stem cells), able to continually give rise to cells that differentiate into all the plant's tissue types Meristematic Tissue • In a plant with a taproot, each lateral root tip has its own apical meristematic tissue • In the shoot, meristematic tissue lies at the tip of each stem • The tissue forms lateral buds in the area between each leaf and stem
Programming bacteria
a) Program a bacteria or virus to perform a specific task b) How do we do it i) Using DNA as a switch, acting as a positive feedback loop ii) Bacteria can be programmed, through alterations in their DNA, to react to certain stimuli when conditions are conductive iii) When input molecule is present, it triggers it and makes an output c) Applications i) Treating patients with UCD; where it can't break down anomia ii) Make a critical malaria drug d) MIT researchers i) Take e coli that's harmless that colonizes around cancer ii) Used this to mark cancer cells and see them (1) Basically to detect cancer e) Programmable Viruses i) More specialized and risky than bacteria ii) Studying for viruses using anti-cancer treatments f) Onocolytic i) Viruses that are programed or naturally target cancer cells based on hallmarks ii) Use the polio virus as one iii) Limitation (1) Specialized viruses, if they can't fight one type of cancer then it wont work (2) Mutate rapidly iv) How do they work (1) Use dispressent to have the immune system to attack cells themselves (2) Can be tuned to only activate to a trigger chemical (3) Or could lay dormant until cancer cells emerge
Prokaryotic versus eukaryotic cells
a) Prokaryotic i) No nucleus (DNA spread through much of the cell) ii) No membrane-bound organelles (only one type of organelle: ribosomes) iii) Unicellular iv) Very small cells v) 2 Kingdoms: Archaea and Bacteria b) Eukaryotic i) Nucleus encloses DNA ii) Has membrane-bound organelles that have specialized functions iii) Can be unicellular or multicellular
Importance of gene regulation
a) Protein production is carefully regulated i) only transcribed when needed b) Epigenetic controls = control when genes are switched on with methyl groups / histone acetylation i) differential gene expression = COMPLEXITY
Specifics of three types of blood cells and what their purposes are
a) Red blood cells: carry oxygen around the body b) White blood cells: fight infection c) Platelets: aid in clotting
Sexual versus asexual reproduction
a) Sexual reproduction: fertilization brings together two gametes to make a zygote i) Chromosomes are duplicated in the germ cells ii) Undergo meiosis and cytokinesis iii) Daughter cells become gametes iv) Gametes meet at fertilization (1) Variation for evolution b) Asexual reproduction: single parent produces offspring i) All offspring are genetically identical to parent and to one another
Three simple tissue types and the function of each
a) Simple plant tissue: made up of one type of cell that forms a uniform mass i) Parenchyma (1) Found in roots, stems, leaves, flowers (2) Functions: photosynthesis, storage, tissue repair ii) Collenchyma (1) Found in stems and leaves (2) Functions: provides pliable support / plasticity iii) Sclerenchyma (1) Found in bark, nut shells, pits, tree bark, fibers (2) Function: structural support
Differences between specific and nonspecific responses to infection
a) Specific immunity involves the activation of T helper lymphocytes that recognize unique antigens. T helper cells then stimulate B lymphocytes to differentiate into plasma cells, which produce antibodies against a specific antigen. b) Nonspecific: Includes Inflammatory response. Also include natural killer cells that attack infected cells (no specific antigens needed). Lymph Nodes trap and kill pathogens and macrophages "clean up."
Organs of flowering plants
a) Stamen: Male organs i) Anthers- pollen grain end ii) Filament- stalk on which Anthers sit b) Petals: Modified leaves surrounding reproductive organs c) Carpel/Pistil: Female Organs i) Stigma: pollen receptacle ii) Style: pollen tube iii) Ovary: chamber for seed development (1) Ovule: develop into seeds within ovary d) Sepal: function as protection for flower bud/ support petals during flowering e) Receptacle: flower attachment point
DNA's structure and the two people who discovered it
a) Structure: i) Deoxyribose ii) Double Helix iii) Thymine b) made up of six smaller molecules -- a five carbon sugar called deoxyribose, a phosphate molecule and four different nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine). c) Who discovered it: i) Pauling 1950 (Didn't actually discover the DNA) (1) Showed that many proteins were coiled into single-stranded helicases (2) Would have discovered the double helix had it not been for a ban on traveling for him ii) Watson & Crick 1953 (1) Discovered that DNA was twisted into a double helix shape iii) Franklin 1952 (1) She's best known for the X-ray diffraction images of DNA, particularly Photo 51, while at King's College, London, which led to the discovery of the DNA double helix iv) Wilkins 1952 (1) did experiments and found the error on the model of the DNA structure but had limited resources and could not solve it. v) Erwin Chargaff (1) base pairing rules
Differences and functions of T cells, B cells, macrophages, NK cells, and mast cells
a) T cells: primarily a part of the cell mediated immune response so they attack pathogens within the cell. b) B cells: primarily a part of the antibody mediated immune response so they attack pathogens outside of the cell. B cells produce produce antibodies c) NK (natural killer cells): a part of the innate or nonspecific immune response. NK cells recognize distressed cells without the presence of an antibody. They attack both infected cells and cancerous cells. d) Macrophages: performs phagocytosis. Engulfs pathogenic cells and debris. e) Mast cells: play a role in inflammatory response. When activated they release mediators. An example of a mediator is histamine.
Genetics terms and basic genetic crosses
a) Terms i) Genes = units of information about specific traits (contains alleles) (1) Passed from parents to offspring (2) Each has a specific locus on a chromosome ii) Alleles = different molecular forms of a gene (1) Dominant alleles mask recessive ones iii) Allele combos: (1) Homozygous = two of the same (2) Hetero = one dominant one recessive iv) Genotype = refers to the particular alleles an individual carries v) Phenotype = individual's observable traits coded by genotype b) Genetic Crosses i) Single Cross
Functions of the four extraembryonic membranes in reptiles and mammals
a) The amnion protects the embryo in a sac filled with amniotic fluid. b) The yolk sac contains yolk — the sole source of food until hatching. Yolk is a mixture of proteins and lipoproteins. Is important in reptiles and birds but in humans is vestigial. c) The chorion lines the inner surface of the shell (which is permeable to gases) and participates in the exchange of O2 and CO2 between the embryo and the outside air. Is what forms the placenta in humans and primates. d) The allantois stores metabolic wastes (chiefly uric acid) of the embryo and, as it grows larger, also participates in gas exchange. Reduced in human being
Placental structure and function
a) The placenta exchanges materials between mother and embryo i) During the first few days after implantation,the embryo obtains nutrients directly from the endometrium of the uterus. ii) During the following week or so, the placenta begins to develop from the interlocking structures produced by the embryo and the endometrium b) The outer layer of the blastocyst forms the chorion, which grows fingerlike chorionic villi that extend into the endometrium i) Blood vessels of the umbilical cord connect the embryo's circulatory system with a dense network of capillaries in the villi. ii) Meanwhile, some of the blood vessels of the endometrium erode away, producing pools of maternal blood that bathe the chorionic villi c) The embryo's and mother's blood remain separated by the walls of the villi and their capillaries, so the two blood supplies do not actually mix i) Walls of the capillaries and chorionic villi act as barriers to some substances, including large proteins and most cells. ii) Some disease-causing organisms and many harmful chemicals can penetrate the placenta
Pollination
a) The process in which pollen is transferred to female reproductive organs of plants i) Pollen grain moves from Anther to Stigma on the Carpel b) Cross-pollination i) Movement of pollen from flower on one plant to stigma of flower on another plant of the same/similar species c) Self-pollination i) Movement of pollen from one flower to stigma of another flower on the same plant (1) Many plant species have mechanisms evolved to prevent this d) Pollinators i) Wind ii) Animals (1) Usually Insects (a) Sometimes (i) Bats (ii) Birds (iii) Reptiles
Theories and hypotheses
a) The unified insights of science are known as theories b) A theory is a general set of principles, supported by abundant evidence, that explains some aspect of nature. c) A hypothesis is a tentative, testable explanation that has not been proven true. The hypothesis may be tested through observation or through a series of experiments, as aided by statistical procedures. i) A better more insightful experiment or test may expand the questions or bring new evidence to the forefront ii) In science, every assertion regarding the natural world is subject to challenge and revision. d) One important aspect of science and the scientific method is that you CANNOT PROVE any hypothesis - i) you can only DISPROVE hypotheses based on the evidence you have. ii) However, hypotheses that have been tested repeatedly and not disproved and considered to be true based on the available evidence.
Alternative biofuel
a) We have a fossil fuel problem i) Make 79% of greenhouse gas emissions ii) Fossil fuels (1) Group of energy sources, carbon materials, etc. b) Pros and cons i) Cheap plentiful, income ii) Cons: pollutant, destructive, change in prices c) Pollution i) Causing climate change ii) 2015 was the hottest year on records iii) Oil spills (1) Kills fish iv) Acid Rains (1) Changes water ph, kills forests, etc. d) Biofuel i) Fuel derived directly from living matter ii) Corn to ethical: problem after (1) Expensive, need lots of land, herbicides and pesticides runoff and create problems (2) Problems with the food industry, most of corn goes to fuel e) Algree i) Algae produces more oil per acre than any other biofuel combined ii) Does Not compete with food iii) $9 gets us a kilogram of algae iv) It produces jobs (1) 220,000 jobs in the algree sector in the algae sector v) Renewable (1) Only takes 10 days to grow beginning to end vi) No harmful byproducts (1) Glycerine is the only byproduct (2) We can harvest it and use it for other things f) How does it work i) Only need light, sugar, C02, nitrogen, and phosphorus ii) Requires minimal water usage (1) Corn crops takes tons of it (2) Only need water to grow algae, still less overall iii) Don't have to use freshwater resources (1) Can use saltwater iv) Can use wastwater (1) Has nitrogen and phorpus too v) Has high lipid productivity per area of growth: efficient vi) To increase efficiency (1) GMO algae to adjust it to light resource (a) Lots of light: Florida (b) Less light: Alaska g) Production physiclites i) Primary at USC San Diego
Negative feedback
a) When a condition in the internal environment is altered, the alteration triggers a response and then the response reverse the altered condition b) Some activity alters a condition in the internal environment c) Alteration triggers a response d) Response reverses the altered condition e) Example i) RECEPTORS in skin and elsewhere detect the temperature change. ii) An INTEGRATOR (the hypothalamus, a brain region) compares input from the receptors against a set point. iii) Some EFFECTORS (pituitary gland and thyroid gland) trigger widespread adjustments.
Memory and effector cells
a) When a lymphocyte is triggered to divide, it produces 2 cell types: memory cells and effector cells. The memory cells are set aside for future use and the effector cells engage and destroy the current threat. b) Upon activation T and B cells differentiate into effector cells that perform critical effector functions such as producing cytotoxic anti pathogen molecules and antibodies, respectively. They also migrate to the site of infection and produce chemokines to recruit additional immune cells to eliminate infected cells. After successful completion of infection, a small fraction of the cells develop into long-lived memory T and B cells that protect against reinfection. c) Effector and memory cells are both forms of white blood cells. Memory cells, as their name suggests, memorize the diseases they have fought, and when that disease strikes again they know which antibodies need to be created against it, thus raising the body's natural immunity. Effector cells on the other hand are the soldiers of the body, they are the ones that create the antibodies to fight diseases or they are the ones that gobble up the infection via phagocytosis.
How fluids are transported through the xylem
a) Xylem: i) Water movement through xylem is driven by transpiration, meaning the loss of water from a plant, mostly through the leaves (1) Aided by capillary action (a) Cohesion among water molecules (b) Adhesion to the side of the xylem cells to combat the force of gravity ii) As water evaporates into the air, it pulls a continuous column of water upward through the plant iii) The energy for this process comes from the sun, whose rays power the evaporation of water at the leaf surface
Zygote, morula, blastula, gastrula, embryo, and fetus
a) Zygote: fusion of an egg and sperm b) Morula: solid ball of cells, first 5-7 divisions. c) Blastula: a hollow ball of cells. d) Gastrula: an embryo with three tissue layers e) Embryo: an organism in its earliest stages of development. Forms from the zygote. f) Fetus: prenatal organism between the embryonic stage and birth. Characterized by the presence of all major body organs i) In humans is when embryo is recognizably human (around 3 months)
four complex plant tissue types and the function of each
b) Complex plant tissue: made up of 2 more types of cells i) Ground tissue: "Everything Else" (1) Made up of simple plant tissue cells; located in the interior part of the plant (2) Functions: photosynthesis, storage, support ii) Dermal tissue (plant's outer covering) (1) Outermost cell layer(s) that forms a covering (2) Function: protection from invaders, waterproofing iii) Vascular tissue: (Plumbing) (1) Phloem: transports food, hormones, other compounds (2) Xylem: transports water and dissolved minerals iv) Meristematic tissue (Growth Tissue) (1) Produces all of the other tissue types; responsible for plant growth (2) Apical meristem: group of plant cells located at the tips of a root or shoot Dermal (plant's outer covering) -Outermost cell layer(s) that forms a covering -Function: protection from invaders, water-proofing Vascular (plumbing) -Phloem: transports food, hormones, other compounds -Xylem: transports water and dissolved minerals Ground (everything else) -Made up of simple plant tissue cells; located in the interior part of the plant -Photosynthesis, support, storage Meristematic (growth tissue) -Produces all of the other tissue types; responsible for plant growth -Apical meristem: group of plant cells located at the tips of a root or shoot
How fluids are transported through the phloem
b) Pholem i) Plants expend their own energy to load the sucrose they produce into the phloem sieve element cells ii) Once this takes place, there is a greater concentration of solutes inside the cells than outside them— (1) This brings about a flow of water into the cells through osmosis iii) The pressure that results from the increased water inside the cells is sufficient to move the solution of water and dissolved sucrose through the sieve element cells (1) They move from "source" (the cells into which the sugar was loaded) to "sink" (the cells in which the sugar is stored or used)
secondary growth in plants
b) Secondary Growth i) Plants increase in girth by secondary growth (1) Some plants only exhibit primary growth ii) Vascular cambium is a cylinder of meristem cells between the xylem and phloem iii) Cells push out from the cambium to create secondary xylem and secondary phloem (1) Secondary xylem is wood (2) This adds girth iv) Epidermis does not exhibit secondary growth and it dies v) It is replaced by a new lateral meristem, the cork cambium vi) Cork cells push out and replace the epidermis vii) Bark is all cells outside vascular cambium (1) Phloem, cork cambium, and cork c) Growth: Cell Division and Expansion i) By increasing cell number, cell division in meristems increases the potential for growth (1) Cell enlargement accounts for the actual increase in plant size ii) New cell walls form in a plane perpendicular to the main axis of cell expansion iii) Microtubules become concentrated into a ring that predicts the future plane of cell division \\ Secondary Growth • Plants increase in girth by secondary growth •Some plants only exhibit primary growth • Vascular cambium is a cylinder of meristem cells between the xylem and phloem • Cells push out from the cambium to create secondary xylem and secondary phloem •Secondary xylem is wood •This adds girth Secondary Growth Epidermis does not exhibit secondary growth and it dies • It is replaced by a new lateral meristem, the cork cambium • Cork cells push out and replace the epidermis • Bark is all cells outside vascular cambium •Phloem, cork cambium, and cork Growth: Cell Division and Cell Expansion • By increasing cell number, cell division in meristems increases the potential for growth • Cell enlargement accounts for the actual increase in plant size • New cell walls form in a plane perpendicular to the main axis of cell expansion • Microtubules become concentrated into a ring that predicts the future plane of cell divison
Hierarchy of life from cells to organisms
cell>tissue>organ>organ system>organism A cell is the smallest unit of life A tissue is a group of similar cells that perform a specific function A organ is composed of several tissue types A organ system is two or more organs working together to accomplish a function
Four types of macromolecules
our types of macromolecules a) Carbohydrates i) Composed of Carbon, hydrogen, and Oxygen in a 1:2:1 ration (1) CH2O (CArbon+water) ii) All Carbs are small water-soluble sugars or polymers of them like Starch iii) 1 sugar=monosaccharide Glucose (double bonded oxygen on top) (1) Fructose (Double bonded O2 on the right side, 2 carbons, and aH) iv) 2 sugar=disaccharide (1) Maltose (a) 2 glucose (b) Formed by a dehydration synthesis (c) C12H22O11 (i) Should be C12H24O12? (ii) Dehydration of 2 Hydrogen, and 1 Oxygen makes Water (2) Sucrose (a) Glucose+ Fructose (b) Same dehydration synthesis v) Sugar is soluble in water because of the hydroxyl group vi) Polsachardies (1) Starch (a) Form in which plants store glucose (2) Glycoegen (a) Form in which animals store glucose (3) Cellulose (a) Structural polysaccharide that forms the plant's cell walls (4) Chitin: Makes up coverings of insects, crabs, and spiders b) Proteins: i) Proteins make up Amino-acids ii) 20 Amino Acids that all have the same basic structure iii) iv) Amino Acids join to form proteins (1) Always bond on at the right carbon (2) The OH group and the H group break off for the amino acids to form, making a dehydration synthesis (a) v) Proteins are often referred to as Polypeptides because they are long chains of peptide bonds (1) 10-+ bonds vi) Protein structure (1) Primary Structure: the sequence of amino acids (a) Linked by peptide bonds (2) Secondary protein structure (a) Proteins do not remain as long two-dimensional chains (b) They bend, twist, or fold (i) Kept in shape by hydrogen bonds (c) Two most common secondary structures (i) Alpha helix Beta pleated sheet (3) Tertiary protein structure (a) After taking the secondary structure, a protein may continue to bend and twist to form tertiary structure (b) Bonds are formed among functional Groups (c) Globular or fibrous structure created (d) Hemoglobin has a tertiary structure (i) Alpha helices bonded to each other (ii) Heme group with iron in center to bind oxygen (4) Quaternary protein structure (a) After taking the tertiary structure, a polypeptide may bond with another polypeptide that has tertiary structure to make a complex protein with more than one subunit (b) Hemoglobin is a complex protein with four subunits of two different types vii) Denature: (1) to alter the conformational shape of a protein (2) Things that can cause a protein to denature: (a) pH (b) Temperature (c) Heavy metals viii) Proteins give us (1) Enzymes, Antibodies, Storage, Transport ,Contractile, and motor Hormonal Receptor Structural
