British Literature Test 3

Denotation

Denotation Denotation is generally defined as literal or dictionary meanings of a word in contrast to its connotative or associated meanings. Let us try to understand this term with the help of an example. If you search for meaning of the word "dove" in a dictionary, you will see that its meaning is "a type of pigeon, a wild and domesticated bird having a heavy body and short legs." In literature, however, you frequently see "dove" referred to as a symbol of peace. Denotation and Connotation In literary works, we find it a common practice with writers to deviate from the dictionary meanings of words to create fresher ideas and images. Such deviations from the literal meanings are called the use of figurative language or literary devices e.g. metaphors, similes, personifications, hyperboles, understatements, paradoxes, and puns etc. Even in our daily conversation, we diverge from the dictionary meanings of words and prefer connotative or associated meanings of words in order to accurately convey our message. Below is a list of some common deviations from denotative meanings of words that we experience in our day to day life: A dog is used to suggest shamelessness or an ugly face. A dove is used to suggest peace or gentility. Home is used to suggest family, comfort and security. Politician has a negative connotation of wicked and insincere person Pushy refers to someone loud-mouthed and irritating. Mom and Dad when used instead of mother and father suggest loving parents. Denotation Examples in Literature Let us analyze a few examples from literature: 1. An example of denotation literary term can be found in the poetic work of Robert Frost's "Mending Wall": "And on a day we meet to walk the line And set the wall between us once again. We keep the wall between us as we go. To each the boulders that have fallen to each." In the above lines, the word "wall" is used to suggest a physical boundary which is its denotative meaning but it also implies the idea of "emotional barrier". 2. William Wordsworth in his poem "A Slumber Did My Spirit Seal" says: "A slumber did my spirit seal; I had no human fears- She seemed a thing that could not feel The touch of earthly years. No motion has she now, no force; She neither hears nor sees; Roll'd round in earth's diurnal course With rocks, and stones, and trees." Wordsworth makes a contrast between a living girl and a dead girl in the first and second stanza respectively. We are familiar to the meanings of the words used in the last line of the second stanza; rock, stone and tree but the poet uses them connotatively where rock and stone imply cold and inanimate object and the tree suggests dirt and thus the burial of that dead girl. 3. Look at the following lines from Shakespeare's play "As you Like It": "All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts," Shakespeare moves away from the denotative meanings of words in the above lines in order to give a symbolic sense to a few words. "a stage" symbolizes the world, "players" suggests human beings and "parts" implies different stages of their lives. 4. Sara Teasdale in her poem "Wild Asters" develops a number of striking symbols by deviating from the denotative meanings of the words: "In the spring, I asked the daisies If his words were true, And the clever, clear-eyed daisies Always knew. Now the fields are brown and barren, Bitter autumn blows, And of all the stupid asters Not one knows." In the above lines, "spring" and "daisies" are symbol of youth. "Brown and barren" are a symbol of transition from the youth to the old age. Moreover, "Bitter Autumn" symbolizes death. Function of Denotation Readers are familiar with denotations of words but denotations are generally restricted meanings. Writers, therefore, deviate from the denotative meanings of words to create fresh ideas and images that add deeper levels of meanings to common and ordinary words. Readers find it convenient to grasp the connotative meanings of words because of the fact that they are familiar to their literal meanings.

Ad Hominem

Ad hominem (Latin) means "against the man". As the name suggests, it is a literary term that involves commenting on or against an opponent to undermine him instead of his arguments. There are cases where consciously or unconsciously people start to question the opponent or his personal association rather than evaluating the soundness and validity of the argument that he presents. These types of arguments are usually mistaken for personal insults but they are somehow different in nature and the distinction is very subtle. Arguers who are not familiar with the principles of making logical arguments commonly end up saying something that would draw the audience's attention to the distasteful characteristics of the individual. Such people use this fallacy as a tool to deceive their audience. Making such a blatant personal comment against somebody makes it hard for people to believe it isn't true. Typically, even the arguer himself believes that such personal traits or circumstances are not enough to dispose of an individual's opinion or argument. However, if looked at rationally, such arguments even if true never provide a valid reason to disregard someone's criticism. Ad Hominem Examples 1. Just look at this common example. "How can you argue your case for vegetarianism when you are enjoying your steak?" This clearly shows how a person is attacked instead of being addressed for or against his argument. 2. A classic example of ad hominem fallacy is given below: A: "All murderers are criminals, but a thief isn't a murderer, and so can't be a criminal." B: "Well, you're a thief and a criminal, so there goes your argument." 3. Another example of ad hominem fallacy is taken from Velonews: The Journal of Competitive Cycling. After an article about the retirement of Lance Armstrong, its webpage shared a post with its readers. A commenter posted a comment saying how great an athlete Armstrong was and that the people should be proud of his achievements. Functions of Ad Hominem A writer's background is considered to be a very important factor when it comes to judging his work. A book written on a particular subject in history will be perceived differently keeping in view the background of the author. Therefore, it is important to understand that a writer's traits and circumstances have a pivotal role to play in his feelings, thinking and the construction of his arguments. To put it simply, the considerations regarding the use of ad hominem can explain certain arguments and the motives behind them better. Nevertheless, such considerations are not enough on their own to evaluate an individual's opinion and are certainly not sufficient to disregard them as false or invalid. The fact is that ad hominem is a kind of fallacy that leaves a great impression on the audience's mind. It is an argumentative flaw that is hard to spot in our daily life. Although, the personal attack that has been made on the opponent might not even have a speck of truth in it, it somehow makes the audience biased. Ironically, despite being flawed, ad hominem has an amazing power of persuasion. The worst thing about using ad hominem purposely is that an opponent insults you publicly. Whenever this happens to you, you must recover from the humiliation and then point out the false connection in the argument, which was used a trap for the audience. Moreover, the dilemma with ad hominem is that once it has been used against you it smears your reputation. Once somebody makes such a judgmental argument about you, the audience instead of evaluating it on logical grounds take it to be true.

Adage

Adage An adage is a short, pointed and memorable saying based on facts, and is considered a veritable truth by the majority of people. Famous adages become popular due to their usage over a long period of time. In fact, an adage expresses a general fact or truth about life. As it becomes popular, it is then accepted as a universal truth. For instance, "God helps those who help themselves" is now considered a universal truth because of its usage throughout the human history. Often repeated sayings and quotes become adages that pass on to many generations. However, some adages are metaphoric, having hidden meanings, and embody common observations. Sometimes, proverbs are also referred as adages, but there is a slight difference. Adage vs. Proverb Both these terms are sayings, and convey a deeper meaning. However, there are some differences between them. A proverb has a practical aspect, but it is a common belief that an adage is true to have been tested in various ages. The adage is more general term than a proverb; therefore, proverbs could be adages as Merriam Webster also defines proverbs as adages. Adages are general truths with universal applications, reflecting wisdom, whereas proverbs are more traditional and are often used in everyday speeches. Examples of Adage from Literature Many authors have employed adages in their works such as C.S Lewis, Geoffrey Chaucer, William Shakespeare, Benjamin Franklin, J.K Rowling, Aesop, George Bernard Shaw, Friedrich Nietzsche and many others. Example 1 Tis better to have loved and lost Than never to have loved at all. (In Memoriam by Alfred Lord Tennyson) In these lines, Tennyson is giving advice about having love, which is a clear used in literary texts even today. Example 2 All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players. They have their exits and their entrances, And one man in his time plays many parts, His acts being seven ages. (As You Like It by William Shakespeare) This is the most frequently quoted adage by Shakespeare. Here he has made a comparison between the world and stage as well as between life and play. He also refers seven stages in life of humans to seven ages of humans. Example 3 From Aesop Fables Things are not always what they seem. (Bee-Keeper and the Bees) Appearances often are deceiving. (The Wolf in Sheep's Clothing) Slow and steady wins the race. (The Hare and the Tortoise) The following lines are very popular in literature as well as in everyday use. People use these adages in their common speeches as witty sayings. Example 4 God helps those who help themselves. Put the cart before the horse. To call a spade a spade. (From Adagia by Desiderius Erasmus) Erasmus is famous for using adages in his works. The given lines commonly used sayings that we find in our daily conversation, which initially were started as sayings and now accepted as a universal truth. Example 5 Don't cast your pearls before swine. — Matthew 7:6 More blessed to give than to receive. — Acts 20:35 Pride goes before a fall. — 16:19 To everything there is a season — Ecclesiastes 3:1 (From Bible) Bible has also employed adages with deeper and moral meanings. The purpose of these sayings is to educate and give awareness to the readers. Example 6 Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise. Eat to live, and not live to eat. To err is human, to repent divine; to persist devilish. Well done is better than well said. A penny saved is a penny earned. (Poor Richard's Almanack by Benjamin Franklin) Franklin published this book on a yearly basis from 17432-1758, which became popular due to extensive use of witty adages and wordplay. These are some popular adages used to this day. Function of Adage Adages are not only found in literature, but also in advertising and scripts of films. The first major function of adage is to give awareness to the readers about some facts of life. Secondly, adages are applicable in any circumstance or situation, as they convey deeper meanings of wisdom. Most of these sayings are witty and suggest a moral lesson, having long lasting impacts of universal application of truths contained in them. They become imprinted on the minds of the users. Moreover, they sum up the moral lesson of a story such as in Aesop's Fables. The authors use this device to make their works effective, compact and rich.

Allegory

Allegory is a figure of speech in which abstract ideas and principles are described in terms of characters, figures and events. It can be employed in prose and poetry to tell a story with a purpose of teaching an idea and a principle or explaining an idea or a principle. The objective of its use is to preach some kind of a moral lesson. Difference between Allegory and Symbolism Although an allegory uses symbols, it is different from symbolism. An allegory is a complete narrative which involves characters, and events that stand for an abstract idea or an event. A symbol, on the other hand, is an object that stands for another object giving it a particular meaning. Unlike allegory, symbolism does not tell a story. For example, Plato in his "Allegory of Cave" tells a story of how some people are ignorant and at the same time, some people "see the light" - stands for an idea and does not tell a story. Examples of Allegory in Everyday Life Allegory is an archaic term and used specifically in literary works. It is difficult to spot its occurrence in everyday life, although recently, we do find example of allegory in political debates. The declaration of an ex-US president G.W Bush was allegorical when he used the term "Axis of Evil" for three countries and later the term "allies" for those countries that would wage war against the "Axis". Allegory Examples in Literature Below are some famous examples of Allegory in Literature: 1. "Animal Farm", written by George Orwell, is an allegory that uses animals on a farm to describe the overthrow of the last of the Russian Tsar Nicholas II and the Communist Revolution of Russia before WW II. The actions of the animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the revolution. It also describes how powerful people can change the ideology of a society. One of the cardinal rules on the farm for the animals is: "All animals are equal but a few are more equal than others." The animals on the farm represent different sections of Russian society after the revolution. For instance, the pigs represent those who came to power following the revolution; "Mr. Jones" the owner of the farm represents the overthrown Tsar Nicholas II; while "Boxer" the horse, represents the laborer class etc. The use of allegory in the novel allows Orwell to make his position clear about the Russian Revolution and expose its evils. 2. "Faerie Queen", a masterpiece of Edmund Spenser, is a moral and religious allegory. The good characters of book stand for the various virtues, while the bad characters represent vices. "The Red-Cross Knight" represents holiness while "Lady Una" represents truth, wisdom and goodness. Her parents symbolize the human race. The "Dragon" which has imprisoned them stands for evil. The mission of holiness is to help the truth, fight evil, and thus regain its rightful place in the hearts of human beings. "The Red-Cross Knight" in this poem also represents the reformed church of England fighting against the "Dragon" which stands for the Papacy or the Catholic Church. 3. John Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" is an example of spiritual allegory. The ordinary sinner "Christian" leaves the City of Destruction and travels towards Celestial City, where God resides, for salvation. He finds "Faithful", a companion who helps him on his way to the City. On many instances, many characters "Hypocrisy", "Apollyon", "Mr. Worldy Wiseman" and "Obstinate and Pliable" try to discourage or stop him from achieving his aim. Finally, he reaches the Celestial City carried by Hopeful's faith. The moral learnt through this allegory is that the road to Heaven is not easy and it is full of obstacles. A Christian has to be willing to pay any price to achieve salvation. A man is full of sins, but this does not stop him from achieving glory. Function of Allegory Writers use allegory to add different layers of meanings to their works. Allegory makes their stories and characters multidimensional, so that they stand for something larger in meaning than what they literally stand for. Allegory allows writers to put forward their moral and political point of views. A careful study of an allegorical piece of writing can give us an insight into its writer's mind as how he views the world and how he wishes the world to be.

Alliteration

Alliteration Alliteration is derived from Latin's "Latira". It means "letters of alphabet". It is a stylistic device in which a number of words, having the same first consonant sound, occur close together in a series. Consider the following examples: But a better butter makes a batter better. A big bully beats a baby boy. Both sentences are alliterative because the same first letter of words (B) occurs close together and produces alliteration in the sentence. An important point to remember here is that alliteration does not depend on letters but on sounds. So the phrase not knotty is alliterative, but cigarette chase is not. Common Examples of Alliteration In our daily life, we notice alliteration in the names of different companies. It makes the name of a company catchy and easy to memorize. Here are several common alliteration examples. Dunkin' Donuts PayPal Best Buy Coca-Cola Life Lock Park Place American Apparel American Airlines Chuckee Cheese's Bed Bath & Beyond Krispy Kreme The Scotch and Sirloin We also find alliterations in names of people, making such names prominent and easy to be remembered. For instance, both fictional characters and real people may stand out prominently in your mind due to the alliterative effects of their names. Examples are: Ronald Reagan Sammy Sosa Jesse Jackson Michael Moore William Wordsworth Mickey Mouse Porky Pig Lois Lane Marilyn Monroe Fred Flintstone Donald Duck Spongebob Squarepants Seattle Seahawks Alliteration Examples in Literature Example #1 From Samuel Taylor Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" "The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, The furrow followed free; We were the first that ever burst Into that silent sea." In the above lines we see alliteration ("b", "f" and "s") in the phrases "breeze blew", "foam flew", "furrow followed", and "silent sea". Example #2 From James Joyce's "The Dead" "His soul swooned slowly as he heard the snow falling faintly through the universe and faintly falling, like the descent of their last end, upon all the living and the dead." We notice several instances of alliteration in the above mentioned prose work of James Joyce. Alliterations are with "s" and "f" in the phrases "swooned slowly" and falling faintly". Example #3 From Maya Angelou's "I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings" "Up the aisle, the moans and screams merged with the sickening smell of woolen black clothes worn in summer weather and green leaves wilting over yellow flowers." Maya gives us a striking example of alliteration in the above extract with the letters "s" and "w". We notice that alliterative words are interrupted by other non-alliterative words among them but the effect of alliteration remains the same. We immediately notice alliteration in the words "screams", "sickening smell", "summer", "weather" and wilting". Example #4 From William Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet" (prologue to Act 1) "From forth the fatal loins of these two foes; A pair of star-cross'd lovers take their life." This is an example of alliteration with the "f" and "l." in words "forth, fatal, foes" and "lion, lovers, and life". Example #5 Percy Bysshe Shelley's (English Romantic poet) "The Witch of Atlas" is a famous poem that is full of examples of alliterations. Just a few of them are "wings of winds" (line 175), "sick soul to happy sleep" (line 178), "cells of crystal silence" (line 156), "Wisdom's wizard. . . wind. . . will" (lines 195-197), "drained and dried" ( line 227), "lines of light" (line 245), "green and glowing" (line 356), and crudded. . . cape of cloud" (lines 482-3). Function of Alliteration Alliteration has a very vital role in poetry and prose. It creates a musical effect in the text that enhances the pleasure of reading a literary piece. It makes reading and recitation of the poems attractive and appealing; thus, making them easier to learn by heart. Furthermore, it renders flow and beauty to a piece of writing. In the marketing industry, as what we have already discussed, alliteration makes the brand names interesting and easier to remember. This literary device is helpful in attracting customers and enhancing sales.

Ambiguity

Ambiguity Ambiguity or fallacy of ambiguity is a word, phrase, or statement which contains more than one meaning. Ambiguous words or statements lead to vagueness and confusion, and shape the basis for instances of unintentional humor. For instance, it is ambiguous to say "I rode a black horse in red pajamas," because it may lead us to think the horse was wearing red pajamas. The sentence becomes clear when it is restructured "Wearing red pajamas, I rode a black horse." Similarly, same words with different meanings can cause ambiguity e.g. "John took off his trousers by the bank." It is funny if we confuse one meaning of "bank" which is a building, to another meaning, being "an edge of a river". Context usually resolves any ambiguity in such cases. Common Ambiguity Examples Below are some common examples of ambiguity: A good life depends on a liver - Liver may be an organ or simply a living person. Foreigners are hunting dogs - It is unclear whether dogs were being hunted or foreigners are being spoken of as dogs. Each of us saw her duck - It is not clear whether the word "duck" refers to an action of ducking or a duck that is a bird. The passerby helps dog bite victim - Is the passerby helping a dog bite someone? Or is he helping a person bitten by a dog? It's not clear. Examples of Ambiguity in Literature Although ambiguity is considered a flaw in writing, many writers use this technique to allow readers to understand their works in a variety of ways, giving them depth and complexity. Let us analyze some ambiguity examples in literature. Example #1 Read the following excerpt from "The Catcher in the Rye" by J. D. Salinger: "I ran all the way to the main gate, and then I waited a second till I got my breath. I have no wind, if you want to know the truth. I'm quite a heavy smoker, for one thing—that is, I used to be. They made me cut it out. Another thing, I grew six and a half inches last year. That's also how I practically got t.b. and came out here for all these goddam checkups and stuff. I'm pretty healthy though." The words "they" and "here" used by the speaker are ambiguous. But the readers are allowed to presume from the context that "they" might be the professionals helping out Holden and "here" might be a rehabilitation center. Example #2 "The Sick Rose", a short lyric written by William Blake, is full of ambiguities: "O Rose thou art sick. The invisible worm, That flies in the night In the howling storm: Has found out thy bed Of crimson joy; And his dark secret love Does thy life destroy" Many of the words in the above lines show ambiguity. We cannot say for sure what "crimson bed of joy" means; neither can we be exact about the interpretation of "dark secret love". The ambiguous nature of such phrases allows readers to explore for deeper meanings of the poem. Some of those who have analyzed this poem believe that "Has found out thy bed, Of crimson joy" refers to making love. Example #3 On a larger scale, ambiguity may develop in a character or in an entire story. For instance, Hamlet is a morally ambiguous character. He kills to avenge his father's murder. He is good because he wants to protect his mother but he is bad because he is willing to kill whom he must to achieve this end. The ambiguity in Hamlet's character is seen when he is hurt by the death of "Ophelia" which is his personal loss, but he does not appreciate the effect that his actions are going to have on others. Example #4 We find ambiguity in the first line of Keats's "Ode to a Grecian Urn": "Thou still unravish'd bride of quietness," The use of word "still" is ambiguous in nature. "Still" here may mean "an unmoving object" or it may be interpreted as "yet unchanged". Function of Ambiguity Ambiguity in literature serves the purpose of lending a deeper meaning to a literary work. By introducing ambiguity in their works, writers give liberty to the readers to use their imagination to explore meanings. This active participation of the readers involves them in the prose or poetry they read.

Biography

Biography A biography is simply a bio that gives an account or detailed description about the life of a person. It entails basic facts such as childhood, education, career, relationships, family and death. Biography is a literary genre that portrays the experiences of all these events occurred in the life of a person mostly in a chronological order. Unlike a resume or profile, biography provides life story of a subject, highlighting different aspects of his/her life. The person or the writer, who writes biographies, is called as a biographer. Types of Biography There are three types of biography: Autobiography It tells the story of a person's life, who writes it himself or herself. However, sometimes he/she may take guidance from a ghostwriter or collaborator. Biography It narrates the life story of a person written by another person or writer. It is further divided into five categories: Popular biography Historical biography Literary biography Reference biography Fictional biography Memoir This is a more focused term than an autobiography or a biography. In a memoir, a writer himself/herself narrates the details of a particular event or situation occurred in his/her lifetime. Examples of Biography in Literature Example 1 Shakespeare: A Life by Park Honan It is the most accurate, up-to-date and complete narrative ever written about the life of Shakespeare. Park Honan has used rich and fresh information about Shakespeare in order to change the perceptions of the readers for the playwright and his role as a poet and actor. This book completely differs from other biographies that imagine different roles for him, commenting on his sexual relationships and colorful intrigues. Though detailed psychological theories and imaginative reforms about him could be amusing, in fact, they damage credibility of the sources. Therefore, many attempts have been made to know about him, which is not a new thing but this one is a unique example. Example 2 Arthur Miller: Attention Must Be Paid by James Campbell This biography is written in the form of a drama presented in just two acts. In the first act, author shows the famous dramatist in his early success, having love of the most beloved woman of the world and resistance to tyranny. However, in the second act of this biography, author shows hero was badly assaulted and ridiculed by a rowdy mob called critics, who are expelled from the conventional theater. He ends his book "Arthur Miller" with rhetorical details related to a revitalization in the fortunes of the playwright. Example 3 The Life of Samuel Johnson by James Boswell It is frequently hyped as a perfect example of modern biography and all-time best example in English language. This masterpiece of James Boswell has covered the whole life of ubiquitous literary writer, Samuel Johnson, with whom James was well acquainted on account of his subject of study. The unique quality of this book is that it shows Johnson as a walking intellectual amongst us. Example 4 The Bronte Myth by Lucasta Miller Emily, Anne and Charlotte Bronte were very famous and eminent writers in the history of English literature, but many rumors and gossips were associated with them when they reached the peak of their career and received great approval for writing the most admired novels during nineteenth century. In their biography, Lucasta Miller chunks the myths related to these young enigmatic women. This is a fine example of a biography. Example 5 Why this World: A Biography of Clarice Lispector by Benjamin Moser After perusing his own private manuscripts and writings, this modernist writer, Benjamin Moser has explored mystique surrounding of Clarice Lispector. This is one of her biographies that come a little closer to finding her true nuances. All those readers, who are going to read her myriad work for the first time, they would find this biography interesting, and her life as beautiful and tragic but yet riveting. Function of Biography The function of writing biographies is to provide details regarding the life of a person or a thing in an entertaining but informative manner. By the end of a biography, the readers feel like they are well acquainted with the subject. Biographies are often non-fictional, but many biographers also use novel-like format, because a story line would be become more entertaining with the inclusion of strong exposition, rising conflict and then climax. Besides, the most inspirational life stories could motivate and put confidence into the readers.

Cadence

Cadence Cadence is derived from a Latin word "cadentia" that means "a falling". It is the term used to signal the rising and falling of the voice when reading a literary piece. In poetry, it is the momentary changes in rhythm and pitch. Cadences help set the rhythmic paces of a literary piece. Types of Cadences Most of the cadence examples in literature fall under either one of these: Imperfect or half cadence - In poetry, a half cadence is a pause. Half cadence is represented with a comma and semi-colon in poetry and prose. This rhythm does not sound final and often the lines end with indecisive tension. 2. Perfect or authentic cadence - It comes at the end of the phrase in a poem. Examples of Cadence in Literature Example #1 "The curved cane chair has dented cushions, the cats Catch spiders and craneflies on the wardrobe tops, The guitar lies in its funeral case, the road is quiet, The apple trees have dropped their fruit in the grass; Rain is coming in from the west; the garden is lush and damp, The draught is over, and the day is at the eleventh hour, Sleep is nearly here on fern-patterned pillowcases, Books slither to the floor, cats is stretched on the quit;" (Painting of a Bedroom with Cats by Elizabeth Bartlett) In this poem, cadence appears in the middle of the fourth line of each stanza that gives the speech a pause. This pause is shown by a semi-colon. It also gives a momentary variation to the rhythm of poem. Example #2 "Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore— While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, "'Tis some visiter," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door— And the Raven, never flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting On the pallid bust of Pallas just above my chamber door; And his eyes have all the seeming of a demon's that is dreaming, And the lamp-light o'er him streaming throws his shadow on the floor; And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor." (The Raven by Edgar Allan Poe) The Raven is a perfect example of cadence. Here we can see breaks and ends within a piece of poetry. These endings come in the middle of the poem represented by dashes and semi-colons. Due to these pauses, it speeds up and slows down the tone of the whole poem. Example #3 "It is not the sunset Nor the pale green sky Shimmering through the curtain Of the silver birch, Nor the quietness; It is not the hopping Of the little birds Upon the lawn, Nor the darkness Stealing over all things That moves me..." (London by F. S. Flint) The style of this poem is a free verse that does not have a distinct meter. Since most of the free verse poems have cadences, the same is the case here. In this poem, cadence is used in the middle as a little pause that changes the rise and fall of the tone when reading out loudly. Function of Cadence Cadence is a musical movement. It can be described by melodic, rhythmic or harmonic characteristics. It is used to establish sectional articulation and closure. However, the basic purpose of cadence is a communicative function that indicates to the listeners when a part ends and therefore helps them elucidate the formal composition of the piece. Cadences are used in poetry and in music where they sync with a variety of musical idioms. Poets use cadence to put rhythm in their poems. Cadence plays a significant role in making the sounds and the senses in a poem connect to each other.

Caricature

Caricature is a device used in descriptive writing and visual arts where particular aspects of a subject are exaggerated to create a silly or comic effect. In other words, it can be defined as a plastic illustration, derisive drawing or a portrayal based on exaggeration of the natural features, which gives a humorous touch to the subject. During the 16th century, numerous painters (Holbein, Bruegel, and Bosch for example) used particular aspects of caricature in their work. However, it did not involve anything comic until the 17th century. . Later, in the 18th century, Carracci introduced caricature in a witty way in his work. Caricatures started gaining popularity in England when artists like Hogarth, Rowlandson, and Gillray followed Carracci's footsteps. The genre slowly developed to accommodate social and political satire as well. Caricature Examples Several authors have written about how President Obama is unpredictable. A piece of writing was published in The New York Times that shed light on this particular subject by highlighting how people have exaggerated certain aspects of the President's personality. Example #1 Following is an excerpt from the same paper by Matt Bai: "Over the course of the last several weeks, commentators have taken to portraying Mr. Obama as clinical and insufficiently emotive, which is really just another way of saying the president is not really knowable. It is a caricature his opponents can exploit in part because a lot of voters remain murky on his cultural identity." (Matt Bai, "Ethnic Distinctions, No Longer So Distinctive." The New York Times, June 29, 2010) Caricature arises from the forcing and the embellishment of the basic rule of good description, that is, the principle of the dominant impression. Function of Caricature The caricature examples above have underlined the functions and role of caricature and how it has evolved in modern day literature. Coming up with novel ideas to explain oneself and the nature of the human race in general is not something new to the world. This sort of representation has been witnessed since the time when men lived in caves. Caricature was introduced to the masses during the age of enlightenment and it bestowed the age it belongs to, with its subtlety and critical attitude. As a branch of modernism, it played a great role in expressing facts that were suppressed because of the conformists in the society at that point in time. It was a reminder for those who believed that the sword was mightier than the pen and it started being used as a visual expression of conventional society. Nowadays, caricature is a highly dignified form of art that is approved of and used worldwide. Newspaper editors show great respect for the artists who create the caricatures for their papers and therefore, are allowed to publish caricatures that might even represent a conflicting ideology. Where this distinctive form of art can be used to portray important and transforming social and political ideas, can also end up being provocative to certain groups. Underdeveloped countries have had a hard time warming up to this form of expression because they believe it is a creation of evil by governments.

Catharsis

Catharsis A Catharsis is an emotional discharge through which one can achieve a state of moral or spiritual renewal or achieve a state of liberation from anxiety and stress. Catharsis is a Greek word and it means cleansing. In literature it is used for the cleansing of emotions of the characters. It can also be any other radical change that leads to emotional rejuvenation of a person. Originally, the term was used as a metaphor in Poetics by Aristotle to explain the impact of tragedy on the audiences. He believed that catharsis was the ultimate end of a tragic artistic work and it marked its quality. He further said in Poetics: "Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; . . . through pity [eleos] and fear [phobos] effecting the proper purgation [catharsis] of these emotions" (c. 350 BCE, Book 6.2). Catharsis Examples Example #1 "Macbeth" by William Shakespeare William Shakespeare wrote two of the famous examples of catharsis. One of these catharsis examples is his tragic drama "Macbeth". This play presents a great example of catharsis. The audience and readers of Macbeth usually pity the tragic central figure of the play because he was blinded by his destructive preoccupation with ambition. In Act 1 he is made the thane of Cawdor by King Duncan, which makes him a prodigy, well-regarded for his valor and talent. However, the era of his doom starts when he, like most people, gets carried away by ambition and the supernatural world as well. Subsequently, he loses his wife, his veracity and eventually his life. The temptation of ambition robs him of the essence of his existence as a human being and leaves behind nothing but discontent and a worthless life. In Act V, Macbeth (5.5.24-28) gathers this idea in his soliloquy. He says while speaking of his life: "...a poor player That struts and frets his hour upon the stage And then is heard no more. It is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing" Example #2 "Romeo and Juliet" by William Shakespeare "Here's to my love! [Drinks] O true apothecary! Thy drugs are quick. Thus with a kiss I die. [Falls]" In "Romeo and Juliet", Romeo commits suicide by drinking the poison that he erroneously thinks Juliet had tasted too. The audience usually finds themselves crying at this particular moment for several reasons. Primarily because losing a loved one is a feeling that all of us share. Watching or reading such a scene triggers the memories of someone we have lost (either by death or by mere separation) and because we are able to relate to it, we suddenly release the emotions that we have been repressing. Function of Catharsis: Dramatic uses In dramatic art the term catharsis explains the impact of tragedy, comedy or any other form of art on the audience and in some cases even on the performers themselves. Aristotle did not elaborate on the meaning of "catharsis" and the way he used it in defining tragedy in the Poetics (1449b21-28). According to G.F. Else, the conventional and the most prevalent explanation of catharsis as "purgation" or "cleansing" does not have a basis in the Poetics. It has rather stemmed from other non-Aristotelian and Aristotelian contexts. Such confusion regarding the origin of the term has led to assorted interpretations of its meaning. An authoritative version of the Poetics by D.W. Lucas thoroughly covered, in an Appendix dedicated to "Pity, Fear, and Katharsis", the different shades of meaning and aspects inherent in the interpretation of the word (Aristotle: Poetics, Oxford, 1968, pp. 276-79). Lucas identifies that there is a chance that catharsis may have some aspect of meanings like "purgation", "intellectual clarification" and "purification". However, the kind of discussion he conducts on these terms is not as precise as other leading scholars would want it to be. He does not consider any interpretations other than his own and rather takes a different approach. His approach is centered on "the Greek doctrine of Humours", which was not received too well. The most common interpretations of the term are purgation and purification, and are still widely used. The most recent interpretation of the term catharsis is "intellectual clarification"..

Consonance

Consonance Consonance refers to repetitive sounds produced by consonants within a sentence or phrase. This repetition often takes place in quick succession such as in pitter, patter. It is classified as a literary term used in both poetry as well as prose. For instance, the words chuckle, fickle, and kick are consonant with one and other due to the existence of common interior consonant sounds (/ck/). The literary device of consonance is inherently different from assonance which involves the repetition of similar vowel sounds within a word, sentence, or phrase. Another distinction to be appreciated is that of between consonance and rhyme. In the case of rhyme, consonant sounds can be present at the beginning, middle, or end of several successive words, rather than merely at the ends of words. Further, the device of consonance needs to be distinguished from alliteration. In contrast to alliteration, consonance involves repetition of consonant sounds only. William Harmon his book A Handbook on Literature notes that "most so-called eye rhymes (such as 'word' and 'lord,' or 'blood,' 'food,' and 'good') are the most common examples. Common Consonance Examples The ship has sailed to the far off shores. She ate seven sandwiches on a sunny Sunday last year. Shelley sells shells by the seashore. Examples of Consonance 1. The following lines from a song also show how consonant sounds have been used repeatedly. "Rap rejects my tape deck, ejects projectile Whether Jew or gentile, I rank top percentile Many styles, more powerful than gamma rays My grammar pays, like Carlos Santana plays." (The lines have been taken from the song 'Zealots 'by Fugees.) 2. Just like the poem "T was later when the summer went" by Emily Dickson: 'T was later when the summer went Than when the cricket came, And yet we knew that gentle clock Meant nought but going home. 'T was sooner when the cricket went Than when the winter came, Yet that pathetic pendulum Keeps esoteric time. It can be seen from the lines that Emily Dickinson has made use of the consonant "m" frequently in the italicized words. 3. "Shall I Wasting in Despair" is another example written by George Wither. Great, or good, or kind, or fair, I will ne'er the more despair; If she love me, this believe, I will die ere she shall grieve; If she slight me when I woo, I can scorn and let her go; For if she be not for me, What care I for whom she be? Here the use of consonance can be seen through the letters such as r, d, and f. 4. Another poem by Dickinson that makes good use of consonance is "As imperceptibly as Grief". A Quietness distilled As Twilight long begun, Or Nature spending with herself Sequestered Afternoon- Here Emily Dickinson has relied on the consonant "n" to create the intended effect. Functions of Consonance Consonance is commonly employed in a range of situations ranging from poetry to prose writing. However, as the above narrated examples highlight, the use of consonance is significantly greater in poetry writing than its use in the prose form. The use of consonance provides the structure of poetry with a rhyming effect. The writer normally employs the tool of consonance for the purpose of reiterating the significance of an idea or theme. Further, the use of the device makes the structure of poetry or prose appealing for the reader. The poet generally makes use of consonance in an attempt to underscore the emotions behind their words that simple words cannot convey. Furthermore, the use of consonance adds a lyrical feeling to the poetry that otherwise cannot be added. The significance of the use of consonance in poetry is enhanced by the fact that it is often used to make the imagery employed clearer. It acts as a tool that enables the poet to formulate a fine and powerful structure for his poetry and create a background for the themes underlying the poetry.

Diction

Diction Diction can be defined as style of speaking or writing determined by the choice of words by a speaker or a writer. Diction or choice of words separates good writing from bad writing. It depends on a number of factors. Firstly, the word has to be right and accurate. Secondly, words should be appropriate to the context in which they are used. Lastly, the choice of words should be such that the listener or readers understand easily. Besides, proper diction or proper choice of words is important to get the message across. On the contrary, the wrong choice of words can easily divert listeners or readers which results in misinterpretation of the message intended to be conveyed. Types of Diction Individuals vary their diction depending on different contexts and settings. Therefore, we come across various types of diction. It may be "formal" where formal words are used in formal situations e.g. press conferences, presentations etc. Similarly, we use "informal" diction in informal situations like writing or talking to our friends. Moreover, a "colloquial" diction uses words common in everyday speech. "Slang" is the use of words that are impolite or newly coined. Diction Examples in Literature Depending on the topics at hand, writers tend to vary their diction. Let us see some examples of diction in literature: Example #1 Keats in his "Ode to the Grecian Urn" uses formal diction to achieve a certain effect. He goes: "Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard Are sweeter: therefore, ye soft pipes, play on" Notice the use of formal "ye" instead of informal "you". The formality here is due to the respect the urn inspires in Keats. In the same poem he says: "Ah, happy, happy boughs! that cannot shed Your leaves, nor ever bid the spring adieu." It is more formal to use "adieu" than to say "goodbye". Example #2 In sharp contrast to Keats, John Donne uses colloquialism in his poem "The Sun Rising": "Busy old fool, unruly Sun, Why dost thou thus, Through windows, and through curtains, call on us? Must to thy motions lovers' seasons run? Saucy pedantic wretch," Treating the sun as a real human being, the poet speaks to the sun in an informal way using colloquial expressions. He rebukes the sun because the sun has appeared to spoil the good time he is having with his beloved. Further, he orders the "saucy pedantic sun" to go away. Example #3 Writers' skillfully choose words to develop a certain tone and atmosphere in their works. Read the following excerpt from a short story "The School" by Donald Barthelme: "And the trees all died. They were orange trees. I don't know why they died, they just died. Something wrong with the soil possibly or maybe the stuff we got from the nursery wasn't the best. We complained about it. So we've got thirty kids there, each kid had his or her own little tree to plant and we've got these thirty dead trees. All these kids looking at these little brown sticks, it was depressing." The use of the words "died", "dead", "brown sticks" and "depressing" gives a gloomy tone to the passage. Example #4 Sometimes writers repeat their chosen words or phrases to achieve an artistic effect. Read the following example from " A Tale of Two Cities" by Charles Dickens: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair." By repeating the phrase "It was..." throughout the passage, the writer ensures that the readers will give more consideration to characteristic of the "age" they are going to read about in the novel. Function of Diction In literature, writers choose words to create and convey a typical mood, tone and atmosphere to their readers. A writer's choice of words and his selection of graphic words not only affects the reader's attitude but also conveys the writer's feelings toward the literary work. Moreover, poetry is known for its unique diction that separates it from prose. Usually, a poetic diction is marked by the use of figures of speech, rhyming words etc.

Foreshadowing

Foreshadowing Foreshadowing is a literary device in which a writer gives an advance hint of what is to come later in the story. Foreshadowing often appears at the beginning of a story or a chapter and helps the reader develop expectations about the coming events in a story. There are various ways of creating a foreshadowing. A writer may use dialogues of characters to hint at what may occur in future. In addition, any event or action in the story may throw a hint to the readers about future events or action. Even a title of a work or a chapter title can act as a clue that suggests what is going to happen. Foreshadowing in fiction creates an atmosphere of suspense in a story so that the readers are interested to know more. Foreshadowing Examples in Literature Example #1 Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet" is rich with foreshadowing examples. One of which is the following lines from Act 2, Scene 2: "Life were better ended by their hate, Than death prorogued, wanting of thy love" In the balcony scene, Juliet is concerned about Romeo's safety as she fears her kinsmen may catch him. Romeo says, in the above lines, that he would rather have her love and die sooner than not obtain her love and die later. Eventually, he gets her love and dies for her love, too. Example #2 Charles Dickens in "Great Expectations" uses a description of weather in chapter 39 to foreshadow the momentous changes in "Pip's" life and outlook: "Stormy and wet, stormy and wet; and mud, mud, mud, deep in all the streets. Day after day, a vast heavy veil had been driving over London from the East, and it drove still, as if in the East there were an Eternity of cloud and wind. So furious had been the gusts, that high buildings in town had had the lead stripped off their roofs; and in the country, trees had been torn up, and sails of windmills carried away; and gloomy accounts had come in from the coast, of shipwreck and death. Violent blasts of rain had accompanied these rages of wind, and the day just closed as I sat down to read had been the worst of all." The above lines are Pip's observation on the weather before Magwitch's arrival. It is a foreshadowing as well as a representation of Pip's inner chaos. Just as the angry winds leaves a trail of destruction in London, Magwitch's disclosure opens a path of destruction in Pip's life. Example #3 Examples of foreshadowing are also found in mystery and detective stories. The kind of foreshadowing usually found in mystery or detective novels is "Red-Herring" - a misleading clue that distracts readers by giving them wrong hints about future events. For example, the character of "Bishop Aringarosa" in "Da Vinci Code" by Dan Brown is shown to act in such a suspicious way that the readers are bound to suspect him to be the mastermind of the whole conspiracy in the church. His mysterious actions seemingly foreshadow the exposure of his crime in a later part of the narrative but later it was revealed that he was innocent and not involved in any secret action. Characters like Bishop Aringarosa contribute to the mystery and suspense of the novel. Example #4 In John Steinbeck's novel "Of Mice and Men", George killing Candy's dog foreshadows Candy killing Lennie because Candy is identical to George and Lennie to the dog. Even the nature of the death of the dog was the same as Lennie's as both were shot in the back of the head. Candy tells George, "I ought to of shot that dog myself". He chooses to kill Lennie himself in order to save him from being killed by a stranger. Function of Foreshadowing Generally, the function of foreshadowing is to build anticipation in the minds of readers about what might happen next and thus adding dramatic tension to a story. It is deliberately employed to create suspense in mystery novels, usually by giving false clues or "red herrings" to distract readers. Moreover, foreshadowing can make extraordinary and bizarre events appear credible as the events are predicted beforehand, so that readers are mentally prepared for them.

Genre

Genre Genre means the type of art, literature or music characterized by a specific form, content and style. For example, literature has four main genres; poetry, drama, fiction and non-fiction. All of these genres have particular features and functions that distinguish them from one another. Hence, it is necessary on the part of readers to know which category of genre they are reading in order to understand the message it conveys, as they may have certain expectations prior to the reading concerned. Types of Genre There are five types of genres in literature, which include: Poetry Poetry is the first major literary genre. All types of poetry share specific characteristics. In fact, poetry is a form of text that follows a meter and rhythm with each lines and syllables. It is further subdivided into different genres such an epic poem, narrative, romantic, dramatic, and lyric. Dramatic poetry includes melodrama, tragedy and comedy, while other poems includes ode, sonnet, elegy, ballad, song and epics. Popular examples of epic poems are Paradise Lost by John Milton, The Iliad and The Odyssey by Homer and romantic poem includes, Red Red Rose by Robert Burns etc. All these poetic forms share specific features such as they do not follow paragraphs or sentences; they use stanzas and lines instead. Some forms follow very strict rules of length and number of stanzas and lines such as villanelle, sonnet and haiku etc. while some may be free like a free verse poem "Feelings, Now" by Katherine Foreman that is devoid of any regular meter and rhyme scheme. Besides that, often poetry uses figurative language like metaphor, simile, onomatopoeia, hyperbole, and alliteration, etc. to create heightened effects. Drama Drama is a form of text that is performed in front of an audience. It is also called a play. Its written text contains dialogues, and stage directions. This genre has further categories such as comedy, tragedy, tragicomedy etc. William Shakespeare is known as the father of English drama. His well-known plays include Taming of the Shrew, Romeo & Juliet and Hamlet, while Greek playwrights were the pioneers in this field such as Sophocles' masterpiece is Oedipus Rex and Antigone, while modern dramas include Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller etc. Prose It is a kind of written text different from poetry in that it has complete sentences organized into paragraphs. Unlike poetry, prose focuses on characters and plot than focusing on sounds. It includes short stories and novels, while fiction and non-fiction are its sub genres. Prose is further categorized into essays, speeches, sermons and interpretations. Fiction Fiction has three categories that are, realistic, non-realistic and semi-fiction. Usually, fiction work is not real and therefore, authors can use complex figurative language to touch readers' imagination. Unlike poetry, it is more structured, follows proper grammatical pattern and correct mechanics. A fictional work may incorporate fantastical and imaginary ideas from everyday life. It comprises some important elements such as plot, exposition, foreshadowing, rising action, climax, falling action and resolution. The popular examples of literary fiction include, James Joyce's' novel A Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man, Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities, Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice, and Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird, etc. Non-Fiction Non-fiction is a vast category that also has sub-genres; it could be creative like personal essay, and factual like scientific paper. It may also use figurative language, however, not abundantly like poetry, or fiction has. Sometimes, it may tell a story like autobiography, or sometimes it may convey the information to the readers. Other examples of non-fiction include biographies, diaries, memoirs, journals, fantasies, mysteries and romances. The popular example of non-fiction genre is Michael Pollan's highly celebrated book, The Omnivore's Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals, which is an account about eating habits of Americans. Function of Genre Depending upon their types, different genres have different roles. For example, fiction and dramatic genres help students and writers learn and improve their communication skills. A poetic genre, on the other hand, enhances imaginative and emotional power of the readers. Non-fictional texts and essays help readers develop analytical and persuasive capabilities. However, the major function of genre is to establish a code of behavior between the writers and audience, and keep the readers informed about the topics discussed or the themes presented.

Hyperbaton

Hyperbaton Hyperbaton has been derived from a Greek word that means inversion in the arrangement of common words. It can be defined as a rhetorical device in which the writers play with the normal position of words, phrases and clauses in order to create differently arranged sentences, but which still suggest a similar meaning.. Hyperbaton is also known as a broader version of hypallage. Similarity with Anastrophe Hyperbaton is similar to anastrophe, which is the inversion of the natural word order or reversal of the word arrangement in a sentence with the aim to create rhetorical effects. Anastrophe is also regarded as a simile of hyperbaton. Features of Hyperbaton In hyperbaton words are not arranged in their normal order. It is classified as the figure of disorder. It is employed for emphasis and rhetorical effects. It interrupts the natural flow of sentences. It is greatly used as inflected language. Examples of Hyperbaton from Literature Example #1 Winter kept us warm, covering Earth in forgetful snow, feeding A little life with dried tubers.... You cannot say, or guess, for you know only A heap of broken images, where the sun beats, And the dead tree gives no shelter, the cricket no relief, And the dry stone no sound of water. Only There is shadow under this red rock, (Come in under the shadow of this red rock).... (Wasteland by T.S. Eliot) The preceding excerpt is one of those which are considered as perfect examples of hyperbaton. Here, the natural order has been changed throughout the text. This inflected language interrupts the flow of sentences. Example #2 Some rise by sin, and some by virtue fall.... (Measure for Measure by William Shakespeare) This is only one of the many hyperbaton examples found in Shakespeare's works. Here, he uses the unexpected word order, which is "some by virtue fall" instead of "some fall by virtue". This disordering of words helps in emphasizing the phrase "virtue fall". Example #3 anyone lived in a pretty how town (with up so floating many bells down) spring summer autumn winter he sang his didn't he danced his did Women and men (both little and small) Cared for anyone not at all they sowed their isn't they reaped their same sun moon stars rain children guessed(but only a few and down they forgot as up they grew.... when by now and tree by leaf she laughed his joy she cried his grief bird by snow and stir by still anyone's any was all to her someones married their everyones laughed their cryings and did their dance (sleep wake hope and then)they said their nevers they slept their dream...... (Anyone Lived in a Pretty How Town by e.e. Cummings) This is a very good example of hyperbaton. The words, phrases and clauses are stressed in an unexpected way. Also, it is creating complex structures of sentences and aesthetics of ambiguity. Example #4 "The eye of man hath not heard, the ear of man hath not seen, man's hand is not able to taste, his tongue to conceive, nor his heart to report, what my dream was...." (A Midsummer Night's Dream by William Shakespeare) Here, Shakespeare has employed an unusual and complex word structure.He has transposed the normal word order such as "his tongue to conceive" and "what my dream was". Example #5 His coward lips did from their color fly And that same eye whose bend doth awe the world Did lose his luster. I did hear him groan, Ay, and that tongue of his that bade the Romans Mark him and write his speeches in their books (Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare) Here, Shakespeare plays with the natural position of words, giving depth to the sentence structure. The purpose is to emphasize the phrase, as it gives a sudden turn in the sentence. Function of Hyperbaton Hyperbaton is employed in literary writing, poetry, film and all other mediums of visual or textual form. It creates startling and sometimes confusing effects despite being used as inflected language. In rhyming and metered poems, hyperbaton is employed to fit a sentence into the structure of a poem properly. Besides, when hyperbaton is used properly in sentences, it can result in emphasis at the desired place. Also, the unconventional placement of words and phrases result in intriguing and complex sentence structures.

Induction

Induction Induction is known as a conclusion reached through reasoning. An inductive statement is derived using facts and instances which lead to the formation of a general opinion. Though all the facts upon which the conclusion is based are true, there is still a chance of the conclusion reached being false. This type of reasoning goes from specific facts to a general statement. An inductive statement is of two types; a strong inductive statement or a weak inductive statement. It depends on its authenticity. A strong statement has the possibility of being false, but it is very unlikely. There is a very high probability that it is true. When it comes to weak statements, they have conclusions which are very unlikely to be true and the reasons are weak enough showing that the conclusion is not probable. It is not possible to measure the strength of a statement, but it is possible to measure it in degrees. For a statement to be strong, it should be more probable when compared to being improbable and should have a strong factual ground on which it is based. There are four different categories of inductive reasoning namely inductive generalization, statistical syllogism, simple induction and argument from analogy. Induction Examples Example 1 "This marble from the bag is black. That marble from the bag is black. A third marble from the bag is black. Therefore all the marbles in the bag black." The statement above is an example of inductive reasoning. Since the first marble from the bag was black, the second was black and the third was black the conclusion reached is that all the marbles in the bag are black. Example 2 "I counted five or six people with green eyes; therefore all the people have green eyes." This statement is an example of inductive generalization which uses evidence about a limited number of things to make an overall assumption of most things of that type. The authentication of this type of a statement depends on the number of things used to make the assumption and the total number of things. Example 3 "Sam is a bus driver. All drivers drive at 30km an hour, therefore Sam drives at 30 km an hour." This statement is an example of statistical syllogism which begins from a general statement and ends with a conclusion about an individual. Example 4 "John and David are brothers. John likes to eat Pizza and Hamburgers. David likes to eat Pizza. Therefore, one assumes that David also likes to eat Hamburgers." This statement is an example of an argument from analogy which begins by the noting of two or more properties and drawing the conclusion that they must share some more additional properties. Example 5 "All the kids in the park can jump; therefore, her kid can jump also." This statement is an example of simple induction. These types of statements begin with evidence of a group and leads to a conclusion about an individual just like this statement as it starts with all kinds but comes down to "her kid" that is a specific child. Example 6 "Around 80 percent of the girls wore heels, Jane is a girl. Therefore, she wore heels." This statement is an example of a strong inductive statement. Example 7 "Some actors are girls. Tom is a boy. Therefore, Tom is an actor." This statement is an example of a weak inductive statement. Example 8 "There are 15 clips in the bag; in a random draw 12 are pink. Therefore, all clips in the bag are pink." This is a strong inductive statement as it is logical and the probability of it being true is greater than that of it being false. Functions of Induction Induction is used to predict what may happen in the future and establish a possibility of what may happen next. Inductive statements allow you to establish probability and prepare accordingly. At the same time, they also allow you to argue a point without having to actually prove the fact. They can only prove right or wrong following further research and observation. Inductive statements are used in everyday life as well. In fact, we all use inductive statements in everyday life to prove our point when talking about the weather, about persons and even general situations.

Inference

Inference Inference is a literary device used commonly in literature and in daily life where logical deductions are made based on premises assumed to be true. Another definition of inference suggests that it is rational but non-logical, which means that through the observation of facts presented in a particular pattern, one ultimately sees different or new interpretations and perspectives. Symbols and anomalies are very important during its use. In this case inferences are not so much used for coming to conclusions but to open up new ways of inquiry. When inference is studied from this aspect, it is further divided into two types: inductive and deductive inference. Inference Examples Example #1 "It was after we started with Gatsby toward the house that the gardener saw Wilson's body a little way off in the grass, and the holocaust was complete." The above extract is one of the examples of inference from literature. After reading this line from "The Great Gatsby" by F. Scott Fitzgerald, a reader who is smart enough to make a quick inference will simultaneously understand that Gatsby's life has ended. The most significant part of this sentence is that the protagonist in the novel Mr. Gatsby has been murdered. Nevertheless, the circumstances surrounding his demise can be all the more interesting if looked at closely. Among the factors that contributed to his death, the most dominant one is his rebuttal to let go of the past. Earlier the day Gatsby was killed, there was a part where he stopped his servant from emptying the pool even though the air was cold because he felt that summer was not over yet. Looking at this particular part more profoundly incites us to make an association between Gatsby's denial of the end of summer and his denial of dissolution of his relation with Daisy. So, we could say that if Gatsby had made peace with the current circumstances and had moved on, he might not have gotten himself killed. Example #2 Sheldon Cooper: I took another look at the board, and I realized you were right. Raj Koothrappali: So you were wrong. Sheldon Cooper: I'm not saying that. Raj Koothrappali: That's the only logical inference. Sheldon Cooper: I'm still not saying it. (Jim Parsons and Kunal Nayyar, "The Pirate Solution." The Big Bang Theory, 2009) Inference examples are also found in TV series. The above dialogue from a TV series "The Pirate Solution" is the best example that could be presented here. You can easily understand inference. Function of Inference The function of inference is important not only in literature but in daily life to make sense of things people say and do. The skills inference teaches us are not only required to make out the underlying meanings of phrases and arguments but also to perceive the implicit concealed meanings that enhance the overall quality of a text. It is also used to draw your own conclusions from a script. Inference plays a central role in understanding texts by translating in your mind the effects of the usage of particular words. It also makes us see the literary value of a text by highlighting its strengths. Moreover, inference has a great deal of significance in enhancing the learning abilities of students academically and otherwise. The ability to make inferences helps students develop an understanding of the author's perspective by grasping the subtle underlying meanings in a text. Without inference people usually end up translating a text word by word, missing out on the associations a writer is trying to make. Such a lacking approach keeps us from comprehending the "whole picture" of a piece of writing. The delight a reader feels while going through a text is because of the inferences he makes along the way. People who are better at inferring generally have much more fun while reading than those who do not. The reason is that they understand the script better because they are able to see things that are not too obvious, which is why they follow a story or text better and enjoy it all the more. Besides, understanding the text better helps them draw information from their existing knowledge and thus relate to the characters more deeply. In learning the processes of inference, people generally come to find that in places reading a text independently makes it incomplete. There are certain concepts and feelings that we understand better when we associate them with our own experiences. It also aids in learning concepts like themes, characters and figurative language. When this process is repeated consciously and systematically, it becomes a skill that helps us fill the gaps in understanding a script.

Non Sequitur

Non Sequitur Non sequiturs are those literary devices which include the statements, sayings and conclusions that do not follow the fundamental principles of logic and reason. They are frequently used in theater and comedies to create comedic effects. In fact, non sequitur is a Latin phrase that means "it doesn't follow". Here "non" means not and "sequitur" means to follow. It takes place when a difference is created between the principle idea and the conclusion, which finally leads to a fallacy. In conversation, non sequitur is something that is said but seems quite absurd to the point of confusion due to lack of proper meanings. It is sometimes taken as postulation that means the statement might not be true. For instance: Maria drives a car. She must be a wealthy person. David eats broccoli. David should love to eat meat. The sentences do not follow a proper sequence in non sequitur and words do not give the same meaning as readers suppose them to do. Types of Non Sequitur One can find non sequitur examples in everyday speech and in different fields of life, such as in the practice of law where non sequitur in arguments is regularly used. It can be classified into following six categories: Non sequitur in everyday speech such as "business is a business and a cup of tea is a cup of tea." Fallacy of the undistributed middle such as "All humans have bones. Crocodiles have bones. Therefore, crocodiles are humans" Affirming the consequent such as "If Charles is right, then Diana is right. As Diana is right, therefore, Charles is right." Denying the antecedent such as "If I am Indian, then I am Asian. I am not Indian. Therefore, I am not Asian." Affirming a disjunct such as "Adam is true or Eve is true. Adam is true. Therefore, Eve is not true." Denying a conjunct such as "It is not that both Horse and Cow is true. Cow is not true. Therefore, Horse is true." Non Sequitur Examples from Literature The best examples of non sequitur can be observed in the Theatre of the Absurd. Example #1 An excerpt from "Waiting for Godot" by Samuel Beckett VLADIMIR: Consult his family....... ESTRAGON: (anxious). And we? ....... ESTRAGON: And why would he shout? VLADIMIR: At his horse. Silence. ESTRAGON: (violently). I'm hungry! VLADIMIR: Do you want a carrot..... VLADIMIR: I might have some turnips..... VLADIMIR: Oh pardon! I could have sworn it was a carrot...... ESTRAGON: (Chewing). I asked you a question. VLADIMIR: Ah. ESTRAGON: Did you reply? VLADIMIR: How's the carrot? ESTRAGON: It's a carrot. Here we can clearly see the use of non sequiturs, where Estragon persistently asks a question, but Vladimir does not bother to answer. Example #2 An excerpt from "Bald Soprano" by Eugene Ionesco Mrs. Smith: There, it's nine o' clock; we have drunk the soup, and eaten the fish and chips and the English salad... That's because we live in the suburbs of London and because our name is smith. Mr. Smith: (continues to read and clicks his tongue) Mrs. Smith: Potatoes are very good, fried in fat: the salad oil was not rancid... However, I prefer not to tell them that their oil is bad. Mr. Smith: (continues to read and clicks his tongue) Mrs. Smith: However, the oil from the grocer at the corner is till the best. Mr. Smith: Mr. Smith: (continues to read and clicks his tongue) In this excerpt, we can notice the strong use of non sequitur, where Mrs. Smith is talking to Mr. Smith and he does not respond at all as it is quite absurd. Function Non sequitur is produced inadvertently due to some confusion and even sometimes deliberately to confound the readers and the listeners in order to point out the confusion existing in the situation or the society at large. However, it is often used in order to change the subject of the conversation and give a humorous touch by jumping to the conclusion abruptly without following the fundamental principles of conversation. Similarly, as a literary device it is used in the Theater of the Absurd and in surreal absurdist comedies. In theater, there are characters that give one non sequitur after another and move away to provide comedic effect. Since the audience could not foresee what the next statement would be, they merely laugh at it.

Ode

Ode Definition of Ode An ode is a form of poetry such as sonnet or elegy, etc. Ode is a literary technique that is lyrical in nature, but not very lengthy. You have often read odes in which poets praise people, natural scenes, and abstract ideas. Ode is derived from a Greek word aeidein, which means to chant or sing. It is highly solemn and serious in its tone and subject matter, and usually is used with elaborate patterns of stanzas. However, the tone is often formal. A salient feature of ode is its uniform metrical feet, but poets generally do not strictly follow this rule though use highly elevated theme. Type of Odes Odes are of three types, including: Pindar Ode This ode was named after an ancient Greek poet, Pindar, who began writing choral poems that were meant to be sung at public events. It contains three triads; strophe, antistrophe and final stanza as epode, with irregular rhyme patterns and lengths of lines. Horatian Ode The name of this ode was taken from a Latin poet, Horace. Unlike heroic odes of Pindar, Horatian ode is informal, meditative and intimate. These odes dwelled upon interesting subject matters that were simple and gave pleasure to senses. Since Horatian odes are informal in tone, they are devoid of any strict rules. Irregular Ode This type of ode is without any formal rhyme scheme and structure such as Pindaric ode. Hence, the poet has great freedom and flexibility to try any types of concepts and moods. William Wordsworth and John Keats were such poets who extensively wrote irregular odes, taking advantage of this form. Examples of Ode from Literature Many famous poets like John Keats, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Thomas Gray, S.T Coleridge, William Wordsworth and Edmund Spencer, etc. have written popular odes in their writing career, some of the extracts from these odes are given below as examples. Example 1 There was a time when meadow, grove, and stream, The earth, and every common sight To me did seem Apparelled in celestial light, The glory and the freshness of a dream. It is not now as it hath been of yore;- (Ode on Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood by William Wordsworth) These lines are taken from "Ode on Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood" by William Wordsworth. This is a perfect example of an English Pindaric ode. Just observe the use of different types of meters in each stanza, which have made it easier to read, and made flexible with simple rhyme scheme of ababac. Example 2 Row after row with strict impunity The headstones yield their names to the element, The wind whirrs without recollection; In the riven troughs the splayed leaves Pile up, of nature the casual sacramen To the seasonal eternity of death... (Ode to the Confederate Dead by Allen Tate) These lines are taken from "Ode to the Confederate Dead" by Allen Tate. This is an example of Horatian ode, which presents a consistent rhyme scheme. It has no division into triads like Pindar ode, but is less ceremonious, less formal, more tranquil, and better suited for reading. The purpose of using this type of ode is to give vent to pent-up feelings. Example 3 Scatter, as from an unextinguish'd hearth Ashes and sparks, my words among mankind! Be through my lips to unawaken'd earth The trumpet of a prophecy! O Wind, If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? (Ode to the West Wind by Percy Bysshe Shelley) These lines are taken from "Ode to the West Wind" by Percy Bysshe Shelley. This presents an example of irregular ode that employs neither three parts, nor four line stanzas like a Horatian ode. Nevertheless, each stanza of ode is distinct from the other stanzas in rhyme scheme, pattern and length. Function of Ode Ode is a form of lyrical poetry in which poets use a certain metrical pattern, rhyme scheme and can express their noble and lofty sentiments in serious and sometimes satirical tone. Since the themes of odes are inspiring and lofty that bears significance, therefore have universal appeal. Also, by using sublime and exceptional style, poets endeavor to compose grand and elevated types of odes. Sometimes odes may be humorous, but they are always thoughtful, intended to explore important themes and observations related to human relations, emotions and senses.

Paradox

Paradox The term Paradox is from the Greek word "paradoxon" that means contrary to expectations, existing belief or perceived opinion. It is a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or silly but may include a latent truth. It is also used to illustrate an opinion or statement contrary to accepted traditional ideas. A paradox is often used to make a reader think over an idea in innovative way. Examples of Paradox Your enemy's friend is your enemy. I am nobody. "What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young." - George Bernard Shaw Wise fool Truth is honey which is bitter. "I can resist anything but temptation." - Oscar Wilde From the above examples of paradox, we can say that paradox creates a humorous effect on the readers because of its ridiculousness. Paradox Examples in Literature In literature, paradox is not just a clever or comical statement or use of words. Paradox has serious implication because it makes statements that often summarize the major themes of the work they are used in. Let us analyze some paradox examples from some famous literary works: Example #1 In George Orwell's Animal Farm, one part of the cardinal rule is the statement, "All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others". This statement seems to not make any sense. However, on closer examination, it gets clear that Orwell points out a political truth. The government in the novel claims that everyone is equal but it has never treated everyone equally. It is the concept of equality stated in this paradox that is opposite to the common belief of equality. Example #2 In the famous play of Shakespeare, Hamlet, the protagonist Hamlet says, "I must be cruel to be kind." This announcement does not seem to make sense. How can an individual treat others kindly even when he is cruel? However, Hamlet is talking about his mother, and how he intends to kill Claudius to avenge his father's death. This act of Hamlet will be a tragedy for his mother who is married to Claudius. Hamlet does not want his mother to be the beloved of his father's murderer any longer, and so he thinks that the murder will be good for his mother. Example #3 From Shakespeare's "The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet": The earth that's nature's mother is her tomb; What is her burying grave, that is Rainbow in her womb; The contradictory ideas of the earth being the birthplace and a graveyard make these lines paradoxical. Example #4 In his short lyric "My Heart Leaps Up When I Behold", William Wordsworth remembers the joys of his past and says: "Child is father of the man" This statement has seemingly incorrect proposition but when we look deep into its meaning, we see the truth. The poet is saying that the childhood experiences become the basis for all adult occurrences. The childhood of a person shapes his life and consequently "fathers" or creates the grown-up adult. So, "Child is father of the man." Function of Paradox The above reading may bring out the question, "Why is paradox used when a message can be conveyed in a straightforward and simple manner?" The answer lies in the nature and purpose of literature. One function of literature is to make the readers enjoy reading. Readers enjoy more when they extract the hidden meanings out of the writing rather than something presented to them in an uncomplicated manner. Thus, the chief purpose of a paradox is to give pleasure. In poetry, the use of paradox is not confined to mere wit and pleasure; rather, it becomes an integral part of poetic diction. Poets usually make use of a paradox to create a remarkable thought or image out of words. Some types of paradox in poetry are meant to communicate a tone of irony to its readers as well as lead their thoughts to the immediate subject. Paradox in most poems normally strives to create feelings of intrigue and interest in readers' minds to make them think deeper and harder to enjoy the real message of the poem.

Parable

Parable Parable is a figure of speech, which presents a short story typically with a moral lesson at the end. You often have heard stories from your elders such as The Boy Who Cried Wolf and All is Vanity, etc. These are parables, because they teach you a certain moral lesson. Parable is, in fact, a Greek word, parable, which means comparison. It is like a succinct narrative, or a universal truth that uses symbolism, simile, and metaphor, to demonstrate the moral lesson intended to be taught. Like analogy, we find the use of parables in verse, and prose form specifically in religious texts such as the Upanishad or the Bible. Example of Parable from Literature Example 1 The holy Quran narrates a parable in second chapter, Al Baqra 2: 259, in which a man happened to pass through hamlet - a place where people died centuries ago. The man doubted the power of God, and thought of how He would resurrect them on the Doomsday. Subsequently, God caused him to die, resurrected him after a hundred years, and asked him how long he slept to which he replied only a day. However, his food was still fresh, which he brought with him. This shows that God has control over all things and time. The traveler's donkey, on the other hand, was dead and became a skeleton. Then, God joined the bones, muscles, flesh and blood of the donkey again before that man and brought it back to life. Hence, this parable taught us a moral lesson in three ways; firstly, God can change time. Secondly, God has power over life, death, resurrection and no other can have this power. Finally, humans have no power, and they should put their faith only in God. Example 2 Jesus has mentioned a very popular parable related to Good Samaritan in the holy Bible. Gospel of Luke (10:29-37) describes that there was a traveler (may be a Jew), whom some people had robbed and beaten alongside the road and left him. A Levite and a priest passed through that way, but both ignored that man. Eventually, a Samaritan reached there and helped the injured and miserable man without thinking about his race or religious belief (generally, Samaritans despise Jews). The moral of this parable is to help all those who are in need, without having prejudice for anyone due to perceived differences. Example 3 Hans Christian Anderson has written a short parable, "The Emperor's New Clothes" in a book "Fairy Tales Told for Children." The author tells about the life of a silly and vain emperor, whom two cheaters approached, pretending to be artists. They suggested him to wear their clothes, which they said, would make him invisible in front of incompetent and stupid people. The emperor agreed and paid them to make such clothes, as he enjoyed wearing fancy dresses. In fact, they did not make any fancy suit; however, people started admiring them, so that they might not be considered as useless and stupid. Therefore, emperor took off his clothes and wore the invisible dress but ended up moving around naked in the town. Nobody told him the truth except a young boy who screamed to see him. Thus, the moral of this parable is that people should have their own opinion, and they need not to depend upon others' opinions. Example 4 In the book of Luke (15:11-32), Jesus instructs about the love of God for humanity. In this parable, a rich father gives inheritance to his two sons before death and both leave him. But his younger son wastes the whole wealth and becomes miserable. Sooner that son understands that if he has to survive, then he would have to take the help of his wealthy father ,and father also sees his poor and miserable condition. Hence, he allows him to live with him again. When father dies, he leaves his remaining inheritance for the younger son. The tale conveys the symbolic message that God is like a fatherly figure, who loves humanity despite its rebellious nature, and those who follow His path, are welcomed by Him with rewards. Function of Parable Parable is a great teaching tool, because it often uses symbolic imagery and metaphors that the audience can easily recognize. Thus, the storytellers could convey complicated moral truths in such a way that they become relatable and understandable to one's own life. It is because sometimes listeners have to choose the right lesson that a parable conveys, and the audience, or listeners also participate in arriving at the conclusion in this way. Generally, parables help the readers understand philosophical issues or moral lessons in relatable terms, while tellers could lead them in a better way to apply such principles in their daily lives.

Red Herring

Red Herring Red herring is a kind of fallacy that is an irrelevant topic introduced in an argument to divert the attention of listeners or readers from the original issue. In literature, this fallacy is often used in detective or suspense novels to mislead readers or characters or to induce them to make false conclusions. Let us consider a simple example of a red herring. A teacher catches a student cheating during a test. The student in response says, "I know I've made a mistake. But think of my parents. They're going to kill me". The student uses a red herring in his response. He tries to appeal to pity to distract his teacher from the real issue. The term red herring means a kind of dried red fish, which has a pungent smell. In fox hunting, hounds are prevented from catching the fox by distracting them with the strong scent of red herring. Similarly, a person can be stopped from proving his point in an argument by distracting him with an irrelevant issue. Common Red Herring Examples Some examples of red herring fallacy in casual conversations are given below: Mother: It's bedtime Jane Jane: Mom, how do ants feed their babies? Mother: Don't know dear. Close your eyes now. Jane: But mama, do ant babies cry when hungry? This conversation shows how a child tries to distract her mother so that she [Jane] could stay awake a little longer. There is a lot of commotion regarding saving the environment. We cannot make this world an Eden. What will happen if it does become Eden? Adam and Eve got bored there! The idea of Adam and Eve getting bored in Eden throws the listeners off the real issue of environment. Examples of Red Herring in Literature Mystery and suspense novels are rich with red herring examples as writers frequently use them to veil the facts from the readers in order to develop their interest. Example #1 The character of "Bishop Aringarosa" in Dan Brown's novel Da Vinci Code serves as an example of a red herring throughout the novel. The character is presented in such a way that the readers suspect him to be the mastermind of the whole conspiracy in the church. Later it was revealed that he was innocent. This example of a red herring in the novel distracts the readers from who the real bad person is and thus, adds to the mystery of the story. Interestingly, the Italian surname of the bishop "Aringarosa" translates in English as "red herring". Example #2 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes: Hound of the Baskervilles presents a classic example of a red herring. The readers are thrown off the real murderer and start suspecting the escaped "convict" and "Barrymore". In the end, however, the mystery is resolved by the unexpected confession of "Beryl" that her husband "Stapleton" was the real culprit and was behind the whole mystery of the killer "Hound". Example #3 We observe the killer planting false clues and providing red herrings in Charlotte Macleod's The Withdrawing Room. "Augustus Quiffen", a lodger at Sarah's Brownstone home, is killed falling under the train. Seemingly, it was an accident until "Mary Smith" tells "Sarah" that it is a murder but she cannot identify the murderer. "Sarah" and "Max Bittersohn" investigate the matter and find that the killer has planned the death beforehand and that he was well-prepared to conceal it with a convincing red herring. Function of Red Herring A red herring is a common device used in mystery and thriller stories to distract the reader from identifying the real culprit. The red herring in a story can take the form of characters that the reader suspect, but who turn out be innocent when the real murderer is identified. It aims at keeping the readers guessing at the possibilities until the end and therefore keeps them interested in the story. The readers enjoy solving the mysteries created by red herrings in the story. Undoubtedly, it would be difficult to keep the reader's interest, if thrillers exposed the killer from the start. Moreover, for politicians, red herrings come in handy as they use them frequently to dodge difficult questions in a discussion or an argument. They do it by referring to a different issue, which of course is irrelevant, to sidetrack from the original issue under discussion.

Reductio ad absurdum

Reductio ad Absurdum Reductio ad absurdum a Latin term which means to reduce something to absurdity. It is a figure of speech that is defined as a manner of arguing something in which one argues for his position by showing the absurdity of the position of his opponent. In simple words, it means to reduce an argument to absurdity by drawing the conclusions with logical limits or showing ridiculous consequences. Reductio ad absurdum in satires breaks down an idea to the point of absurdity. Difference between Reductio ad Absurdum and Appeal to Ridicule Reductio ad absurdum examples cannot be used as an appeal to ridicule examples. Though both devices are extensively used in satire, an appeal to ridicule is the use of ridiculing a situation without arguing or explanation; while, reductio ad absurdum pursues arguments and logical consequences. Examples of Reductio ad Absurdum from Literature Example #1 Five hours, (and who can do it less in?) By haughty Celia spent in dressing; The goddess from her chamber issues, Arrayed in lace, brocades and tissues. ... Her ointments, daubs, and paints and creams, Her washes, slops, and every clout Such order from confusion sprung, Such gaudy tulips raised from dung. (The Ladies' Dressing Room by Jonathan Swift) Swift uses reductio ad absurdum as a satirizing technique here. In this case, the purpose is to ridicule the duality of individuals in their private and public spheres. Example #2 I think it is agreed by all parties, that this prodigious number of children in the arms, or on the backs, or at the heels of their mothers, and frequently of their fathers, is in the present deplorable state of the kingdom... cheap and easy method of making these children sound and useful members of the common-wealth, would deserve so well of the publick, as to have his statue set up for a preserver of the nation." (A Modest Proposal by Jonathan Swift) This is one of the famous examples of reductio ad absurdum in English literature. Here, Swift uses reductio ad absurdum by arguing about social conditions to its ridiculous lengths. This highlights a horrific situation of children. Example #3 ESTRAGON: That's the idea, let's ask each other questions..... "Nothing happens, nobody comes ... nobody goes, it's awful.... ESTRAGON: What did we do yesterday? VLADIMIR: What did we do yesterday? ESTRAGON: Yes. VLADIMIR: Why . . . (Angrily.) Nothing is certain when you're about.... ESTRAGON: In my opinion we were here. (Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett) Estragon and Vladimir indulge themselves in useless and aimless activities. They talk, joke, rebuke, question and argue about the reason of their existence. This excerpt is full of reductio ad absurdum because characters push the conversation to extreme ridicule with argumentations. Example #4 The physician. Or when they are on a voyage, amid the perils of the sea? The pilot. And in what sort of actions or with a view to what result is the just man most able to do harm to his enemy and good to his friends? But when a man is well, my dear Polemarchus, there is no need of a physician? No. ... Then in time of peace, justice will be of no use? I am very far from thinking so..... The strongest point of all has not been even mentioned, he replied. Well, then, according to the proverb, 'Let brother help brother' Adeimantus : Nonsense, he replied..... (The Republic by Plato) In this extract, Plato argues for justice - that men should be just. By using this technique, he ridicules the questions of other speakers. Adeimantus disagrees to the extreme of absurdity against Glaucon's claims regarding people wanting to be unjust rather than just. Function of Reductio ad Absurdum Reductio ad absurdum makes a situation ridiculous or extremely absurd. Often, it used to point out the flaws of original claim which is untenable or false. It was exclusively employed in Greek philosophy. However, later on it was introduced in prose, philosophical and also in formal mathematical reasoning. Today, it is used mostly in informal debates. The purpose of using this technique is to expose the foolishness and ridiculous attitudes of original assumptions and behavior. However, there is a great danger that the readers might fail to recognize the objectives clearly.

Syllogism

Syllogism Syllogism is a rhetorical device that starts an argument with a reference to something general and from this it draws conclusion about something more specific. Let us try to understand the concept with the help of an example. We start with a general argument "All men are mortal," we know that "John is a man" so "John is mortal." It is a deductive approach to reason and is based on deducing specific conclusions from general facts. We notice in the above example that Syllogism is a three-part set of statements; a major statement or premise, a minor statement or premise and a conclusion that is deduced. Therefore, "All men are mortal" is a major statement or premise which stands as a general fact. "John is a man" is minor statement or premise that is specific and "John is mortal" is the logical conclusion deduced from the two prior statements. Syllogism and Enthymeme Syllogism takes the form of Enthymeme when it is compressed. Enthymeme combines the minor premise and the conclusion and omitting the major statement. For instance, a syllogism "All dogs are canine. Tommy is a dog. Therefore, Tommy is a canine." can be compressed in an enthymeme as "Tommy is a canine because it is a dog." The major premise remains implied or hidden. Syllogism Fallacy Syllogism may also be used to form incorrect conclusions that are odd. For instance, "All crows are black and the bird in my cage is black. So, the bird in my cage is a crow." This is a false argument as it implies a conclusion "all blackbirds are crows" is incorrect. It is known as Syllogism Fallacy. Another example of Syllogism fallacy is "Some televisions are black and white and all penguins are black and white. Therefore, some televisions are penguins". You can easily see that the conclusion is practically impossible and in fact has a comical outcome. Syllogism Examples in Literature Let us look at some examples of syllogism in literature: 1. Shakespeare employs this rhetorical device in his play "Timon of Athens" Act 4, scene 3: "Flavius: Have you forgot me, sir? Timon: Why dost ask that? I have forgot all men; Then, if thou grant'st thou'rt a man, I have forgot thee." Timon uses a witty syllogism to tell Flavius that he must have forgotten him like he has forgotten all other men. It can be expanded in a three-set argument as; "I usually do forget as I have forgotten everyone. Therefore, I have forgotten you as well." 2. Poetry is known for its passion and not reason but we find syllogistic argument in Andrew Marvell's poem "To his Coy Mistress". The poet says to his bashful beloved, "Had we but world enough, and time. This coyness, Lady, were no crime." It implies a general truth that life is short and man is mortal. They do not have enough time to love and cannot waste it in display of coyness. Likewise, he and his darling may separate eternally before their union in this world is established. Therefore, he says, "But at my back I always hear/ Time's wingèd chariot hurrying near;" and speaks to his beloved, "Thy beauty shall no more be found,". The poet reaches a conclusion that they should avail themselves of the time they have, "Now let us sport us while we may," 3. Compressed syllogism is found in famous metaphysical poet John Donne's poem " Elegy 2 The Anagram": "All love is wonder; if we justly do Account her wonderful, why not lovely too?" If we expand the above Syllogism, it will have the following organization of statements; "All that is lovable is wonderful and the mistress is wonderful. Therefore, the mistress is lovable." Function of Syllogism In logic, syllogism aims at identify the general truths in a particular situation. It is a tool in the hands of a speaker or a writer to persuade the audience or the readers as their belief in a general truth may tempt them to believe in a specific conclusion drawn from those truths. In literature, syllogism can contribute to add wit to the statements. Moreover, Syllogism fallacy may give us an opportunity to enjoy the nonsensical conclusion.

Tragedy

Tragedy Tragedy is kind of drama that presents a serious subject matter about human suffering and corresponding terrible events in a dignified manner. Greek Tragedy The term is Greek in origin, dating back to the 5th century BC. It was a name assigned by the Greeks to a specific form of plays performed on festivals in Greece. The local governments supported such plays and the mood surrounding the presentation of these plays was that of a religious ceremony, as the entire community along with the grand priest attended the performances. The subject matter of the Greek tragedies was derived chiefly from Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey" which included misfortunes of heroes of history and religious mythology. The three prominent Greek dramatists were Aeschylus (525-456 BC), Sophocles (496-406 BC), and Euripides (480-406 BC). Aristotle's Definition of Tragedy Aristotle defines Tragedy in his famous work "Poetics" as: "Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is admirable, complete (composed of an introduction, a middle part and an ending), and possesses magnitude; in language made pleasurable, each of its species separated in different parts; performed by actors, not through narration; effecting through pity and fear the purification of such emotions." From the above definition, we can understand the objective of the Greek tragedies i.e. "...purification of such emotions" also called "catharsis". Catharsis is a release of emotional tension, as after an overwhelming experience, that restores or refreshes the spirit. English Tragedy Shaped on the models of Seneca, the first English tragedy appeared in 1561, written by Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville. The play chose the story of a British king and his sufferings at the hand of his two disobedient sons as a subject matter. The importance of the play lies in the fact that it transformed the style of English drama from morality and mystery plays to the writing of tragedies in the Elizabethan era. Tragedy Examples Below is the list of famous English tragedy writers along with their famous works. A. Christopher Marlowe: Example #1 Tamburlaine Example #2 Doctor Faustus Example #3 The Jew of Malta Example #4 Edward III Marlowe was the first English dramatist worthy of the tradition of Greek tragedy. His characters of tragedies are the great men of history who become victims of their own fate. B. William Shakespeare Shakespeare, the most popular of all playwrights, knew the Greek tragedy style well and he used several Greek themes but modified them to his own purpose. He intentionally violates the unity of action and mixes tragic actions with comical. Examples of tragedy written by Shakespeare include: Example #5 Hamlet Example #6 Othello Example #7 King Lear Example #8 Macbeth Example #9 Antony and Cleopatra Example #10 Troilus and Cressida C. John Webster Webster was a Jacobean dramatist who modeled his tragedies on the Shakespearean model. Among his famous works are the following tragedy examples: Example #11 Titus Andronicus Example #12 The White Devil Example #13 The Duchess of Malfi D. Henrick Ibsen He is known as "the father of realism". He was the creator of some of the well-known tragedies also called "problem plays". His famous works are: Example #14 A Doll's House Example #15 Hedda Gabler Example #16 The Wild Duck Example #17 Emperor and Galilean E. Arthur Miller He is a famous American playwright and essayist. His famous works are: Example #18 All My Sons Example #19 Death of a Salesman Example #20 The Crucible Example #21 A View from the Bridge Example #22 The Misfits The Difference between Greek and English Tragedies We notice the following differences between the tragedies by the Greek playwrights and those written by English playwrights: 1. Greek tragedies focused on a single theme and plot. English tragedies, on the other hand, have several story lines developing into plots and sub-plot. 2. Greek tragedies depicted "great" characters in their tragedies who were mortals but equal to gods and goddesses in their significance. Heroes of English tragedy may come from all walks of life. 3. Greek tragedies had a serious subject matter that was treated in a most dignified manner. English tragedies, on the other hand, tend to mix tragic with comic. Modern playwrights argue that such depiction is nearer to life as our life is a mixture of good and bad fortunes. 4. The performance of a Greek tragedy was a religious affair while English tragedies may intend to instruct or touch upon a religious or ethical issue but their main objective is to entertain.

Tragic Flow

Tragic Flaw Tragic flaw is a literary device that can be defined as a trait in a character leading to his downfall and the character is often the hero of the literary piece. This trait could be the lack of self-knowledge, lack of judgment and often it is hubris (pride). The Greek word for Tragic flaw is hamaratia or hamartanein that means "to err". It was Aristotle who introduced this term first in his book the Poetics and his idea was that it is an "error of judgment" on the part of a hero that brings his downfall. A tragic flaw is also called a fatal flaw in literature and films. This is taken as a defective trait in the character of the hero. Examples of Tragic Flaw from Literature Tragic flaw examples are found in tragedies - and Oedipus Rex is the major play that is set as a yardstick. Example #1 OEDIPUS: Aye, and on thee in all humility I lay this charge: let her who lies within Receive such burial as thou shalt ordain.... But for myself, O never let my Thebes,... The burden of my presence while I live.... God speed thee! and as meed for bringing them May Providence deal with thee kindlier Than it has dealt with me... His will was set forth fully—to destroy The parricide, the scoundrel; and I am he... But I am the gods' abhorrence. (Oedipus Rex by Sophocles) Oedipus is a perfect example of having a tragic flaw in this famous Greek tragedy. The cause of his downfall was his inadvertent wrongdoings. The hubris of Oedipus is the cause which made him disobey the prophecy of the gods. Ironically, he ended up doing what he was scared of the most, such that he became "abhorrence of gods" in his own words. Example #2 HAMLET: "To be, or not to be-that is the question: Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune Or to take arms against a sea of troubles And by opposing end them. To die, to sleep... No more; and by a sleep to say we end The heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks That flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummation Devoutly to be wish'd. To die, to sleep;...... (Hamlet by William Shakespeare) In Hamlet, the tragic flaw determines his downfall in the play. And his tragic flaw is his indecisiveness that is due to grave thinking on the topic of whether vengeance is wrong or right, and whether to kill his father's murderer or not. In the course of time, his relationship with his mother is spoiled and Ophelia commits suicide. He reveals this indecisiveness in this excerpt. Example #3 Faustus: But Faustus' offense can ne'er be pardoned; The serpent that tempted Eve may be saved, But not Faustus....God forbade it indeed but Faustus hath done it. For the vain pleasure of four and twenty years hath Faustus lost eternal joy and felicity.....Fair nature's eye, rise, rise again and make Perpetual day. Or let this hour be but a year, A month, a week, a natural day, That Faustus may repent and save his soul O mercy, heaven! Look not so fierce on me... I'll burn my books (Dr. Faustus by Christopher Marlowe) The character of Dr. Faustus is also one of the best examples of tragic flaw. The tragic flaw of Dr.Faustus is his ambitious nature to learn . He made a contract with Lucifer and sold his soul in this connection. Finally, his soul is taken to hell and then he realizes his sin and repents but it was too late. Function of Tragic Flaw Tragic flaw is used for moral purposes in order to encourage the audience to improve their characters and remove the flaws which could bring their downfall in life.The readers and the audience can identify themselves with the tragic hero, since it imparts feelings of pity and fear among them thereby completing their catharsis or in other words, they are purged of bad emotions. Therefore, they can learn a moral lesson so that they might not indulge in similar actions in future.

Tone

Tone Tone, in written composition, is an attitude of a writer toward a subject or an audience. Tone is generally conveyed through the choice of words or the viewpoint of a writer on a particular subject. Every written piece comprises a central theme or subject matter. The manner in which a writer approaches this theme and subject is the tone. The tone can be formal, informal, serious, comic, sarcastic, sad, and cheerful or it may be any other existing attitudes. Consider the following examples of tone: "I want to ask the authorities what is the big deal? Why do not they control the epidemic? It is eating up lives like a monster." "I want to draw the attention of the concerned authorities toward damage caused by an epidemic. If steps were not taken to curb it, it will further injure our community" The theme of both tone examples is the same. The only way we can differentiate between them is their separate tone. The tone in the first example is casual or informal while, it is more formal in the second. Tone Examples in Everyday Speech We adopt variety of tones in our day-to-day speech. This intonation of our speech determines what message we desire to convey. Read a few examples below: Example #1 Father: "We are going on a vacation." Son: "That's great!!!" - The tone of son's response is very cheerful. Example #2 Father: "We can't go on vacation this summer." Son: "Ok. Great! That's what I expected." - The son's tone is sarcastic in the given response. Example #3 "You will get good grades like in the previous exams" - The tone is pessimistic in this example. Example #4 "Can someone tell me what the hell is going on here?" -This has an aggressive tone. Examples of Tone in Literature Tone has a significant place in literature as it manifests writers' attitude toward different subjects. Example #1 Holden Caulfield in J.D Salinger's "Catching the Rye" unfolds his personality through the tone he adopts throughout the novel. Let us have a look at some of his remarks: "All morons hate it when you call them a moron." "If a girl looks swell when she meets you, who gives a damn if she's late? Nobody." "******* money. It always ends up making you blue as hell." "Catholics are always trying to find out if you're Catholic." Holden's tone is bitterly sarcastic as he criticizes the nature of things in real life. His character may reveal the attitude of the writer towards life as it is common for writers to use their characcters as their mouthpieces. Example #2 Observe the tone of a short story "The School" by Donald Barthelme: "And the trees all died. They were orange trees. I don't know why they died, they just died. Something wrong with the soil possibly or maybe the stuff we got from the nursery wasn't the best. We complained about it. So we've got thirty kids there, each kid had his or her own little tree to plant and we've got these thirty dead trees. All these kids looking at these little brown sticks, it was depressing." The use of adjectives "dead" and "depressing" sets a gloomy tone in the passage. As trees signify life here, their unexpected "death" from an unknown cause gives the above passage an unhappy and pessimistic tone. Example #3 Robert Frost in the last stanza of his poem The Roads Not taken gives us an insight into the effect of tone: "I shall be telling this with a sigh Somewhere ages and ages hence: Two roads diverged in a wood, and I, I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the difference." Frost tells us about his past with a "sigh", this gives the above lines an unhappy tone. This tone leads us into thinking that the speaker in the poem had to make a difficult choice. Function of Tone Tone, in a piece of literature, decides how they readers read a literary piece and how they should feel while they are reading it. It stimulates the readers to read a piece of literature as a serious, comical, spectacular or distressing. In addition, tone lends shape and life to a piece of literature because it creates a mood. Moreover, tone bestows voice to characters and it throws light on the personalities and dispositions of characters that readers understand better.

Tragicomedy

Tragicomedy Tragicomedy is a literary device used in fictional works. It contains both tragedy and comedy. Mostly, the characters in tragicomedy are exaggerated and sometimes there might be a happy ending after a series of unfortunate events. It is incorporated with jokes throughout the story just to lighten the tone. Examples of Tragicomedy from Literature Example #1 The Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare is considered as one of the most popular traditional tragicomedy examples. Though it has a comic structure, there are tragic characters such as Shylock (who is a central character) and tragic events such as Antonio's "loss" (because he is not really dead) of life. Although the play ends on a happy note with the union of the lovers in the story and Antonio is saved from a tragic incident, readers are left with a taste of Shylock's sufferings. Hence, the feeling and mood of the play at the end is neither happy nor gloomy. Though, this play has definitely a comic structure, it also has a strong tragic story. Therefore, it can be classified as a tragicomedy. Example #2 Anton Chekhov's play, The Cherry Orchard turned out to be his final play that has a combination of comedy and tragedy in the story of an elite family which is on the verge of losing their inherited estate. As this play is based on an inevitable social change which came with the dawn of the 20th century, it presents an end of an aristocratic era blended with tragic and comic elements. The comic element can be seen in the behavior, humorous aspects and lack of responsibility of the characters. Example #3 Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot can also be considered as one of the great examples of tragicomedy. There are many gestures, dialogues, actions and situations that are filled with pure comedy. All types of musical devices have been used to create laughter. The overall atmosphere is that of a dark-comedy. For example, Vladimir is determined not to listen to Estragon's nightmare. However, the latter keeps pleading with him to listen. Similarly, Estragon takes off and puts on his shoes several times while Vladimir plays with his hat again and again. On the other hand, comedy turns into a tragedy due to the haplessness of these tramps. Vladimir and Estragon wait for somebody who does not come, which makes them disappointed. During the course of time, they indulge themselves in meaningless activities. Example #4 Shakespearean tragicomedies have complex and dubious plots. One of his perfect tragicomedies is The Winter's Tale. The first three acts are tragic and serious, while the final two acts are based on pastoral romance, roguery, songs, humor and reunion. A sheep-shearing celebration with elegant innocent Perdita serving as a hostess, dancing and singing with shepherds is suggestive of rural life in England. The blend of suffering, sorrows, humor, romance, forgiveness and reunion in the play confirms its label as tragicomedy. There are different aspects of the tragicomedy in the play that include: tragic elements, comic elements, romantic elements and a happy ending. Example #5 The Caretaker written by Harold Pinteris is mixed with two modes; tragedy and comedy and is a fine modern example of tragicomedy. The comic elements come out in the monologues of Mick and Davies, and even the interactions between characters sometimes approach farce. Davies' repetition, confusion and deceive brothers makes the play comic. However, the tragic element appears in the climatic monologue of Anton regarding his shock treatments at the end of the play and in "that place", although, its ending is somewhat ambiguous. Example #6 John Dryden's Marriage à la Mode is a successful comedy that merges two different plots of Restoration comedy of manners and romantic tragicomedy. The double plot is like: marriage creates hopes and also brings regrets, opens possibilities and denies opportunities.. Function of Tragicomedy The main purpose of tragicomedy is to describe dual nature of reality where both modes can coexist, perhaps simultaneously. Therefore, the interweaving of both aspects gives both a comic and tragic view of life. Tragicomedy is mainly used in dramas and theater. Since tragic plays focus exclusively on protagonists, while comic plays are devoid of focus and concern, therefore such plays which fell between these two categories were developed. These types of plays present both modes of life through absurdity and seriousness.

Transition

Transition Transitions are words and phrases that provide a connection between ideas, sentences and paragraphs. Transitions help to make a piece of writing flow better. They can turn disconnected pieces of ideas into a unified whole and prevent a reader from getting lost in the reading. Since the goal of a writer is to convey information clearly and concisely, transitions help achieve that aim by providing a logical connection between one or more sections of a piece of writing. Transitions usually work best when used to link one paragraph to the next, and are usually found at the beginning of the paragraph, although they can be used anywhere when needed. Some examples of transition words or phrases: another key point, indeed, in fact, first thing to remember, on the negative side, on the positive side. A piece of writing usually contains two elements: the order in which different parts of a discussion or argument are provided to the readers, and the relationship the writer has used to link these parts together. Transitions cannot be used as a substitute for good organization but they do aid in making the writing easier and clearer to follow by keeping a constant, consistent flow from one paragraph to the next. Some clues which show that a writer needs to use transitions: The written work is choppy, abrupt and jumpy. The writer has moved from one point to the next abruptly and quickly without a visible connection between the two ideas. The readers have trouble following the writer's train of thought or organization of ideas. Disjointed Sentence: We will be here for a few more days so we can finish up some leftover work. We are staying longer because we do not want to miss the Tech Info conference taking place next week. Revised with Transition: We will be here for a few more days so we can finish up some leftover work. Another reason why we are staying longer is because we do not want to miss the Tech Info conference taking place next week. In the first sentence, the two ideas are abruptly linked without a transition present to connect the two together. In the revised version, the sentences are linked by a transition to connect the two ideas for smoother flow, giving the reader a better understanding of what the writer wanted them to know. Transition examples are found: 1. Between Sections: In longer pieces of writing, transitional paragraphs summarize the information for readers, and specify the relevance of the information in the sections to come. 2. Between Paragraphs: Transitions form a relationship between paragraphs by connecting them with phrases, words or sentences that can be placed at the end of the first paragraph, the start of the second paragraph or in both places. 3. Within Paragraphs: These help the reader anticipate what is to come by acting as cues. Within paragraphs, transitions are usually short phrases or single words. Transition Examples Example #1 To show contrast between ideas: on the contrary, however, notwithstanding Example #2 To denote time: after, at last, before Example #3 To add to the previous point in the essay: furthermore, besides, moreover Example #4 To show similarity or comparison between ideas: likewise, similarly, in like fashion Example #5 To concede a point in the essay: although, at least, at any rate Example #6 To emphasize a point: indeed, above all, truly Example #7 To bring attention to details: especially, specifically, in particular Example #8 To show consequence or a result: with the result that, so that, consequently Example #9 To illustrate a point or provide examples: for instance, for example, to illustrate Example #10 To make a suggestion in the essay: to this end, for this purpose, with this in mind Example #11 To sum up the points: finally, therefore, consequently Functions of Transitions Transitions can be used in diverse circumstances. A transition can be a word, a phrase or even an entire paragraph. The function of a transition is the same in each case: it summarizes the content of the preceding paragraph or section and it helps the reader anticipate what's to come in the next paragraph. However, the major function is not just to embellish one's writing by making it read or sound better; these are words which serve the function of presenting the ideas in such a way that help the readers react in particular ways to the ideas presented. They play a very important part in helping the readers see the logical sequence of the idea.

Anapest

Anapest Anapest is a poetic device defined as a metrical foot in a line of a poem that contains three syllables wherein the first two syllables are short and unstressed followed by a third syllable that is long and stressed as given in this line "I must finish my journey alone." Here the anapestic foot is marked in bold. Difference between Anapest and Dactyl Anapest is known as antidactylus, since it is a reverse pattern of dactyl meter. The difference is that anapest consists of three syllables with the first two are unstressed and the last one is stressed such as unstressed/unstressed/stressed pattern. However, dactyl is the opposite of this pattern. It is a metrical foot that consists of three syllables wherein the first two syllables are stressed and the last one is unstressed such as stressed/stressed/unstressed pattern. Examples of Anapest from Literature Let us take a few anapest examples from literature: Example #1 The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold, And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold; And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. Like the leaves of the forest when Summer is green, That host with their banners at sunset were seen: Like the leaves of the forest when Autumn hath blown,.... For the Angel of Death spread his wings on the blast... And their hearts but once heaved, and forever grew still! (The Destruction of Sennacherib by Lord Byron) Byron has written this poem in anapestic tetrameter pattern that consists of four anapests in each line. Here in this extract, anapests are marked in bold. The entire poem has the same pattern, where the first two syllables are unstressed followed by a third stressed syllable. Example #2 I am monarch of all I survey, My right there is none to dispute; From the centre all round to the sea, I am lord of the fowl and the brute. Oh, solitude! where are the charms.... Better dwell in the midst of alarms,.... I am out of humanity's reach, I must finish my journey alone, Never hear the sweet music of speech.... They are so unacquaintted with man, Their tameness is shocking to me..... (Verses Supposed to Be Written by Alexander Selkirk by William Cowper) This poem shows examples of anapests and iambs combinations. And at some places iambs are substituted by anapests. The poem is written in anapestic trimeter in each line, which means there are three anapests in each line. Example #3 'Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the house Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse; The stockings were hung by the chimney with care,... While visions of sugar plums danced in their heads... had just settled our brains for a long winter's nap.... As dry leaves that before the wild hurricane fly, when they meet with an obstacle, mount to the sky... with the sleigh full of toys, and St. Nicholas too. ('Twas the Night before Christmas by Clement Clarke Moore) This poem is a perfect example of anapest, which runs throughout the poem. Most of the lines are following anapestic tetrameter. Like in the first line, there are four anapests. However, three anapests are also used in other lines. Example #4 May have broken the woof of my tent's thin roof, The stars peep behind her and peer; And I laugh to see them whirl and flee, Like a swarm of golden bees, When I widen the rent in my wind-built tent,... Are each paved with the moon and these.... And the Moon's with a girdle of pearl; The volcanoes are dim, and the stars reel and swim, When the whirlwinds my banner unfurl... Sunbeam-proof, I hang like a roof, The mountains its columns be. The triumphal arch through which I march... When the Powers of the air are chained to my chair... While the moist Earth was laughing below. (The Cloud by Percy Bysshe Shelley) This poem is also a very good example of anapest. Each long line has three anapests (anapestic trimeter) followed by shorter lines with two anapests (anapestic dimeter). It is lending rhythm and regular beats to the poem. Function of Anapest It helps create artistic lines with a regular meter in a poem. Since anapest ends in a stressed syllable, it makes strong rhyming lines that create music in a poem. It plays a very important role in poetry and the most common role in verses is that of a comic meter, which is, the foot used in the limerick for comical effects.

Flash-forward

Flash-Forward Flash-forward or prolepsis is a literary device in which the plot goes ahead of time i.e. a scene that interrupts and takes the narrative forward in time from the current time in a story. Generally, a flash-forward represents expected or imagined events in the future interjected in the main plot revealing the important parts of the story that are yet to occur. It is an opposite of flashback or analepsis (reveals past events). Difference between Flash-Forward and Foreshadowing Flash-forward is similar to foreshadowing. However, foreshadowing hints at the possible outcome in future without any interruption and using events or dialogues of characters in the current time. It may also be present in the titles of narratives or chapter titles. Flash-forward, on the other hand, is an interjected scene in a narrative that takes the narrative forward in time. The events presented in a flash-forward are bound to happen in the story. Foreshadowing predicts the future events, but the events do not necessarily take place in the future - as in "red-herring". Flash-Forward Examples in Literature Let us look at some famous examples of flash-forward in literature below: Example #1 Flash-forward is essentially a postmodern narrative device but there are a few flash-forward examples in early literature. Charles Dickens' "Christmas Carol" depicts Scrooge in a flash-forward. The tightfisted and ill-tempered Scrooge is visited by the "Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come" who shows him his future. Scrooge sees himself dead, and people finding comfort and happiness in his death. No one mourns his death and the people he ruined in his life stole his wealth. He sees Mrs. Dilber, his housekeeper, selling his property to junkmen and friends. The only one touched by his death is a young and poor couple. His only legacy is a cheap tombstone in a graveyard. He weeps on his own grave and asks the third ghost of Christmas to give him a chance to change himself. He wakes up and finds that he is back on the Christmas morning of the present. Scrooge repents and becomes kind and generous. Example #2 "So the two brothers and their murder'd man Rode past fair Florence," (Isabella by John Keats) These lines show a future event as if it has already happened. "Lorenzo" is called "their murdered man" takes the character to the time of future when the two brothers of his beloved "Isabella" will assassinate him. Example #3 In Stephen king's novel "The Dead Zone", the hero receives a special power of predicting the future after a car crash. Through physical contact, he sees the future of a person. After some time, he feels cursed with the gift. Like when he shakes hands with a politician and flash-forwards to the future, he sees a nuclear war. He says: "If you knew Hitler was going to do what he did to the Jews, would you kill him before he had the chance?" At this moment, the hero suffers from a moral conflict between what he knows about the future and what he could do to save people. Example #4 "The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie" by Muriel Spark makes extensive use of the narrative technique of flash-forward. The story takes place at Marcia Blaine School where six girls are handed over to Miss Brodie. In the very beginning of the novel, Spark tells us that Miss Brodie is betrayed. He then gradually reveals the betrayer and, finally, reveals all the details related to the event. Similarly, he introduces "Joyce Emily" as the rejected girl from the "Brodie set" and later tells us the reasons. Function of Flash-Forward Flash-forward enables a writer to give logical explanations to the actions of the characters in a narrative. The character's actions make more sense to the readers - after having developed a greater understanding of the character and the character's personality. Moreover, flash-forward grabs the readers' interest in the current events of the narrative to see how the story develops towards the future that has already been shown to them.

Foil

Foil In literature, a foil is a character that shows qualities that are in contrast with the qualities of another character with the objective to highlight the traits of the other character. The term foil, though generally being applied for a contrasting character, may also be used for any comparison that is drawn to portray a difference between two things. What we observe in literature very often is that a foil is a secondary character who contrasts with the major character to enhance the importance of the major character. The etymology of the term foil testifies the aforementioned assertion as the word "foil" is taken from the practice of backing gems with foil (tool) so that they shine more brightly. Foil Examples in Literature Paradise Lost, Wuthering Heights, and Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde are books that are often used for examples of foil. Example #1 Milton's "Paradise Lost Book I" is based on the comparison of two contrasting characters: God and Satan. Satan, in the entire work, appears as a foil to God. The negative traits of Satan and the positive traits of God are frequently compared which consequently brings to the surface not only the contrast between the two characters but also "justify the ways of God..." We reach a conclusion that it is only just for Satan to be expelled from the paradise because of his refusal to give in to the will of God. Example #2 In "Wuthering Heights", Emily Bronte depicts two contrasting settings that are foils to each other. The entire action of the narrative takes place in two neighboring houses i.e. Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange. While describing Wuthering Heights in chapter 12, the narrator says: "There was no moon, and everything beneath lay in misty darkness: not a light gleamed from any house, far or near all had been extinguished long ago: and those at Wuthering Heights were never visible..." The description of Thrushcross Grange, in contrast to the Wuthering Heights, creates a calm and peaceful atmosphere. "Gimmerton chapel bells were still ringing; and the full, mellow flow of the beck in the valley came soothingly on the ear. It was a sweet substitute for the yet absent murmur of the summer foliage, which drowned that music about the Grange when the trees were in leaf." The foils in the settings also help in the development of the foils in the characters i.e. the people from Wuthering Heights are unsophisticated and thus are foils to those from Thrushcross Grange who have a refined disposition. Example #3 In his novel "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde", Robert Louis Stevenson explores the theme of doppelganger in which "Hyde" is not only an evil double of the honorable Dr. Jekyll but also qualifies as his foil. "Jekyll" creates "Hyde" by a series of scientific experiments in order to prove his statement: "Man is not truly one, but truly two." He means that the human soul is a mixture of evil and good. In other words, every man's foil exists in himself. Hyde is the manifestation of the evil that existed in otherwise honorable Dr. Jekyll. Being a respectable Victorian gentleman, Jekyll can never fulfill his evil desires. Therefore, he separates his "evil-self" and gave him a separate identity and thus invents his own foil. Example #4 Foil examples are also found in plays. We notice in William Shakespeare's play "Julius Caesar" a twofold foil. Cassius is a foil to Brutus and Brutus is a foil to Antony. Both Cassius and Brutus conspire to kill Caesar but Cassius is more prone to treachery than Brutus is and thus easily gives in to his evil ambition. Brutus, on the other hand, hesitates to join the plot without careful analysis of the whole scenario. Cassius even goes to the extent that he does not shy away from writing phony letters to convince Brutus to join the plot. Brutus, in contrast, is bent on relying on his own reason and his awareness of his dignified obligations as a Roman to do the inevitable. Moreover, Brutus is a foil to Antony because Brutus's honesty and simplicity are in clear contrast to Antony's qualities of deception and over-ambition. Function of Foil In fiction, a foil is important in the development of characters. The comparison of the contrasting traits of the characters helps the readers to not only understand their personalities but also to comprehend the importance of their roles in a work of literature.

Hyperbole

Hyperbole Hyperbole, derived from a Greek word meaning "over-casting" is a figure of speech, which involves an exaggeration of ideas for the sake of emphasis. It is a device that we employ in our day-to-day speech. For instance, when you meet a friend after a long time, you say, "Ages have passed since I last saw you". You may not have met him for three or four hours or a day, but the use of the word "ages" exaggerates this statement to add emphasis to your wait. Therefore, a hyperbole is an unreal exaggeration to emphasize the real situation. Some other common Hyperbole examples are given below. Common Examples of Hyperbole My grandmother is as old as the hills. Your suitcase weighs a ton! She is as heavy as an elephant! I am dying of shame. I am trying to solve a million issues these days. It is important not to confuse hyperbole with simile and metaphor. It does make a comparison but unlike simile and metaphor, hyperbole has a humorous effect created by an overstatement. Let us see some examples from Classical English literature in which hyperbole was used successfully. Hyperbole Examples from Literature Example #1 In American folk lore, Paul Bunyan's stories are full of hyperboles. In one instance, he exaggerates winter by saying: "Well now, one winter it was so cold that all the geese flew backward and all the fish moved south and even the snow turned blue. Late at night, it got so frigid that all spoken words froze solid afore they could be heard. People had to wait until sunup to find out what folks were talking about the night before." Freezing of the spoken words at night in winter and then warming up of the words in the warmth of the sun during the day are examples of hyperbole that have been effectively used by Paul Bunyan in this short excerpt. Example #2 From William Shakespeare's "Macbeth", Act II, Scene II, "Neptune's ocean wash this blood Clean from my hand? No. This my hand will rather The multitudinous seas incarnadine, Making the green one red." Macbeth, the tragic hero, feels the unbearable prick of his conscience after killing the king. He regrets his sin and believes that even the oceans of the greatest magnitude cannot wash the blood of the king off his hands. We can notice the effective use of hyperboles in the given lines. Example #3 From W.H Auden's poem "As I Walked One Evening", I'll love you, dear, I'll love you Till China and Africa meet, And the river jumps over the mountain And the salmon sing in the street, I'll love you till the ocean Is folded and hung up to dry The use of hyperbole can be noticed in the above lines. The meeting of China and Africa, the jumping of the river over the mountain, singing of salmon in the street, and the ocean being folded and hung up to be dried are exaggerations not possible in real life. Example #4 From "The Adventures of Pinocchio" written by C. Colloid, "He cried all night, and dawn found him still there, though his tears had dried and only hard, dry sobs shook his wooden frame. But these were so loud that they could be heard by the faraway hills..." The crying of Pinocchio all night until his tears became dry is an example of Hyperbole. Example #5 From Joseph Conrad's novel "The Heart of Darkness", "I had to wait in the station for ten days-an eternity." The wait of ten days seemed to last forever and never end. Function of Hyperbole The above arguments make clear the use of hyperbole. In our daily conversation, we use hyperbole to emphasize for an amusing effect. However, in literature it has very serious implications. By using hyperbole, a writer or a poet makes common human feelings remarkable and intense to such an extent that they do not remain ordinary. In literature, usage of hyperbole develops contrasts. When one thing is described with an over-statement and the other thing is presented normally, a striking contrast is developed. This technique is employed to catch the reader's attention.

Antimetabole

Antimetabole is derived from a Greek word which means "turning about". It is a literary term or device that involves repeating a phrase in reverse order. "You like it; it likes you" and "Fair is foul and foul is fair" etc. Chiasmus and antimetabole are usually expected to be overlapped in usage and it is also often used as a synonym for Epanados in modern day books. However, the writer would make them distinct through his use. Famous Antimetabole Examples Just see these examples of how it has been used since the time of Socrates to the present modern age. "Eat to live, not live to eat."- Socrates "I go where I please, and I please where I go." - Attributed to Duke Nukem "In America, you can always find a party. In Soviet Russia, Party always finds you!" - Yakov Smirnoff "If you fail to plan, you plan to fail." "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address, January 20, 1961. "He who questions training only trains himself at asking questions." The Sphinx, Mystery Men (1999) "The great object of [Hamlet's] life is defeated by continually resolving to do, yet doing nothing but resolve." - Samuel Taylor Coleridge on Shakespeare's Hamlet "We do what we like and we like what we do." - Andrew W.K., "Party Hard" "We didn't land on Plymouth Rock. Plymouth Rock landed on us." Malcolm X, "Malcolm X" "If you can't be with the one you love, love the one you're with." -Billy Preston "You stood up for America, now America must stand up for you." Barack Obama - December 14, 2011. What Is the Difference Between Chiasmus and Antimetabole? Antimetabole and chiasmus are very closely related and some experts even use them interchangeably but both the terms still exist to refer to two distinct literary devices. According to scholars, when a sentence is repeated after reversing it so as to convey an idea or stress on a point, it is called chiasmus. Antimetabole is not very much different from chiasmus, only that in an antimetabole the words and grammatical structure is also reversed because just reversing the meaning is not enough. So in the light of the above mentioned facts, it can be deduced that all the antimetaboles are chiasmus, but not all instances of chiasmus are antimetaboles. A chiasmus is a sentence repeated inversely and the only condition of a chiasmic sentence is that the two clauses in the phrase are opposite in meanings. For example, the popular saying by Havelock Ellis's, "Charm is a woman's strength, strength is a man's charm," The aforementioned sentence, although, is an example of chiasmus but is not an antimetabole because the two clauses have opposite meanings but the words and the grammatical makeup are dissimilar. In an antimetabole the word order in a sentence is reversed to contrast the meanings. One very good example is Mae West's catchphrase, "It's not the men in my life; it's the life in my men." As you can see, in this sentence the words, rhythm and grammatical structure used in the second sentence are exactly similar to the first one but only the meaning is opposite. Many experts refer to antimetabole as a subtype of chiasmus. Functions and Effectiveness of Antimetaboles For antimetaboles to be effective, they do not only have to be grammatically correct but should also be logical. People after studying literature for a while start thinking that they can churn out antimetaboles with a snap of a finger. They fail to understand the fact that a sentence cannot be called an antimetaboles if it is not based on a logical theme. For instance, you may witness a 'smart Alec' come up with a sentence like this and expect it to qualify for an antimetabole, which clearly is not the case. Antimetaboles are popular and effective solely because they appeal to reason and are easy to remember. If the first half is relatable, then the reader or listener automatically will make sense out of the second half. For example: "It is not about the years in your life, but about the life in your years." A sentence like this can be called an antimetabole because it is appealing, correct (logic and grammar) and has a message to convey to the readers.

Argument

Argument An argument is the main statement of a poem, an essay, a short story, or a novel that usually appears as an introduction or a point on which the writer will develop his work in order to convince his readers. Literature does not merely entertain. It also intends to shape the outlook of the readers. Therefore, an argument does not intend to serve only as an introduction but it attracts the reader's focus to an issue that will be made clear gradually. Common Argument Examples In our everyday life, we use different arguments in our discussions to convince others to accept our viewpoint. We do it in the same way in literature i.e. we believe and state what is true and then we gradually build an argument around it to make others believe that what we think is relevant and true. For example, we take a subject as an argument like "Internet is a good invention". Then, we support it with logical reasons such as "It is a source of information," and "It is a hub of entertainment," and so on. In the end, we conclude the argument by giving our verdict. Examples of Argument in Literature Let us now analyze a few examples of argument from literature: Example #1 Charles Dickens starts his novel with a literary argument: "Whether I shall turn out to be the hero of my own life, or whether that station will be held by anybody else, these pages must show." The above opening line is considered one of the best opening lines of a novel. It becomes the main statement or argument of the novel as the whole novel depicts the adventures of the narrator "David". Many people let him down and many others support him in hard times. In the end, he alone was not the hero of his life but there were others who deserve the same status. Example #2 Milton provides his argument or purpose of the poem in the first five lines of his "Paradise Lost" Book I: "Of Man's First Disobedience, and the Fruit Of that Forbidden Tree, whose mortal taste Brought Death into the World, and all our woe, With loss of Eden, till one greater Man Restore us, and regain the blissful Seat," In the above lines, Milton states the reasons why man was thrown out of Eden, what is the reason for all our "woes", and how "one greater Man" - Christ, restored our status. The rest of the epical poem develops this argument i.e. "to justify the ways of God to man". Example #3 Similarly, the opening lines of Jane Austen's "Pride and Prejudice" give a suitable example of argument: "It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife." The plot of the novel revolves around this argument. We see girls and their parents hunting for rich bachelors. The eligible bachelors seem to have no other worry in their life except looking for beautiful partners. Hence, we see a game of matchmaking occupying the entire novel. Example #4 S.T Coleridge appended his argument at the beginning of his poem "Rime of the Ancient Mariner". He writes: "How a Ship having passed the Line was driven by storms to the cold Country towards the South Pole; and how from thence she made her course to the tropical Latitude of the Great Pacific Ocean; and of the strange things that befell; and in what manner the Ancyent Marinere came back to his own Country." Coleridge gives us a summary of his poem in a nutshell. Function of an Argument Literature, on face value, may be looked as a tool to entertain us with attractive verse with sweet melody or with a story with instances of humor or emotion displayed by interesting characters. However, this is not its ultimate aim. Writers consider literature as a powerful tool in their hands to shape or reform our thinking. Arguments come into play at this time. Writers carefully play with words, as well as give reasons and examples, to persuade us to their point of view. Our outlook is molded by words that also entertain us.

Conflict

Conflict In literature, a conflict is a literary element that involves a struggle between two opposing forces usually a protagonist and an antagonist. Internal and External Conflicts Careful examination of the succeeding conflict examples will help us realize that conflicts may be internal or external. An internal or psychological conflict arises as soon as a character experiences two opposite emotions or desires; usually virtue or vice, or good and evil inside him. This disagreement causes a character to suffer mental agony. Internal conflict develops a unique tension in a storyline marked by a lack of action. External conflict, on the other hand, is marked by a characteristic involvement of an action wherein a character finds himself in struggle with those outside forces that hamper his progress. The most common type of an external conflict is where a protagonist fights back against the antagonist's tactics that impede his or her advancement. Conflict Examples in Literature Let us have a look at some examples of conflict in literature: Example #1 Hamlet's internal conflict is the main conflict in William Shakespeare's play "Hamlet". This internal conflict decides his tragic downfall. He reveals his state of mind in the following lines from Act 3, Scene 1 of the play: "To be, or not to be-that is the question: Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune Or to take arms against a sea of troubles And by opposing end them. To die, to sleep..." The conflict here is that he wants to kill his father's murderer "Claudius" but he also looks for a proof to justify his action ultimately ruining his life and the lives of his loved ones. Due to his internal conflict, he spoils his relation with his mother and sends "Ophelia" into such a state of despair that she commits a suicide. Hamlet's internal conflict or which is regarded as indecisiveness almost got everyone killed at the end of the play. The resolution to the conflict came when he killed "Claudius" by assuming fake madness for the reason that he would not be asked for any justification. In the same play, we find Hamlet engaged in an external conflict with his uncle "Claudius". The conflict here is that he wants to kill his father's murderer Claudius but he also looks for proof to justify his action, ultimately ruining his life and the lives of his loved ones. Due to his internal conflict, he spoils his relationship with his mother and sends Ophelia (Hamlet's love interest) into such a state of despair that she commits suicide. Hamlet's internal conflict, which is regarded as indecisiveness, almost got everyone killed at the end of the play. The resolution to the conflict came when he killed Claudius by assuming fake madness so that he would not be asked for any justification. In the same play, we find Hamlet engaged in an external conflict with his uncle Claudius. Example #2 Another example of an internal conflict is found in the character of Doctor Faustus in Marlowe's "Doctor Faustus". Faustus has an ambitious nature. In spite of being a respected scholar, he sold his soul to "Lucifer" by signing a contract with his blood for achieving ultimate power and limitless pleasure in this world. He learns the art of black magic and defies Christianity. After the aforementioned action, we see Faustus suffering from an internal conflict where he thinks honestly about repenting, acting upon the advice of "the good angel" but "the bad angel" or the evil inside him distracts him by telling that it is all too late. In conclusion, the conflict is resolved when devils take his soul away to Hell and he suffers eternal damnation because of his over-ambition. Example #3 The most straightforward type of external conflict is when a character in a story struggles against another character physically. In William Golding's novel "The Lord of the Flies" for example, Ralph (the leader of the "good guys") steadily comes into conflict with Jack (a bully who later forms a "tribe" of hunters). Jack and his "tribe" give in to their savage instinct and make attempts to hunt or kill the civilized batch of boys headed by Ralph. Example #4 Another kind of external conflict sets a character against the evil that dominates a society. In such kind of conflict, a character may confront a dominant group with opposing priorities. For instance, in Harper Lee's novel "To Kill a Mockingbird", an honest lawyer Atticus Finch goes up against the racist society in which he lives. Atticus has the courage to defend a black man, Tom Robinson, who has been falsely accused of a murder. Though Atticus has the support of a few like-minded people, most of the town express their disapproval of his defense of a black man. Function of Conflict Both internal and external conflicts are essential elements of a storyline. It is essential for a writer to introduce and develop conflict, internal or external or both, in his storyline in order to achieve a story goal i.e. the resolution of a conflict in order to entertain his readers.

Antithesis

Antithesis Antithesis, literal meaning opposite, is a rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas are put together in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect. Antithesis emphasizes the idea of contrast by parallel structures of the contrasted phrases or clauses, i.e. the structures of phrases and clauses are similar in order to draw the attention of the listeners or readers. For example: "Setting foot on the moon may be a small step for a man but a giant step for mankind." The use of contrasting ideas, "a small step" and "a giant step", in the sentence above emphasizes the significance of one of the biggest landmarks of human history. Common Antithesis Examples Some famous antithetical statements have become part of our everyday speech and are frequently used in arguments and discussions. Below is the list of some antithetical statements: Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice. Man proposes, God disposes. Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing. Speech is silver, but silence is gold. Patience is bitter, but it has a sweet fruit. Money is the root of all evils: poverty is the fruit of all goodness. You are easy on the eyes, but hard on the heart. Examples of Antithesis in Literature In literature, writers employ antithesis not only in sentences but also in characters and events. Thus, its use is extensive; below are a few examples of antithesis in literature: Example #1 The opening lines of Charles Dickens' novel " A Tale of Two Cities" provides an unforgettable antithesis example: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way." The contrasting ideas, set in parallel structures, markedly highlight the conflict that existed in the time which was discussed in the novel. Example #2 In Shakespeare's "Julius Caesar" we notice antithesis in characters of "Mark Antony" and "Marcus Brutus". Brutus is portrayed as a "noblest of Romans" close to Caesar and a person who loved Rome and Caesar. Antony, on the contrary, is shown as a man with evil intentions of harming Caesar and taking charge of Rome. These antithetical characters highlight the conflict in the play. Example #3 Alexander Pope in his "An Essay on Criticism" says: "To err is human; to forgive divine." Fallibility is a trait of humans and God, his creator, is most forgiving. Through these antithetical ideas, Pope reveals the basic nature of human beings. He wants to say that God is forgiving because his creation is erring. Example #4 We find antithesis in John Donne's poem "Community": "Good we must love, and must hate ill, For ill is ill, and good good still; But there are things indifferent, Which we may neither hate, nor love, But one, and then another prove, As we shall find our fancy bent." Two contrasting words "love" and "hate" are combined in the above lines. It emphasizes that we love good because it is always good and we hate bad because it is always bad. It is a matter of choice to love or hate things which are neither good nor bad. Example #5 John Milton in "Paradise Lost" says: "Better to reign in Hell, than serve in Heav'n." The contrasting ideas of "reign"/ "serve" and "Hell"/ "Heav'n" are placed in a sentence to achieve an antithetical effect. Function of Antithesis A literary device like antithesis uses words to convey ideas in different ways from the common words and expressions of daily life. Thus, it conveys meaning more vividly than ordinary speech. When contrasting ideas are brought together, the idea is expressed more emphatically. As a literary device, antithesis makes contrasts in order to examine pros and cons of a subject under discussion and helps to bring forth judgment on that particular subject.

Connotation

Connotation refers to a meaning that is implied by a word apart from the thing which it describes explicitly. Words carry cultural and emotional associations or meanings in addition to their literal meanings or denotations. For instance, "Wall Street" literally means a street situated in Lower Manhattan but connotatively it refers to "wealth" and "power". Positive and Negative Connotations Words may have positive or negative connotations that depend upon the social, cultural and personal experiences of individuals. For example, the words childish, childlike and youthful have the same denotative but different connotative meanings. Childish and childlike have a negative connotation as they refer to immature behavior of a person. Whereas, youthful implies that a person is lively and energetic. Common Connotation Examples Below are a few connotation examples. Their suggested meanings are shaped by cultural and emotional associations: A dog connotes shamelessness or an ugly face. A dove implies peace or gentility. Home suggests family, comfort and security. Politician has a negative connotation of wickedness and insincerity while statesperson connotes sincerity. Pushy refers to someone loud-mouthed and irritating. Mom and Dad when used in place of mother and father connote loving parents. Examples of Connotation in Literature In literature, it is a common practice among writers to deviate from the literal meanings of words in order to create novel ideas. Figures of speech frequently employed by writers are examples of such deviations. Example #1 Metaphors are words that connote meanings that go beyond their literal meanings. Shakespeare in his Sonnet 18 says: "Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer's Day" Here, the phrase "a Summer's Day" implies the fairness of his beloved. Similarly, John Donne says in his poem "The Sun Rising": "She is all states, and all princes, I." This line suggests the speaker's belief that he and his beloved are wealthier than all the states, kingdoms, and rulers in the whole world because of their love. Example #2 Irony and satire exhibit connotative meanings, as the intended meanings of words are opposite to their literal meanings. For example, we see a sarcastic remark passed by Antonio on Shylock, the Jew, in William Shakespeare's play "The Merchant of Venice": "Hie thee, gentle Jew. The Hebrew will turn Christian: he grows kind." The word "Jew" has a negative connotation of wickedness, while "Christian" demonstrates positive connotations of kindness. Example #3 George Orwell's allegorical novel "Animal Farm" is packed with examples of connotation. The actions of the animals on the farm illustrate the greed and corruption that arose after the Communist Revolution of Russia. The pigs in the novel connote wicked and powerful people who can change the ideology of a society. In addition, Mr. Jones (the owner of the farm), represents the overthrown Tsar Nicholas II; and Boxer, the horse, represents the laborer class etc. Example #4 Metonymy is another figure of speech that makes use of connotative or suggested meanings, as it describes a thing by mentioning something else with which it is closely connected. For example, Mark Anthony in Act III of Shakespeare's "Julies Caesar" says, "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears." Here the word "ear" connotes the idea of people listening to him attentively. Read the following lines form Robert Frost's poem "Out, Out": "As he swung toward them holding up the hand Half in appeal, but half as if to keep The life from spilling" In the line "The life from spilling" the word "life" connotes "blood". It does make sense as well because loss of blood may cause loss of life. Example #5 Connotation provides the basis for symbolic meanings of words because symbolic meanings of objects are different from their literal sense. Look at the following lines from Shakespeare's play "As you Like It": "All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts," "A stage" connotes the world; "players" suggests human beings; and "parts" implies different stages of their lives. Function of Connotation In literature, connotation paves way for creativity by using figures of speech like metaphor, simile, symbolism, personification etc. Had writers contented themselves with only the literal meanings, there would have been no way to compare abstract ideas to concrete concepts in order to give readers a better understanding .Therefore, connotative meanings of words allow writers to add to their works, dimensions which are broader, more vivid and fresher.

Hubris

Hubris Hubris is extreme pride and arrogance shown by a character that ultimately brings about his downfall. Hubris is a typical flaw in the personality of a character who enjoys a powerful position; as a result of which, he overestimates his capabilities to such an extent that he loses contact with reality. A character suffering from Hubris tries to cross normal human limits and violates moral codes. Examples of Hubris are found in major characters of tragic plays. Definition of Hubris by Aristotle Aristotle mentions Hubris in his book "Rhetoric": "Hubris consists in doing and saying things that cause shame to the victim...simply for the pleasure of it. Retaliation is not hubris, but revenge. ... Young men and the rich are hubristic because they think they are better than other people." Aristotle thus believed that people indulge in crimes like sexual misconduct and maltreating others only to fulfill their basic desire to make themselves feel superior to others. The Concept of Hubris in Greek Mythology Similarly, Greek mythology depicts it as a great crime and demands a severe punishment. Generally, the Greek idea of Hubris is that a character in an authoritative position becomes so proud of his exceptional qualities that he forms a delusion that he is equal to gods and eventually he tries to defy the gods and his fate. Hubris Examples in Literature Hubris examples are also examples of "Hamartia", a tragic flaw in a character that brings about his tragic downfall. Example #1 In a famous Greek Tragedy "Oedipus Rex" by Sophocles, the character of the "King Oedipus" provides a classic example of a character who suffers from Hubris or excessive pride. Due to his "hubris", he attempts to defy prophecies of gods but ended up doing what he feared the most and what he was warned against. "The Oracle of Delphi" told him that he would kill his father and marry his mother. Overcome by Hubris, he tries to avoid this. He leaves "Corinth" and travels towards "Thebes". On his way to the neighboring city, he kills an old man in a feud and later marries the queen of "Thebes" as he was made king of the city after he saved the city from a deadly "Sphinx". One can say that he commits all these sins in complete ignorance but nevertheless he deserves punishment because he became so proud that he does not shy from attempting to rebel against his fate. His reversal of fortune is caused by his Hubris. Example #2 In his famous epic "Paradise Lost", Milton portrays "Satan" as a character that suffers from Hubris. His loses his glorious position through giving in to his excessive pride. It was his Hubris that made him try to take control over Heaven. Although he failed miserably, his pride lasts: "Better to reign in Hell, than serve in Heav'n." The reason of his desire to rebel against his creator originates from his reluctance to accept the authority of God and His Son because he believed that angels are "self-begot, self-raised" and hence bringing his downfall in being thrown out of Paradise. Example #3 An instance of Hubris can be spotted in Marlowe's "Doctor Faustus". Faustus's arrogance and extreme pride in his scholarship and his irresistible desire to become superior to all other men of his age forces him to sell his soul to "Lucifer" by signing a contract with his blood. He learns the art of black magic and defies Christianity. Finally, he has to pay for his arrogance and pride. The devils take away his soul to Hell and he suffers eternal damnation. Example #4 Likewise, "Victor" the protagonist of Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein" exhibits Hubris in his endeavor to become an unmatched scientist. He creates a "monster" named "Frankenstein" which ultimately becomes the cause of his disaster. Function of Hubris In literature, portrayal of hubristic characters serves to achieve a moralistic end. Such characters are eventually punished thus giving a moral lesson to the audience and the readers so that they are motivated to improve their characters by removing the flaws that can cause a tragedy in their lives. Witnessing a tragic hero suffering due to his hubristic actions, the audience or the readers may fear that the same fate may befall them if they indulge in similar kinds of actions.

Cacophony

If we speak literally, cacophony points to a situation where there is a mixture of harsh and inharmonious sounds. In literature, however, the term refers to the use of words with sharp, harsh, hissing and unmelodious sounds primarily those of consonants to achieve desired results. Common Cacophony Examples In everyday life, one of the examples of cacophony would be the amalgamation of different sounds you hear in a busy city street or market. You hear sounds of vehicles, announcements on loudspeakers, music, and chatter of people or even a dog barking at the same time and without any harmony. You can rightly point to the situation as being the cacophony of a busy street or market. We can notice the manifestation of cacophony in language as well; for instance in the sentence: "I detest war because cause of war is always trivial." The part "because cause" is cacophony as because is followed by a word cause that has a similar sound but different meaning. Generally, it sounds unpleasant as the same sound is repeated in two different words. Similarly, a discordant sound of a musical band, tuning up their musical instruments, is also an example of cacophony. Cacophony and Euphony Cacophony is opposite to euphony which is the use of words having pleasant and harmonious effects. Generally, the vowels, semi-vowels and the nasal consonants e.g. l, m, n, r, y are considered to be euphonious. Cacophony, on the other hand, uses consonants in combinations which requires explosive delivery e.g., p, b, d, g, k, ch-, sh- etc. Examples of Cacophony in Literature In literature, the unpleasantness of cacophony is utilized by writers to present dreadful or distasteful situations. Let us look at a few Cacophony examples in literature: Example #1 Abundant use of cacophonic words could be noticed in Lewis Carroll's nonsense poem "Jabberwocky" in his novel "Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There": 'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe; All mimsy were the borogoves,an And the mome raths outgrabe. "Beware the Jabberwock, my son! The jaws that bite, the claws that catch! Beware the Jubjub bird, and shun The frumious Bandersnatch!" In the excerpt, we see a collection of nonsense words which are at the same time unmelodious. After reading the poem, "Alice", the main character of the novel, gives her impression that reflects clearly the purpose of the poem. She says: "Somehow it seems to fill my head with ideas—only I don't exactly know what they are! However, somebody killed something: that's clear, at any rate". Function of Cacophony Writers use cacophony as a tool to describe a discordant situation using discordant words. The use of such words allows readers to picture and feel the unpleasantness of the situation the writer has described through words.

Characterization

Characterization is a literary device that is used step by step in literature to highlight and explain the details about a character in a story. It is in the initial stage where the writer introduces the character with noticeable emergence and then following the introduction of the character, the writer often talks about his behavior; then as the story progresses, the thought-process of the character. The next stage involves the character expressing his opinions and ideas and getting into conversations with the rest of the characters. The final part shows how others in the story respond to the character's personality. Characterization as a literary tool was coined in the mid 15th century. Aristotle in his Poetics argued that "tragedy is a representation, not of men, but of action and life". Thus the assertion of the dominance of plot over characters, termed as plot-driven narrative, is unmistakable. This point of view was later on abandoned by many because, in the 19th century, the dominance of character over plot became clear through petty bourgeois novels. Types of Characterization An author can use two approaches to deliver information about a character and build an image of it: 1. Direct or explicit characterization This kind of characterization takes a direct approach towards building the character. It uses another character, narrator or the protagonist himself to tell the readers or audience about the subject. 2. Indirect or implicit characterization This is a more subtle way of introducing the character to the audience. The audience has to deduce for themselves the characteristics of the character by observing his/her thought process, behavior, speech, way of talking, appearance, and way of communication with other characters and also by discerning the response of other characters. Characterization in Drama On stage or in front of the camera, the actors usually do not have much time to characterize. This is why the character faces the risk of coming across as underdeveloped. In dramaturgy, the realists take a different approach by relying on implied characterization. This is pivotal to the theme of their character-driven narrative. Examples of these playwrights are Anton Chekhov, Henrik Ibsen, and August Strindberg. Classic psychological characterization examples such as "The Seagull" usually build the main character in a more indirect manner. This approach is considered more effective because it slowly discloses the inner turmoil of the character during the three hours of the show and lets the audience connect better. The actors who act in such roles usually work on them profoundly to get an in-depth idea of the personality of their respective character. Often, during such shows, plays or dramas, no direct statements about the character's nature are found. This kind of realism needs the actors to build the character from their own perspective initially. This is why realistic characterization is more of a subtle nature, which cannot directly be recognized. Characterization Examples "The Great Gatsby" There are many examples of characterization in literature. "The Great Gatsby" is probably the best. In this particular book, the main idea revolves around the social status of the characters. The major character of the book, Mr. Gatsby, is perceptibly rich but he does not belong to the upper stratum of society. This means that he cannot have Daisy. Tom is essentially defined by his wealth and the abusive nature that he portrays every now and then, while Daisy is explained by Gatsby as having a voice full of money. Another technique to highlight the qualities of a character is to put them in certain areas that are symbolic of a social status. In the novel, Gatsby resides in the West Egg, which is considered less trendy than East Egg, where Daisy lives. This difference points out the gap between Jay's and Daisy's social statuses. Moreover, you might also notice that Tom, Jordan and Daisy live in East Egg while Gatsby and Nick reside in West Egg, which again highlights the difference in their financial background. This division is reinforced at the end of the novel when Nick supports Gatsby against the rest of the folks. Occupations have also been used very tactfully in the novel to highlight characteristics of certain protagonists. The prime example is Gatsby who, despite being so rich, is known by his profession: bootlegging. He had an illegal job that earned him a fortune but failed to get him into the upper class of New York. In contrast, Nick has a clean and fair job of a "bond man" that defines his character. The poor guy Wilson who fixes the rich people's cars befriends his wife; and then there is Jordon, who is presented as a dishonest golf pro. Function Characterization is an essential component in writing good literature. Modern fiction, in particular, has taken great advantage of this literary device. Understanding the role of characterization in storytelling is very important for any writer. To put it briefly, it helps us make sense of the behavior of any character in a story by helping us understand their thought processes. A good use of characterization always leads the readers or audience to relate better to the events taking place in the story. Dialogues play a very important role in developing a character because they give us an opportunity to examine the motivations and actions of the characters more deeply.

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is defined as a word, which imitates the natural sounds of a thing. It creates a sound effect that mimics the thing described, making the description more expressive and interesting. For instance, saying, "The gushing stream flows in the forest" is a more meaningful description than just saying, "The stream flows in the forest." The reader is drawn to hear the sound of a "gushing stream" which makes the expression more effective. In addition to the sound they represent, many onomatopoeic words have developed meanings of their own. For example, "whisper" not only represents the sound of people talking quietly, but also describes the action of people talking quietly. Common Examples of Onomatopoeia The buzzing bee flew away. The sack fell into the river with a splash. The books fell on the table with a loud thump. He looked at the roaring sky. The rustling leaves kept me awake. The different sounds of animals are also considered as examples of onomatopoeia. You will recognize the following sounds easily: Meow Moo Neigh Tweet Oink Baa Groups of Onomatopoeic Words Onomatopoeic words come in combinations as they reflect different sounds of a single object. For example, a group of words reflecting different sounds of water are; plop, splash, gush, sprinkle, drizzle, drip etc. Similarly, words like growl, giggle, grunt, murmur, blurt, chatter etc. denote different kinds of human voice sounds. Moreover, we can identify a group of words related to different sounds of wind, such as; swish, swoosh, whiff, whoosh, whizz, whisper etc. Onomatopoeia Examples in Literature Onomatopoeia is frequently employed in literature. Below, a few Onomatopoeia examples are highlighted in bold letters: Example #1 "The moan of doves in immemorial elms, And murmuring of innumerable bees..." ('Come Down, O Maid' by Alfred Lord Tennyson) Example #2 "Hark, hark! Bow-wow. The watch-dogs bark! Bow-wow. Hark, hark! I hear The strain of strutting chanticleer Cry, 'cock-a-diddle-dow!'" (Ariel in William Shakespeare's The Tempest, Act One, scene 2) Example #3 "He saw nothing and heard nothing but he could feel his heart pounding and then he heard the clack on stone and the leaping, dropping clicks of a small rock falling." (For Whom the Bell Tolls by Ernest Hemingway) Example #4 "It went zip when it moved and bop when it stopped, And whirr when it stood still. I never knew just what it was and I guess I never will." ("The Marvelous Toy" by Tom Paxton) Example #5 "I'm getting married in the morning! Ding dong! the bells are gonna chime." ("Get Me to the Church on Time," by Lerner and Loewe) We notice, in the above examples, the use of onomatopoeia gives rhythm to the texts. In addition, it makes the description livelier and interesting, appealing directly to the senses of the reader. Onomatopoeia and Phanopoeia Onomatopoeia, in its more complicated use, takes the form of phanopoeia. Phanopoeia is a form of onomatopoeia that describes the sense of things rather than their natural sounds. D.H Lawrence in his poem "Snake" illustrates the use of this form: "He reached down from a fissure in the earth-wall in the gloom And trailed his yellow-brown slackness soft-bellied down, over the edge of the stone trough And rested his throat upon the stone bottom, And where the water had dripped from the tap, in a small clearness He sipped with his straight mouth,..." The rhythm and length of the above lines, along with the use of "hissing" sounds, create a picture of a snake in the minds of the readers. Function of Onomatopoeia Generally, words are used to tell what is happening. Onomatopoeia, on the other hand, helps the readers to hear the sounds the words they reflect. Hence, the reader cannot help but enter the world created by the poet with the aid of these words. The beauty of onomatopoeic words lies in the fact that they are bound to have an effect on the readers' senses whether they are understood or not. Moreover, a simple plain expression does not have the same emphatic effect that conveys an idea powerfully to the readers. The use of onomatopoeic words helps create emphasis.

Pentameter

Pentameter Pentameter is a literary device that can be defined as a line in verse or poetry that has five strong metrical feet or beats. There are different forms of pentameter: iamb, trochaic, dactylic and anapestic. The most commonly used pentameter in English is iambic. It also can be described as a line consists of ten syllables, where the first syllable is stressed, the second is unstressed, the third is stressed and so on until it reaches the 10th line syllable. For instance, "Shall I com PARE thee TO a SUM mer's DAY?"(Sonnet 18 by Shakespeare) Types of Pentameter Iamb pentameter Trochaic pentameter Anapestic pentameter Dactylic pentameter Examples of Pentameter from Literature There are many writers who have used pentameters in their poems and verses. Here are a few of them: Example #1 If music be the food of love, play on; Give me excess of it, that, surfeiting, The appetite may sicken, and so die. That strain again! it had a dying fall: O, it came o'er my ear like the sweet sound, (Twelfth Night by William Shakespeare) This extract has iambic pentameter style (unstressed/stressed pattern). The stressed syllables are marked in bold. Here we can see that each line has five beats and stress is placed on the second syllable. Example #2 Whan that aprill with his shoures soote The droghte of march hath perced to the roote, And bathed every veyne in swich licour Of which vertu engendred is the flour; Whan zephirus eek with his sweete breeth. To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes; Of Engelond, to Caunterbury they wende, The hooly blisful martir for to seke That hem hath holpen, whan that they were seeke. (Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer) This is another example of iambic pentameter. Here each foot is called iamb which contains two syllables, wherein the first syllable is unaccented and the second is accented. Through this unstressed/stressed pattern, emphasis has been added to the words. Example #3 Batter my heart three-personed God, for you as yet but knock, breathe, shine and seek to mend. That I may rise and stand o'erthrow me and bend Your force to break, blow, burn and make me new..... (Holy Sonnet XIV by John Donne) Iambic pentameter examples are rich in Donne's poems. Here in this extract, the second and third lines are following this pattern perfectly. There are ten syllables where the first syllables are unstressed followed by stressed syllables. Example #4 And my poor fool is hang'd! No, no, no life! Why should a dog, a horse, a rat, have life, And thou no breath at all? Thou'lt come no more, Never, never, never, never, never! Pray you, undo this button: thank you, sir. Do you see this? Look on her, look, her lips, Look there, look there.....! (King Lear by William Shakespeare) This extract is a perfect example of trochaic pentameter which follows a stressed/unstressed pattern which is opposite to iamb meter. The syllables are perfectly alternating between unstressed and stressed syllables in the fourth line. Example #5 Half a league, half a league, Half a league onward, All in the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. "Forward, the Light Brigade! "Charge for the guns!" he said: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. (The Charge of the Light Brigade by Alfred, Lord Tennyson) This is an example of dactyl pentameter that follows a stressed/unstressed/unstressed pattern. It is an elegiac poem, since dactyl pentameter exists mostly in elegies. This meter is functioning as a building block and gives a regular rhythm to the poem. Function of Pentameter Pentameter widely governs the individual lines in poems, couplets and verses and provides a structural form to a poem. It also determines the speaking style and rhythm. Pentameters also give arrangement to words through the regular use of accents on the syllables, and helps in emphasizing the specific words which a poet wishes to, which is the major reason for variation in the text through stressed/unstressed patterns.

Ellipsis

Ellipsis Ellipsis is a literary device that is used in narratives to omit some parts of a sentence or event, which gives the reader a chance to fill the gaps while acting or reading it out. It is usually written between the sentences as "...". Most films have ellipses to omit the sections of a story or event that are not of any significance within the narrative. Apart from being convenient, ellipsis also helps in advancing the story. Description The part of a sentence or an event that is left out by substituting it with ellipses is often used to either save time or use it as a stylistic element by allowing the reader to fill in the gaps by using their imagination. Ellipsis can be dated back to Earnest Hemingway who also presented the Iceberg theory, which is also called the theory of omission. Ellipsis Examples Example #1 Among the famous examples of ellipsis in literature, the best would be Virginia Woolf's novel, To the Lighthouse. The book involves two parts, one before the World War I was fought and won and the later one accounts for the events occurring afterwards. All the events that occurred in between have not been mentioned in the book. Rather it has left to the readers to deduce the events from the notable changes that have occurred in the characters' lives. Example #2 "The potential for unintended humor in 'compressed' English isn't restricted to headline writing; it goes back to the days of the telegraph. One clever (though possibly apocryphal) example once appeared in the pages of Time magazine: Cary Grant received a telegram from an editor inquiring, 'HOW OLD CARY GRANT?-to which he responded: 'OLD CARY GRANT FINE. HOW YOU?' The omitted verb may have saved the sender a nickel, but the snappy comeback was worth far more." (Ben Zimmer, "Crash Blossoms." The New York Times, Jan. 27, 2010) Function of Ellipsis Ellipsis is also very commonly used in filmmaking. The parts and scenes that are of no significance to the film are usually omitted by editing. For instance, there would be no point in showing a scene that involves a character walking to the door to answer it unless there is something absolutely important in that scene that you would like to highlight. Normally, such a scene would be cut short by editing the unnecessary parts. In such cases, the narrative logic allows the audience to ignore the ellipsis. A very good example of the use of ellipsis in filmmaking would be Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey. The movie directly proceeds to the modern technology (space station) from the most primitive tool of mankind (a bone). In film language, this kind of ellipsis is often called a match cut. It is bridged by the symbolic comparison between the two things. Importance of Ellipsis in Avoiding Superfluity The greatest of the artists over the years have tried to prove time after time their passion for getting things right. The process of writing and revision can be painstaking. A great piece of writing is not generally created overnight. It requires close observation and a keen eye that points out what should stay and what should go into the bin. A piece of writing cannot achieve that level of intensity without such exertion. What is its significance in the actual composition? This question has been deemed very important and many writers have answered it by underlining the importance of avoiding superfluity. Each and every part of a narrative has to fulfill a purpose or it's all for naught. As Aristotle writes about the action of tragedy: "The structural union of the parts being such that, if any one of them is displaced or removed, the whole will be disjointed and disturbed. For a thing whose presence or absence makes no visible difference, is not an organic part of the whole" (Poetics 8). Sir Philip Sidney's concern is slightly different from what has been stated above but he still emphasizes that every component bears significance, as he said, "one word cannot be lost but the whole work fails" (An Apology for Poetry, 122). This idea is not just limited to the classical narratives and poems. The idea of functionality, referring to the notion that every part is important and what is not important is not necessary, assembles economic and organic principles. It is founded on the concept that there is no waste in nature. The relevance of economy does not become any less important if we move from looking at the inherent structure to studying the meaning of the narrative as a representation of the ideas and perspective of the author.

Mood

Mood In literature, mood is a literary element that evokes certain feelings or vibes in readers through words and descriptions. Usually, mood is referred to as the atmosphere of a literary piece, as it creates an emotional situation that surrounds the readers. Mood is developed in a literary piece through various methods. It can be developed through setting, theme, tone and diction. Let us see how writers use the afore-mentioned elements in their literary works to create a particular mood. Creating Mood through Setting Setting is the physical location in a piece of literature that provides background in which the events of the narrative take place. A particular setting not only provides support to the contents of the story but also sets the mood of the readers. Let us analyze a few examples of mood developed using a setting: Example #1 Charles Dickens creates a calm and peaceful mood in his novel "Pickwick Papers": "The river, reflecting the clear blue of the sky, glistened and sparkled as it flowed noiselessly on." The depiction of idyllic scenery imparts a serene and non-violent mood to the readers. Example #2 Emily Bronte in "Wuthering Heights" creates two contrasting moods through two contrasting settings. The events of the narrative takes place in two neighboring houses: Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange. A depressing mood is created whenever Wuthering Heights is described. For example, in chapter 12 the narrator says: "There was no moon, and everything beneath lay in misty darkness: not a light gleamed from any house, far or near all had been extinguished long ago: and those at Wuthering Heights were never visible..." On the contrary, the description of Thrushcross Grange creates a calm and peaceful mood: "Gimmerton chapel bells were still ringing; and the full, mellow flow of the beck in the valley came soothingly on the ear. It was a sweet substitute for the yet absent murmur of the summer foliage, which drowned that music about the Grange when the trees were in leaf." The contrast presented in the settings also helps in the development of the different characters i.e. the people from Wuthering Heights are unsophisticated while those from Thrushcross Grange are refined. Creating Mood through Tone The manner in which a writer approaches this theme and subject is called the tone. The readers always rely on the writer's point of view of the events taking place in a story. They observe the story through his eyes. They feel the way the writer feels about the events taking place and the description provided. Therefore, the attitude of the writer evokes feelings and emotions in the readers. Example #3 For instance, see how Robert Frost in his poem "The Road Not Taken" creates a gloomy feeling through his tone: "I shall be telling this with a sigh Somewhere ages and ages hence: Two roads diverged in a wood, and I, I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the difference." Frost informs us about his past with a "sigh" that gives the above lines an unhappy tone and thus evokes an unhappy mood. An unhappy mood is created because the poet convinces us into thinking that he regrets a choice he made in the past. Creating Mood through Diction Diction is the choice of words a writer uses. Diction or choice of words conveys deep feelings as well as depicts the events, places and characters in a literary work in specific colors, having an effect on the way the readers feel about them. Example #4 The following lines from Jonathon Swift's "Gulliver's Travel" is one of the great mood examples created using diction: "And being no stranger to the art of war, I have him a description of cannons, culverins, muskets, carabines, pistols, bullets, powder, swords, bayonets, battles, sieges, retreats, attacks, undermines, countermines, bombardments, sea-fights..." In order to create feelings of disgust in readers for the destructive consequences of war, the writer chooses words that are unmelodious, harsh and jarring. The diction in the above passage corresponds with the subject matter. Function of Mood Mood helps in creating an atmosphere in a literary work by means of setting, theme, diction and tone. It evokes various emotional responses in readers and thus ensures their emotional attachment to the literary piece they read. Once the readers are emotionally stirred, they fully comprehend the message that the writer tries to convey to them.

Narrative

Narrative Narrative is a report of related events presented to the listeners or readers in words arranged in a logical sequence. A story is taken as a synonym of narrative. A narrative or story is told by a narrator who may be a direct part of that experience and he or she often shares the experience as a first-person narrator. Sometimes he or she may only observe the events as a third-person narrator and gives his or her verdict. History of Narration or Storytelling Storytelling is an essential part of human nature. Man is the only creature that tells stories. Man has been telling stories and listening to them since the time he learnt to speak. The storytelling began with oral traditions and in forms of myths, legends, fables, anecdotes, ballads etc. These were told and retold and were passed down from generation to generation and they show the knowledge and wisdom of early people. The basic theme of the above mentioned forms of stories were fears of natural forces, deeds of heroes, gods and goddesses, and they might be told to learn a lesson from an experience. Biblical stories have the primary purpose of teaching spirituality. Most biblical stories were performed in churches to convey spiritual messages to the masses. Narrative Examples in Everyday Life The modern narratives have a broader function. After a close study of famous examples of Modern narrative, one would realize that such narratives do not merely entertain but serve as ways to communicate writers' moral, cultural and political perspectives. Moreover, narratives have contributed to achieving educational objectives in our everyday life. Different forms of media are enabling people to express and record their real life stories and to share their knowledge and their cultural values across the world. In addition, many documentaries on television adopt a narrative technique to communicate information in an interesting way. Examples of Narratives in Literature Example #1 "Animal Farm" by George Orwell is a modern narrative example that aim at extending a writer's political views. It is a form of narrative known as a political satire. It uses animals on a farm to describe the overthrow of the last of the Russian Tsar Nicholas II and the Communist Revolution of Russia before WW II. The actions of the animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the Revolution. It also describes how powerful people can change the ideology of a society. Example #2 Poetry written in the style of a narrative is known as narrative verse. "Faerie Queen" by Edmund Spenser is an example of such poetry. It narrates the adventures of "The Red-Cross Knight" to help "Lady Una" rescue her parents from the evil "Dagon". On a symbolic level it narrates the mission of the Holiness is to help the Truth, fight Evil, and thus regain its rightful place in human hearts. Example #3 Charlotte Macleod's "The Withdrawing Room" is an example of a thriller or suspense narrative. Augustus Quiffen, a lodger at Sarah's Brownstone home, is killed by falling under the train. It seems to be an accident until "Mary Smith" tells "Sarah" that it is a murder but she is not sure of the identity of the murderer. "Sarah" and "Max Bittersohn" investigate the matter and find that the killer has planned the death beforehand. Example #4 "Don Quixote" by Cervantes is a parody of Romance narratives that dealt with the adventures of a valiant knight. Unlike serious Romances, in "Don Quixote" the narrative takes a comical turn. . We laugh at how the Quixote was bestowed a knighthood in his battle with the giants [windmills]. We enjoy how the knight helps the Christian king against the army of a Moorish monarch [herd of sheep]. These and the rest of the incidents of the novel are written in the style of Spanish romances of the 16th century to mock the idealism of knights in the contemporary romances. Function of Narrative Storytelling and listening to stories are part of human instincts. Therefore, writers employ narrative techniques in their works to attract readership. The readers are not only entertained but also learn some underlying message from the narratives. Moreover, a narrative is set in specific cultural contexts. Readers can get a deep insight of that culture and develop an understanding toward it. Thus, narratives can act as a binding force in uniting humanity.

Oxymoron

Oxymoron Oxymoron, plural oxymora, is a figure of speech in which two opposite ideas are joined to create an effect. The common oxymoron phrase is a combination of an adjective proceeded by a noun with contrasting meanings e.g. "cruel kindness" or "living death". However, the contrasting words/phrases are not always glued together. The contrasting ideas may be spaced out in a sentence e.g. "In order to lead, you must walk behind." Difference between Oxymoron and Paradox It is important to understand the difference between a paradox and an oxymoron. A paradox may consist of a sentence or even a group of sentences. An oxymoron, on the other hand, is a combination of two contradictory or opposite words. A paradox seems contradictory to the general truth but it does contain an implied truth. An oxymoron, however, may produce a dramatic effect but does not make sense. Examples of oxymoron are found both in casual conversations and in literature. Common Examples of Oxymoron Open secret Tragic comedy Seriously funny Awfully pretty Foolish wisdom Original copies Liquid gas The above oxymoron examples produce a comical effect. Thus, it is a lot of fun to use them in your everyday speech. Oxymoron Examples in Literature Example #1 Below is an extract from the play "Romeo and Juliet", Act I, Scene I, written by William Shakespeare. "Why, then, O brawling love! O loving hate! O anything, of nothing first create! O heavy lightness! Serious vanity! Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms! Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health! Still-waking sleep, that is not what it is! This love feel I, that feel no love in this. Dost thou not laugh?" We notice a series of oxymoron being employed when Romeo confronts the love of an inaccessible woman. An intense emotional effect is produced to highlight his mental conflict by the use of contradictory pairs of words such as "hating love", "heavy lightness", "bright smoke", "cold fire", and "sick health". Example #2 The example below is taken from Tennyson's "Lancelot and Elaine". "the shackles of love straiten'd him His honour rooted in dishonoured stood And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true" We clearly notice the use of oxymoron in phrases "shackles... straiten'd", "honour... dishonour", "faith unfaithful" and "falsely true". Example #3 In Sir Thomas Wyatt's Petrarch's 134th sonnet, "I find no peace, and all my war is done I fear and hope, I burn and freeze like ice, I flee above the wind, yet can I not arise;" The contradicting ideas of "war...peace", "burn ....freeze", and "flee above...not rise" produce a dramatic effect in the above-mentioned lines. Example #4 Alexander Pope uses oxymoron to develop wit in his poems. "The bookful blockhead ignorantly read, With loads of learned lumber in his head, With his own tongue still edifies his ears, And always list'ning to himself appears." The above lines from his "Essays of Criticism" provide fine evidence of his witticism. The oxymora "bookful blockhead" and "ignorantly read" describe a person who reads a lot but does not understand what he reads and does not employ his reading to improve his character. Example #5 Shakespeare makes use of oxymoron in his plays to develop a paradox. "I will bestow him, and will answer well The death I gave him. So, again, good night. I must be cruel, only to be kind: Thus bad begins and worse remains behind. One word more, good lady." In the above lines taken from "Hamlet", he draws two contradictory ideas "be cruel...be kind". The contradiction is understood in the context of the play. Hamlet wants to kill Claudius, the murderer of his father, who has married his mother. Hamlet does not want his mother to be the beloved of his father's murderer. Therefore, he is of the view that this murder will purge her. Function of Oxymoron Oxymoron produces a dramatic effect in both prose as well as poetry. For instance, when we read or hear the famous oxymoron, "sweet sorrow", crafted by Shakespeare, it appeals to us instantly. It provokes our thoughts and makes us ponder on the meaning of contradicting ideas. This apparently confusing phrase expresses a complex nature of love that could never be expressed through any other simple expression. In everyday conversation, however, people do not use oxymoron to make some deep statement like the one mentioned above. Instead, they do it to show wit. The use of oxymoron adds flavor to their speech.

Half Rhyme

Half Rhyme Half rhyme is one of the major poetic devices. It is also called an imperfect rhyme, slant rhyme, near rhyme or oblique rhyme. It can be defined as a rhyme in which the stressed syllables of ending consonants match, however the preceding vowel sounds do not match. For instance, in words such as "shape/keep" the consonance is very strong. The final consonant sounds remain similar but the ending vowel sounds are different in half rhyme. Similar to these two words, "moon" and "run" and in the words "hold" and "bald" the ending consonant sounds are similar, whereas vowel sounds are different. It is generally used to give an inharmonious feeling in a rhyme scheme. Poets can bring variations in their choice of words by using half rhymes. It is also known as an imperfect, near or off or sprung rhyme. Half rhyme is exclusively used as a poetic device in poetry only. Difference with Para Rhyme and Assonance Half rhyme is not a perfect rhyme. And it must not be confused with para-rhyme and assonance. Although these two literary devices are (to some extent) similar to half rhyme, there is a slight difference between them. In para-rhyme, the ending and beginning consonant sounds are similar such as in the words "rod" and "red", while in assonance the vowel sounds are similar such as in "shot" and "lot". Examples of Half Rhyme in Literature Henry Vaughan was the first English poet who used half rhyme in his poetry. However, half rhyme was not commonly used in literary works before Gerard Manley Hopkins and W. B. Yeats. They introduced this device in their works. Slant/half rhyme became very popular among the literary writers and English poets since then. They started using this poetic device extensively in their works specifically in the 20th century. Let us have a look at some examples of half rhyme: Example #1 If love is like a bridge or maybe like a grudge, and time is like a river that kills us with a shiver, then what have all these mornings meant but aging into love? What now is straight must have been bent; what now is whole must have been rent. My hand is now your glove. (To My Wife, by George Wolff) The poet throws a subtle curve ball in first two lines of this stanza, "bridge" and "grudge". These two do not rhyme completely. They are perfect example of half/slant rhyme. Example #2 When have I last looked on The round green eyes and the long wavering bodies Of the dark leopards of the moon? All the wild witches, those most noble ladies ... (W. B. Yeats "Lines written in Dejection") Here in the first and third lines the half-rhyme is used in words on/moon. Example #3 That is no country for old men. The young In one another's arms, birds in the trees - Those dying generations - at their song, The salmon-falls, the mackerel-crowded seas, Fish, flesh, or fowl, commend all summer long Whatever is begotten, born, and dies. Caught in that sensual music all neglect Monuments of unageing intellect. (W. B. Yeats, "Sailing to Byzantium") The rhyme scheme of this poem is ABABABCC, there is an altered irregular rhymes and following a couplet. If Yeats had not used the altered half rhyme style in this poem, "Sailing to Byzantium", it would have become the Italian form which is used specifically for heroic epics. Example #4 'Not any higher stands the Grave For Heroes than for men- Not any nearer for the Child Than numb Three Score and Ten-' (Emily Dickinson, "Not any Higher Stands the Grave") The words 'men' and 'ten' rhyme and show us an example. Therefore, it is a perfect rhyme in the first stanza. But, if we compare this stanza to the next in order to understand slant or imperfect rhyme then, poet goes on: "This latest leisure equal lulls The beggar and his queen; Propitiate this democrat By summer's gracious mien." (Emily Dickinson, "Not any Higher Stands the Grave") Function of Half Rhyme Half-rhymes help a poet create an unusual range of words to give a variety of rhyming effects, particularly when they are used with other poetic devices and rhyming schemes. They help poets avoid using the typical sing-song chiming effects of full rhymes and give them creative freedom. Furthermore, half-rhymes have provided a subtle discordant note (which does not give absolute harmony), that offers variation in tone while reading and creates good impact on the readers. When they are used with other poetic devices, they give shocking effects to the reader about the actual rhyme scheme.

Deus Ex Machina

Deus Ex Machina The term deus ex machina refers to the circumstance where an implausible concept or a divine character is introduced into a storyline for the purpose of resolving its conflict and procuring an interesting outcome. The use of deus ex machina is discouraged for the reason that the presence of it within a plot is viewed as a sign of an ill-structured plot. The explanation that the critics provide for bearing the above stated view is that the writer's sudden resort to random, insupportable and unbelievable twists for the purpose of procuring an ending highlights the inherent deficiencies of the plot. Hence, deus ex machina is a rather debatable and often criticized form of literary device. The term is Latin for "god out of the machine" and has its origins in ancient Greek theatre. It denotes scenes in which a crane (machine) was used to lower actors or statues playing a god or gods (deus) onto the stage to set things right, usually near the end of the play. Requirements Deus ex machinas are solutions. They are not to be seen as unexpected twists and turns in the storyline that end up making things worse, and not as something that contributes towards changing the understanding of the story. Further, it must be shown that the problem solved by a deus ex machina is one that is unsolvable or hopeless. It is also that they are sudden or unexpected. This means that the inherent capacity of deus ex machina to solve the mystery is not apparent till the time the device is actually employed to procure a viable ending for the plot. However, if some other type of intervention like common sense could have been employed to procure the same result, then no matter how sudden the solution is it would not be termed as deus ex machina. Euripides was one of the most prominent users of deus ex machina. Some scholars believe that he was the first writer to employ the device in his tragedies. His work is often met with criticism for the way he structured his plot and for his underlying ideas. Deus Ex Machina Examples Medea: When Medea is shown in the chariot of the sun god Helios, the god himself isn't present. From her vantage point in the chariot she watches the grieving Jason. The argument goes about that this specific scene is an illustration of the employment of the device within the plot of the tragedy. Hippolytus: There are three deities present in this play: the jealous Aphrodite, Artemis the object of Hippolytu's affection, and vengeful Poseidon. However it is only Artemis who appears. She explains to Theseus that Hippolytus was innocent all along and that it was Aphrodite who had sinned and caused all the grief. Artemis also promises to destroy any man Aphrodite ever loves. Andromache: In the end of the play, Thetis the sea goddess appears to Peleus. She comes to take Peleus back with her to her ocean home. The play ends with Peleus going with Thetis his wife, into the ocean. Helen: Theoclymenos is furious when Helen and Menelaus trick him and run away together .In consequence, he tries to murder his sister for not telling him that Menelaus was not dead. The demi-gods Castor and Polydeuces, Helen's brothers and sons of Zeus and Leda, appear astonishingly to interrupt. Orestes: Apollo appears on stage to bring things in order. Apollo clears the situation by informing that Helen had been put amongst the stars and therefore Menelaus should return to Sparta. He also orders Orestes to travel to Athens to stand trial in their court and ensures him of his subsequent acquittal. Further, Apollo states that Orestes will marry Hermione and that Pylades and Electra will also marry. Functions of Deus Ex Machina The tool of deus ex machina remains a popular one even today, being employed in modern films, novels, and short stories. However the scope of the term has been effectively widened to present it as a multifaceted tool. It can be employed for the purposes of moving a story forward or when the writer has "painted himself into a corner" and finds no other escape. He uses this to surprise the audience, to bring a happy ending into a tale, or as a comedic device.

Idiom

Idiom The term refers to a set expression or a phrase comprising two or more words. An interesting fact regarding the device is that the expression is not interpreted literally. The phrase is understood as to mean something quite different from what individual words of the phrase would imply. Alternatively, it can be said that the phrase is interpreted in a figurative sense. Further, idioms vary in different cultures and countries. Idiom Examples Example #1 "Every cloud has its silver lining but it is sometimes a little difficult to get it to the mint." The statement quoted above uses "silver lining" as an idiom which means some auspicious moment is lurking behind the cloud or the difficult time. Example #2 "American idioms drive me up the hall!" Here, the word "idioms" is used as an idiom. Example #3 "I worked the graveyard shift with old people, which was really demoralizing, because the old people didn't have a chance in hell of ever getting out." In the extract quoted above, "graveyard shift" is employed as an idiom. Example #4 Kirk: If we play our cards right, we may be able to find out when those whales are being released. Spock: How will playing cards help? (Captain James T. Kirk and Spock in Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, 1986) Here, "if we play our cards right" means "if we avail our opportunities rightly". Example #5 "Shakespeare is credited with coining more than 2,000 words, infusing thousands more existing ones with electrifying new meanings and forging idioms that would last for centuries. 'A fool's paradise,' 'at one fell swoop,' 'heart's content,' 'in a pickle,' 'send him packing,' 'too much of a good thing,' 'the game is up,' 'good riddance,' 'love is blind,' and 'a sorry sight,' to name a few. (David Wolman, Righting the Mother Tongue: From Olde English to Email, the Tangled Story of English Spelling. Harper, 2010.) This passage highlights the collection of idioms used by Shakespeare in his works and these idioms are now used in everyday writing. Example #6 "Idioms vary in 'transparency': that is, whether their meaning can be derived from the literal meanings of the individual words. For example, make up [one's] mind is rather transparent in suggesting the meaning 'reach a decision,' while kick the bucket is far from transparent in representing the meaning 'die.'" (Douglas Biber et al., Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Pearson, 2002) The extract quoted above explains that idioms vary in their degree of transparency that is the extent to which an idiom reveals its true meaning varies. Example #7 "Modal idioms are idiosyncratic verbal formations which consist of more than one word and which have modal meanings that are not predictable from the constituent parts (compare the non-modal idioms kick the bucket). Under this heading we include have got [to], had better/best, would rather/sooner/as soon, and be [to]." The extract quoted above highlights the use and significance of modal idioms. Functions of Idiom Writers and public speakers use idioms generously. The purpose behind this vast use of idioms is to ornate their language, make it richer and spicier and help them in conveying subtle meanings to their intended audience. Not only do idioms help in making the language beautiful, they also make things better or worse through making the expression good or bad. For example, there are several idioms that convey the death of a person in highly subtle meanings and some do the same in very offensive terms. They are also said to be exact and more correct than the literal words and sometimes a few words are enough to replace a full sentence. They help the writer make his sense clearer than it is, so that he could convey maximum meanings through minimum words and also keep the multiplicity of the meanings in the text intact. It has also been seen that idioms not only convey subtle meanings but also convey a phenomenon that is not being conveyed through normal and everyday language and also they keep the balance in the communication. Furthermore, they provide textual coherence, so that the reader could be able to piece together a text that he has gone through and extract meanings the writer has conveyed.

Personification

Personification Personification is a figure of speech in which a thing, an idea or an animal is given human attributes. The non-human objects are portrayed in such a way that we feel they have the ability to act like human beings. For example, when we say, "The sky weeps" we are giving the sky the ability to cry, which is a human quality. Thus, we can say that the sky has been personified in the given sentence. Common Examples of Personification Look at my car. She is a beauty, isn't it so? The wind whispered through dry grass. The flowers danced in the gentle breeze. Time and tide waits for none. The fire swallowed the entire forest. We see from the above examples of personification that this literary device helps us relate actions of inanimate objects to our own emotions. Personification Examples in Literature Example #1 Taken from L. M. Montgomery's "The Green Gables Letters", "I hied me away to the woods—away back into the sun-washed alleys carpeted with fallen gold and glades where the moss is green and vivid yet. The woods are getting ready to sleep—they are not yet asleep but they are disrobing and are having all sorts of little bed-time conferences and whisperings and good-nights." The lack of activity in the forest has been beautifully personified as the forest getting ready to sleep, busy in bed-time chatting and wishing good-nights, all of which are human customs. Example #2 Taken from Act I, Scene II of "Romeo and Juliet", "When well-appareled April on the heel Of limping winter treads." There are two personification examples here. April cannot put on a dress, and winter does not limp and it does not have a heel on which a month can walk. Shakespeare personifies the month of April and the winter season by giving them two distinct human qualities. Example #3 A.H. Houseman in his poem "Loveliest of Trees the Cherry Now" personifies the cherry tree, "Loveliest of trees, the cherry now Is hung with bloom along the bough, And stands about the woodland ride Wearing white for Eastertide." He sees a cherry tree covered with beautiful white flowers in the forest and says that the cherry tree wears white clothes to celebrate Easter. He gives human attributes to a tree in order to describe it in human terms. Example #4 Emily Elizabeth Dickinson employs personification in her poem "Have You Got A Brook In Your Little Heart". "Have you got a brook in your little heart, Where bashful flowers blow, And blushing birds go down to drink, And shadows tremble so?" The bashful flowers, blushing birds and trembling shadows are examples of personification. Example #5 Katherine Mansfield wrote in her short story "How Pearl Button Was Kidnapped", "Pearl Button swung on the little gate in front of the House of Boxes. It was the early afternoon of a sunshiny day with little winds playing hide-and-seek in it." It personifies wind by saying that it is as playful as little children playing hide-and-seek on a shiny day. Example #6 William Blake personifies Sunflowers in his poem "Two Sunflowers Move in a Yellow Room". "Two Sunflowers Move in the Yellow Room. 'Ah, William, we're weary of weather, said the sunflowers, shining with dew. Our traveling habits have tired us. Can you give us a room with a view?" The flowers are depicting a human characteristic of weariness caused by the weather. In a human way, they make a request to the poet to put them in a room with a window with plenty of sunshine. Function of Personification Personification is not merely a decorative device but it serves the purpose of giving deeper meanings to literary texts. It adds vividness to expressions as we always look at the world from a human perspective. Writers and poets rely on personification to bring inanimate things to life, so that their nature and actions are understood in a better way. Because it is easier for us to relate to something that is human or that possesses human traits. Its use encourages us to develop a perspective that is new as well as creative.

Utopia

Utopia The literary term utopia denotes an illusionary place that projects the notion of a perfect society to the reader. Here, the "perfect society" refers to ideal conditions achieved within the material world as opposed to the expected idealism of afterlife in Christianity or other religions. Further, the citizens presiding in such utopias are bearers of a perfect moral code, or at the least, every violator of the moral code is harshly punished. A utopian society is one where all social evils have been cured. An important distinction to be appreciated is that between imaginary utopias and live heterotopias. However, the terms should not be treated as opposites of each other. They denote a midway experience referring to instances that are real as well as unreal. Most of the examples that Foucault provides of heterotopias include several utopian aspects. However, the relationship between these two notions has tended to be ignored in the interpretation of heterotopia. Description of Utopian Literature A piece of writing that concerns itself with the description of a perfect society in the physical world as opposed to the perfection of afterlife is termed as Utopian literature. However, the original motives behind utopian novel were political, social and philosophical. Plato's Republic, is usually considered the first in history among the examples of utopia. Some traces of utopian elements can be found in Arthurian literature in the idealization of King Arthur's court at Camelot, but the trend followed by medieval poets involved romanticizing an imaginary past rather than using hypothetical utopias for the purposes of criticizing political institutions and suggesting alternatives. It was by the time of Sir Thomas More (in his book Utopia in 1516) that the notion of utopia was practically manifested, and his name for the imaginary kingdom then became the new name for referring to the genre. Utopia examples show common characteristics. These include an elaborate description of the geographic structures of the imaginary landscape by the native guides that familiarize the narrator to the ways through the region. He is an outsider to the utopian society, and harbors extensive skepticism regarding modern political, social, economic, or ethical problems. One of the common misunderstandings is that utopian models serve to project a better way of life. To the contrary, the reason behind such literature is to help the reader envision the problems, paradoxes, or faults entrenched within the existing political framework. Utopia Examples The examples quoted below portray various scenarios of utopia. Example #1 Andreae's Christianopolis Example #2 Campanella's City of the Sun Example #3 Bacon's New Atlantis Example #4 Samuel Gott's New Jerusalem Example #5 Winstanley's The Law of Freedom in a Platform Example #6 Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward Example #7 William Morris's News from Nowhere Example #8 Theodor Hertzka's Freeland Example #9 H. G. Wells's A Modern Utopia Functions of Utopia Over the time, the vision encapsulating the notion of utopia has suffered radical transformations. Events as war, church reform, revolution and economic changes have contributed towards the construction of a new type of utopia. The term utopia formulated new shapes and new prefixes, each type having its own function and its own use. They are generally employed as a means of constructing an organized society in the reader's mind. The writer makes use of the tool to highlight the discrepancies prevalent within an existing political and legal framework. A utopian society is framed in a manner, which presents to the reader an ideal sociopolitical culture. The writer is presenting his audience with a standard example of a socially and morally fit society with the use of utopia to make them realize the various deficiencies of their existing societal framework. It is a tool for exposing the flaws prevalent within an existing political structure. Further, the tool has been widely employed in writings where the writers have intended to make an impact on the conscience of the reader. The writer uses utopia in order to portray a scenic picture in the eyes of the reader, in an attempt to make him fully appreciate the various diverging factors contributing towards the failings of the existing society. It deals with constructing a standard sociopolitical society in the reader's mind in order to criticize the prevalent legal norms.

Anagram

Anagram Anagram is a form of word play in which letters of a word or phrase are rearranged in such a way that a new word or phrase is formed. Anagram is formed by using exactly the same letters of the original word but with a different arrangement. For example, the letters in the word "Shakespeare" can be rearranged to form an anagram "Keshareapes". However, an anagram in literature is not a nonsensical arrangement of words as in the previous example. Rather, it aims at parodying, criticizing or praising its subject i.e. the original word. For instance, a most famous anagram for "William Shakespeare" is "I am a weakish speller". Common Anagram Examples We play with words in our everyday life to create anagrams that are funny and witty. Usually, Anagrams are most interesting when they are relevant to each other. Some hilarious anagram examples are given below: Mother-in-law = Hitler woman Debit card = Bad credit Dormitory = Dirty Room The earthquakes = The queer shakes Astronomer = Moon starrer Punishments = Nine Thumps School master = The classroom Example of Anagram in Literature Examples #1 In literature the use of anagrams is most commonly connected to pseudonyms where the writers jumble the letters of their original names to create interesting pseudonyms for themselves. Below are some famous examples: Jim Morrison = Mr. Mojo Risin Edward Gorey = Ogdred Weary Dave Barrey = Ray Adverb Glen Duncen = Declan Gunn Damon Albarn = Dan Abnormal Examples #2 We see anagrams being employed by several writers in titles of their works and in naming their character giving them a touch of wit and mystery. Look at the examples below: "Hamlet" by William Shakespeare is an anagram of "Amleth", a Danish prince. Vladamir Nabakov in his novel "Lolita" presents a character "Vivian Darkbloom" which is an anagram of his name. J.K. Rowling in her "Harry Potter Series" uses an anagram "I am Lord Voldemort" for her character Tom Marvolo Riddle to reveal the two different identities of the villain. The two main characters of a novel "The Rebel Angels", Claire McCleethy Hester Asa Moore, use anagrams to give themselves different names i.e. "They Call Me Circe" and "Sarah Rees-Toome" respectively. Examples #3 In Dan Brown's novel "Da Vinci Code", the curator of the museum "Jacques Saunière" wrote the following inscription with his blood: "O, Draconian devil! Oh, lame saint! So dark the con of Man" These were actually the clues related to "Da Vinci" and were decoded as "O, Draconian devil!" = "Leonardo Da Vinci", "Oh, lame saint!" = "The Mona Lisa" and "So dark the con of Man" = "Madonna of the Rocks". In the same novel, we see a character "Leigh Teabing", the Holy Grail expert, who invents an apt name for himself by anagramming the names of the authors of "The Holy Blood and The Holy Grail": Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh, and Henry Lincoln. Examples #4 Jonathan Swift had an uncanny skill of inventing new and unusual names for his fictitious characters and places by using anagrammatic method. We find interesting examples of anagrams in Jonathan Swift's novel "Gulliver's Travels". For instance, "Brobdingnag", a land occupied by giants, is an anagram of three words: big, grand and noble excluding the syllable "-le". Similarly, "Tribinia" and "Langden", the two other kingdoms traveled by Gulliver during his voyage, are anagrams of Britain and England respectively. Function of Anagram The above discussion reveals that anagrams are commonly used in both everyday life and literature. They, if relevant, provide instances of wit and humor. Additionally, this word play presents itself as a recreational activity in the form of word puzzles (cross words, upwords, scrabble, etc.) to sharpen the deciphering skills of kids as well as adults. In literature, authors may use anagrams to hide their identity by coining a pseudonym for themselves but still giving interesting clues to keen observers. Similarly, the anagrammatic names of characters and places in a literary piece add layers of meanings to the otherwise nonsense names and therefore further motivate and develop interest in the readers. In mystery or detective novels and short stories, anagrams play a vital role in proving clues to unfold a mystery.

Anecdote

Anecdote Anecdote is defined as a short and interesting story or an amusing event often proposed to support or demonstrate some point and make readers and listeners laugh. Anecdotes can include an extensive range of tales and stories. In fact, it is a short description or an account of any event that makes the readers laugh or brood over the topic presented for the purpose. Types of Anecdote There are several types of anecdotes. Amusing anecdotes are often used in literature, family reunions, wedding receptions and other get-togethers. Teachers tell anecdotes to their students in classrooms about eminent people and celebrities. Writers and poets use them in their literary works. Anecdote Examples in Literature There are various examples of anecdotes in Literature, let us take a look at some of them: Example #1 Excerpt from "The Crucible" by Arthur Miller Parris: (It is very hard to say): Aye, a dress. And I thought - someone naked running through the trees! Abigail: (In terror): No one was naked! You mistake yourself, uncle! Parris: (With anger): I saw it! (Her moves from her, then, resolved.) Now tell me true, Abigail. And I pray you feel the weight of truth upon you, for now my ministry's at stake, my ministry and perhaps your cousin's life. Whatever abomination you have done, give me all of it now, for I dare not be taken unaware when I go before them down there. Abigail: There is nothin' more. I swear it, uncle. Parris: (Studies her, then nods, half convinced): Abigail, I have fought here three long years to bend there stiff-necked people to me, and now, just now when some good respect is rising for me in the parish, you compromise my very character. I have given you a home, child, I have put clothes upon your back - now give me upright answer. Your name in the town - it is entirely white, is it not? Abigail: (With an edge of resentment): Why, I am sure it is, sir. There is no blush about my name. Parris: (To the point): Abigail is there any other cause that you have told me, for you being discharged from Goody Proctor's service? I have heard it said, and I tell you as I heard it, that she comes so rarely to church this year for she will not sit so close to something soiled. What signified that remark? Abigail: She hates me, uncle; she must, for I would not be her slave. It's a bitter woman, a lying; cold, sniveling, woman, and I will not work for such a woman! Parris: She may be. And yet it has troubled me that you are now seven month out of their house, and in all this time no other family has ever called for your service. Abigail: They want slaves, not such as me. Let them send to Barbados for that. I will not black my face for any of them! (With ill-concealed resentment at him.) Do you begrudge my bed, uncle? Parris: No -no. Abigail: (in a temper): My name is good in the village! I will not have it said my name is soiled! Goody Proctor is a gossiping liar! Here in this literary text, Reverend Parris finds her niece Abigail Williams chanting and dancing in the woods along with the native village girls. He suspects them of magic and witchcraft. However, she does not accept any of the accusations of Parris and starts narrating whimsical stories to justify her actions. Abigail makes an account that Goody Proctor is a liar. The stories of Abigail are perfect examples of anecdotes. Example #2 Excerpt from "Death in the Arctic" by Robert W. Service What is that? Bells, dogs again! Is it a dream? I sob and cry. See! The door opens, fur-clad men Rush to my rescue; frail am I; Feeble and dying, dazed and glad. There is the pistol where it dropped. "Boys, it was hard — but I'm not mad. . . . Look at the clock — it stopped, it stopped. Carry me out. The heavens smile. See! There's an arch of gold above. Now, let me rest a little while — Looking to God and Love . . .and Love . . .". In this poem, the speaker is freezing slowly in the Arctic. He recollects the memories of his life and tells the whole story to the readers, but sees flashes of his life before he dies. In fact, he is using anecdotes to tell his life story. Function of Anecdote Anecdotes and humorous pieces are not only jokes, but exquisite literary devices as well. Their major purposes are to stir up laughter, to disclose a truth in a general way, or to describe a feature of a character in such a way that it becomes humorous and at the same time gives us a better understanding of the character. Anecdotes may also serve as cautions. Writers tell their readers about the possibilities of future happenings in case they do not follow particular processes and techniques.

Didacticism

Didacticism Didacticism is a term that refers to a particular philosophy in art and literature that emphasizes the idea that different forms of art and literature ought to convey information and instructions along with pleasure and entertainment. The word didactic is frequently used for those literary texts which are overloaded with informative or realistic matter and are marked by the omission of graceful and pleasing details. Didactic, therefore, becomes a derogatory term referring to the forms of literature that are ostentatiously dull and erudite. However, some literary texts are entertaining as well as didactic. Didacticism in Morality Plays Morality plays of medieval Europe were perhaps the best exemplars of didactic literature. These plays were a type of theatrical performance which made use of allegorical characters to teach the audience a moral lesson. The most common themes that that were presented in morality plays were what are commonly known as the seven deadly sins: pride, lust, greed, envy, wrath, sloth and gluttony. Another theme that such plays exploited was that repentance and redemption was possible for a person even when that person intentionally gives in to temptation. Historically, morality plays were a transitional step that lay between Christian mystery plays and the secular plays of the Renaissance theatre. Didacticism Examples in Literature Let us analyze a few examples of didacticism in literature: Example # 1 John Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" is one of the best didacticism examples in the form of spiritual allegory. The poem describes a religious and spiritual journey of a man on the way to deliverance. The poem describes an ordinary sinner "Christian" who leaves the City of Destruction and travels towards Celestial City, where God resides, for salvation. On his way, he finds a companion "Faithful" who helps him on his way to the City. On many occasions, many characters "Hypocrisy", "Apollyon", "Mr. Worldy Wiseman" and "Obstinate and Pliable" try to discourage or stop him from achieving his aim. Finally, he reaches the Celestial City carried by Hopeful's faith. The moral or didactic lesson that this allegorical poem intends to instruct is that the road to Heaven is not easy and it is full of obstacles. Moreover, a Christian has to be willing to pay any cost to achieve his salvation. Besides, a man is full of sin, but this does not stop him from achieving glory. Example # 2 Alexander Pope's "Essay on Man" is a moral treatise. It is a satirical verse that intends to instruct individuals in an indirect way by ridiculing vices of a society. For example: "Know then thyself, presume not God to scan The proper study of Mankind is Man. Placed on this isthmus of a middle state, A Being darkly wise, and rudely great: With too much knowledge for the Sceptic side, With too much weakness for the Stoic's pride, He hangs between; in doubt to act, or rest; In doubt to deem himself a God, or Beast; In doubt his mind or body to prefer; Born but to die, and reas'ning but to err; Alike in ignorance, his reason such, Whether he thinks too little, or too much;" The above excerpt is taken from the first verse paragraph of the second book of the poem. It clearly sums up the humanistic and religious principles of the poem. Example # 3 George Orwell's "Animal Farm" is an allegory or a moral and didactic tale that uses animals on a farm to describe the overthrow of the last of the Russian Tsars, Nicholas-II and exposes the evil of the Communist Revolution of Russia before WWII. Clearly, the actions of the various animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the Revolution. It also contains the depiction of how powerful people can alter the ideology of a society. One of the cardinal rules on the farm for the animals is: "All animals are equal but a few are more equal than others." The animals on the farm stand for different sections of the then Russian society occupying Russia after the revolution. For example, "pigs" represents those who became the authority after the revolution, "Mr. Jones" the owner of the farm represents the overthrown Tsar Nicholas II, "Boxer" the horse, represents the laborer class etc. Didacticism in the novel permits Orwell to make his position apparent about the Russian Revolution in order to expose its evils. Function of Didacticism Didacticism in literature aims at offering something additional to its readers than merely intending to offer pleasure and entertainment. Some critics may argue that didacticism may reduce literature to a tool for boring instructions but nevertheless it definitely gives readers a chance to improve their conduct and comprehend evils which may lead him astray.

Discourse

Discourse Foucault presents possibly the best definition of discourse. He says, "Systems of thoughts composed of ideas, attitudes, and courses of action, beliefs and practices that systematically construct the subjects and the worlds of which they speak." Originally it has roots in the Latin language. The term assumes slightly different meanings in different contexts but in literature discourse means speech or writing normally longer than sentences which deals with a certain subject formally in the form of writing or speech. In other words, discourse is the presentation of language in its entirety while performing an intellectual inquiry in a particular area or field i.e. theological discourse or cultural discourse. General Classification of Discourse Discourse can be classified into four main categories namely: Exposition The main focus of this type of discourse is to make the audience aware about the topic of the discussion. Definitions and comparative analysis of different ideas and beliefs are examples of discourse exposition. Narration Narration is a type of discourse that relies on stories, folklore or a drama as a medium of communication. Stage play, story, folklore etc. are narrative discourse examples. Description It involves describing something in relation to the senses. Descriptive discourse enables the audience to develop a mental picture of what is being discussed. Descriptive parts of novel or essays are descriptive discourse examples. Argument This type of discourse is based on valid logic and, through correct reasoning tries to motivate the audience. Examples of argumentative discourse include lectures, essays, and prose. Literary Discourses Poetic Discourse It is a type of literary conversation which focuses on the expression of feelings, ideas, imaginations, events and places through specific rhymes and rhythms. Poetic discourse makes use of common words in appealing ways to presents feelings and emotions. The mechanism of poetic discourse involves certain steps starting from different sources, then entering mental process, mental realization and then finally into a finished product as poetry. Example #1 I marvel how Nature could ever find space For so many strange contrasts in one human face: There's thought and no thought, and there's paleness and bloom And bustle and sluggishness, pleasure and gloom (A Character by William Wordsworth) Expressive Discourse Expressive discourse does not involve the presentation of facts or the motivating of others but is rather a reflection of our emotions which form the foundation of our expressions. This is a form of basic or entry level discourse and is beneficial for beginners in the field of literature or other fields. It primarily deals with generating ideas with no concrete source. Examples are academic essays and diaries. Example #2 We met very early at our office this morning to pick out the twenty-five ships which are to be first paid off. After that to Westminster and dined with Mr. Dalton at his office, where we had one great court dish, but our papers not being done we could [not] make an end of our business till Monday next. Mr. Dalton and I over the water to our landlord Vanly, with whom we agree as to Dalton ... (The Diary of Samuel Pepys by Samuel Pepys, 1660) Transactional Discourse The basic aim in this kind of discourse is to convey the message in such a way that it is clearly understood without any confusion. Whatever is said has no ambiguity. Everything is clear for the reader. Usually this type of discourse is in active voice. Examples include: Instructions, Guidelines, Manuals, Privacy Policies, Patient's Instructions as written by doctors etc. Functions of Discourse The role of discourse is hard to ignore in our daily intellectual pursuits, for it provides a basis to conduct a comparative analysis and frame our perceptions about different things. For instance, two competing discourses about the civil war in Syria today can be used thereby either qualifying the war as 'war against dictatorship' or 'war against imperialism'. On the other hand, it could "war against Islam" or "war for humanity". Thus, both discourses provide a distinct style, vocabulary and presentation which are required to convey the respective ideas to a specific audience. According to Jacques Lucan and Ferdinand de Saussure, language (Discourse) is the main force which works behind all kinds of human activities and changes in social fabric, whereas the Modernists attribute discourse to development and progress. Another important function of discourse is to generate and preserve truth as argued by the Postmodernist theories.

Doppelganger

Doppelganger Doppelganger, German word meaning "look-alike" or "double walker", originally meant a ghost or shadow of a person but nowadays it simply refers to a person that is a look-alike of another person. Types of Doppelganger In literature, doppelganger is usually shaped as a twin, shadow or a mirror image of a protagonist. It refers to a character who physically resembles the protagonist and may have the same name as well. Several types of doppelganger can be spotted in world literature. It may take the form of an "evil twin", not known to the actual person, who confuses people related to that original person. Besides, it may be figured as one person existing in two different places at the same time. Sometimes, a doppelganger is a person's past or future self. In some cases, it may simply be a person's look alike. Doppelganger in Folklore In traditional folklore, doppelganger is a malicious and evil character having no shadow or reflection. It troubles and harms its counterpart by putting bad thoughts and ideas in his or her head. In some cultures, seeing one's doppelganger is bad luck and is often a sign of serious illness or approaching death. Doppelganger Examples in Literature Let us see some Doppelganger examples and their role in literature: Example #1 The ghost of Hamlet's father in Shakespeare's "Hamlet" is an example of Doppelganger. The idea of getting revenge is put in Hamlet's mind by the apparition of his father who tells him that he was murdered. The use of a doppelganger helps Shakespeare to set up the plot of his play that revolves around the theme of revenge. Example #2 "William Wilson", a short story by Edgar Allan Poe follows the theme of doppelganger. William, the protagonist, meets another boy in school who had the same name and looked surprisingly like him. He dressed and even walked like him. The only difference between them was that the doppelganger of William could only talk in a whisper. The doppelganger haunts William all his life. Worn out by interference from his double in his affairs, William stabs him only to find in the mirror that he has stabbed himself: "In me didst thou exist—and, in my death, see by this image, which is thine own, how utterly thou hast murdered thyself." He hears the voice of his rival as if it was his own. Example #3 Joseph Conrad uses a doppelganger theme in his short story "The Secret Sharer". In the story, "Laggatt", ex-skipper of a ship, acts as a doppelganger of "The Captain". "The Captain" discovers "Laggatt" swimming in the sea naked. He helps him come on board and gives him his clothes to wear. Both have similarities as well as dissimilarities. "Laggatt" who is full of calmness and self-confidence helps "The Captain" to get rid of his uncertainty and undue apprehensions. In fact, "Laggatt" is other self of "The Captain" that he has failed to discover until then. Example #4 Robert Louis Stevenson explores the theme of doppelganger in his novel "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde". Hyde is an evil double of the honorable Dr. Jekyll. Jekyll creates Hyde by scientific experiments to prove his statement: "man is not truly one, but truly two." He means that the human soul is a mixture of evil and good and Hyde is the manifestation of the evil that existed in Dr. Jekyll. As a respectable Victorian gentleman, Jekyll can never fulfill the evil desires existing in him. Therefore, he separates his "evil-self" and gave him a separate identity. Function of Doppelganger in Literature A survey of Doppelganger examples leads one to conclude that this literary device serves a variety of purposes in literature. It may be used to show the "other self" of a character that he or she has not discovered yet. This "other self" could be the darker side of the character that troubles or the brighter side that motivates. Hence, it helps writers to portray complex characters. Moreover, doppelganger gives rise to a conflict in a story. The doppelganger acts in a way that promises dire consequences for the main character that puts in efforts to undo the actions of his double. Sometimes, the conflict is an inner one where a character tries to understand himself by understanding his doppelganger.

Double entendre

Double Entendre A double entendre is a literary device that can be defined as a phrase or a figure of speech that might have multiple senses, interpretations or two different meanings or that could be understood in two different ways. Oxford Dictionary says that it "conveys an indelicate meaning". The first meaning in double entendre is usually straightforward while the second meaning is ironic, risqué or inappropriate. Double Entendre Examples in Literature Double entendre is used in literature, everyday life, films, magazines and newspapers to criticize and provide entertainment and sometimes to make people laugh. It is widely used for insinuation and irony. William Shakespeare and Geoffrey Chaucer have made use of double entendres in their works. Example #1 "Marriage is a fine institution, but I'm not ready for an institution" (Mae West, the 2,548 Best things Anybody Ever Said). The word "institution" in connection to marriage has two meanings in this context. One, it refers to marriage as an important practice of a society. Two, marriage is something that will cause an individual to go to a mental institution. Example #2 An excerpt from William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet, Act II, Scene three. Nurse: God ye good morrow, gentlemen. Mercutio: God ye good den, fair gentlewoman. Nurse: Is it good den? Mercutio: 'Tis no less, I tell you; for the bawdy hand of the dial is now upon the prick of noon. Nurse: Out upon you! What a man are you! Are wondering why the nurse reacted negatively when Mercutio was plainly stating the time? This is because he was telling her something more... something that is sexual in meaning (bawdy = lustful; prick = penis). Example #3 An excerpt from a sitcom "Are You Being Served" by Jeremy Lloyd and David Croft. Mrs. Slocombe: Before we go any further, Mr. Rumbold, Miss Brahms and I would like to complain about the state of our drawers. They're a positive disgrace. Mr. Rumbold: Your what, Mrs. Slocombe? Mrs. Slocombe: Our drawers. They're sticking. And it's always the same in damp weather. Mr. Rumbold: Really ... Mrs. Slocombe: They sent a man who put beeswax on them, but that made them worse. Mr. Rumbold: I'm not surprised. Miss Brahms: I think they need sandpapering. Underwear and the sliding part of a cabinet (where items are placed) are both called "drawers". One can't help but laugh when one thinks of drawers as underwear and hears the characters say their drawers are "sticking", and are thus "a positive disgrace", and when "...a man who put beeswax on them, ....that made them worse." Example #4 An excerpt from a sitcom Are You Being Served by Jeremy Lloyd and David Croft. Mrs. Slocombe: Before we go any further, Mr. Rumbold, Miss Brahms and I would like to complain about the state of our drawers. They're a positive disgrace. Mr. Rumbold: Your what, Mrs. Slocombe? Mrs. Slocombe: Our drawers. They're sticking. And it's always the same in damp weather. Mr. Rumbold: Really ... Mrs. Slocombe: They sent a man who put beeswax on them, but that made them worse. Mr. Rumbold: I'm not surprised. Miss Brahms: I think they need sandpapering. The double entendre is used as in the words like "positive disgrace" and "sent a man...made them worse". There writer has used double meanings. Example #5 Event from The Odyssey by Homer. It happens that Odysseus lands on the island of one-eyed giant Polyphemus and enters his caves with his twelve valiant soldiers. However, he is caught and imprisoned when the Cyclops closed its door with a huge stone wheel. When the Cyclops asks his name, he tells him that his name is "Nobody" and then plans with his surviving soldiers to blind him with a log made hot and sharpened with knives. When they succeed, the Cyclops cries out at the top of his voice saying, "Nobody has hurt me. Nobody is going to kill me." Here "Nobody" has been used as a double entendre as it has double meanings. On the one hand, it means that "Nobody" that is Odysseus has blinded him while on the other hand it means that nobody has done this to the Cyclops. Function of Double Entendre As double entendre is a phrase that expresses double meanings, the purpose of using double entendre is usually to articulate one thing perfectly and indirectly (which is generally an insult, or an insinuation). Shakespeare made use of this device to add humor to his work. If the audience are able to understand the different meanings that the actors or characters are trying to convey, double entendre will surely create laughter or to put forward a suggestion to the audiences.

Fallacy

Fallacy A fallacy is an erroneous argument dependent upon an unsound or illogical contention. There are many fallacy examples that we can find in everyday conversations. Types of Fallacies Here are a few well-known kinds of fallacies you might experience when making an argument: 1. Appeal to Ignorance Appeal to ignorance happens when one individual utilizes another individual's lack of information on a specific subject as proof that his or her own particular argument is right. 2. Appeal to Authority This sort of error is also known as "Argumentum Verecundia" (argument from modesty). Instead of concentrating on the benefits of an argument, the arguer will attempt to append their argument to an individual of power or authority in an effort to give trustworthiness to their argument. 3. Appeal to Popular Opinion This sort of appeal is when somebody asserts that a thought or conviction is correct since it is the thing that the general population accept. 4. Association Fallacy Sometimes called "guilt by affiliation," this happens when somebody connects a particular thought or drill to something or somebody negative so as to infer blame on another individual. 5. Attacking the Person Also regarded as "Argumentum ad Hominem" (argument against the man), this is a common fallacy used during debates where an individual substitutes a rebuttal with a personal insult. 6. Begging the Question The conclusion of a contention is accepted in the statement of the inquiry itself. 7. Circular Argument This fallacy is also known as "Circulus in Probando". This error is committed when an argument takes its evidence from an element inside the argument itself instead of from an outside one. 8. Relationship Implies Causation Fallacy Also called "Cum Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc", this fallacy is a deception in which the individual making the contention joins two occasions that happen consecutively and accepts that one made the other. 9. False Dilemma/Dichotomy Sometimes called "Bifurcation", this sort of error happens when somebody presents their argument in such a way that there are just two conceivable alternatives left. 10. Illogical conclusion This is a fallacy wherein somebody attests a conclusion that does not follow from the suggestions. 11. Slippery Slope The error happens when one contends that an exceptionally minor movement will unavoidably prompt great and frequently ludicrous conclusions. 12. Syllogism Fallacy This fallacy may also be used to form incorrect conclusions that are odd. Syllogism fallacy is a false argument as it implies an incorrect conclusion. Fallacy Examples To understand the different types of fallacies better, check out the following examles of fallacy: Example #1 Appeal to Ignorance "You can't demonstrate that there aren't Martians living in caves on the surface of Mars, so it is sensible for me to accept there are." Example #2 Appeal to Authority "Well, Isaac Newton trusted in Alchemy, do you suppose you know more than Isaac Newton?" Example #3 Appeal Popular Opinion "Lots of individuals purchased this collection, so it must be great." Example #4 Association Fallacy "Hitler was a veggie lover, in this way, I don't trust vegans." Example #5 Attacking the Person "Don't listen to Eddie's contentions on instruction, he's a simpleton." Example #6 Begging the Question "If outsiders didn't take my daily paper, who did?" (accept that the daily paper was really stolen). Example #7 Circular Argument "I accept that Frosted Flakes are incredible since it says as much on the Frosted Flakes bundling." Example #8 Relationship Implies Causation Fallacy "I saw a jaybird and ten minutes after the fact, I crashed my auto, in this manner, jaybirds are terrible fortunes." Example #9 False Dilemma/dichotomy "If you don't vote for this applicant, you must be a Communist." Example #10 Illogical Conclusion "All Dubliners are from Ireland. Ronan is not a Dubliner, in this manner, he is not Irish." Example #11 Slippery Slope "If we permit gay individuals to get hitched, what's afterward? Permitting individuals to wed their pooches?" Example #12 Syllogism Fallacy "All crows are black and the bird in my cage is black. So, the bird in my cage is a crow." Functions of Fallacy Literary critics find the weaknesses of literary pieces by searching for fallacies in the pieces being critiqued. Because of this, there is a tendency for critics to distort the intentions of the writer.

Epiphany

Epiphany Derived from the Greek word "epiphaneia", epiphany means "appearance" or "manifestation. In literary terms, an epiphany is that moment in the story where a character achieves realization, awareness or a feeling of knowledge after which events are seen through the prism of this new light in the story. James Joyce, the great Irish writer used this term in his writings to indicate a sudden eye-opener regarding the nature of a person or situation. He said that it is the moment in which "the soul of the commonest object ... seems to us radiant, and may be manifested through any chance, word or gesture." He means to say that even insignificant things in our life can suddenly inspire in us an awareness that can change our lives for good. A Common Example of Epiphany Let us consider an epiphany of a smoker: "I used to smoke a lot. Everyone let me know that it was bad for my health however, I didn't pay any notice. One day I saw my two years of age offspring trying for a used cigarette within an ashtray. Seeing this, abruptly it dawned upon me how terrible smoking was and I stopped smoking." So, this sudden feeling of knowledge that brings to light what was so far hidden and changes one's life is called epiphany. Let us analyze some epiphany examples from different genres of literature. Epiphany Examples from Literature Example #1 James Joyce's novel "A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man" shows two examples of epiphany. Stephen Dedalus, the main character of "A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man", experienced his first epiphany when he was sixteen and in a boarding school. One day he goes back to his room. Depressed by his sins, he falls ill and makes a decision to reform himself. He goes to church for confession where the priest is very kind. So, Stephen finds a new course in life - he becomes a priest. Stephen's second epiphany was when his life took another turn. He realizes that he cannot waste his life living as a priest. He wants to live in the real world and be creative like an artist. He sees some boys diving from the rocks, and sees and follows attractive girls standing in the water - this moment in the novel is Joyce's "epiphany". It is an emotional moment with an emotional meaning which marks a realization leading to a transformation in Stephen's life. Example #2 Shakespeare also makes use of an epiphany in his play "Hamlet". It is when Hamlet, the hero, is on a ship sailing to England. Till then, he was over-burdened with thinking and planning a flawless revenge on his father's murderer, Claudius. Suddenly there is a flash of realization and he says: "there is a divinity that shapes our ends, rough-hew them how we may." He realizes that there is no wisdom for him to try to inflict the perfect revenge on Claudius — he must take hold of the moment and go with the current. Example #3 We find another example of epiphany in the short story "Miss Brill" written by Katherine Manfield. Miss Brill, being delighted to be part of the season in the "Jardins Publique", particularly on Sundays, prepares herself for the occasion on a chilly day. She wears her fur coat and walks towards a band playing music in the park. She sees life everywhere around her, and it pleases her to imagine that she is part of all that takes place; a component of a living life that makes itself visible every Sunday to notice and be noticed. In a flash of epiphany, she recognizes that she and everyone else in the park are mere actors, acting out their roles. There was nothing important about that gathering of actors and she was alone despite being with a crowd. Function of Epiphany The purpose of epiphany in a novel or a short story is to use it for the characters to point out a turning point in the plot in the near future. It may also be used to change the opinion of one character about other characters, events and places after a sudden awareness of the situation. It may also be a sign of a conclusion in the story.

Epitaph

Epitaph When somebody from our family and friend dies, we want to commemorate his/her memories. For this, we use epitaph, which is a brief writing or saying. Epitaph is an inscription written on a grave. Generally, it is a brief composition, having figurative sense in a verse or in prose form, written to pay tribute to a deceased person, or to remember a past event. Strictly speaking, epitaph is a short text on a plaque or tombstone, honoring a dead person. It is derived from a Greek word epitaphios that means funeral oration. Many poets and authors have written their epitaphs prior to their death, such as William Shakespeare, Sylvia Plath and Oscar Wilde and John Keats. Epitaph and Eulogy An epitaph and a eulogy have a similar function that is to pay tribute to dead persons. However, both are also different, as an epitaph is a brief and concise commemorative inscription engraved on the tombstone of a dead person, while a eulogy is a spoken or written piece of writing in praise of a dead person, and it is usually made at the funeral. Besides, a eulogy can also be used for a living person, as it incorporates stories, anecdotes and memories of the subject. An epitaph, on the other hand, is just an honoring poem or an inscription written on the tombstone only for the dead people. Examples of Epitaph from Literature The use of epitaph flourished during seventeenth century when writers struggled over the cultural significance of their dead ones. However, later in eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, many ways were adopted to validate its importance and, therefore, renowned writers wrote their epitaphs before their death. Here we have a list of some good epitaphs: Example 1 Oscar Wilde's Epitaph Wilde's epitaph is inscribed on his gravestone in a very sentimental verse. It reads; "And alien tears will fill for him, Pity's long-broken urn, For his mourners will be outcast men, And outcasts always mourn." This epitaph is from his popular poem "The Ballad of Reading Gaol." The poem describes that death is also like a prison sentence. Further, he adds a witty statement that in the grave "the food in here is awful." Example 2 Robert Frost's Epitaph Robert Frost also wrote his epitaph a few years prior to his death. He took last lines from a poem, "The Lesson for Today." The final lines read as; "And were an epitaph to be my story I'd have a short one ready for my own. I would have written of me on my stone: I had a lover's quarrel with the world." Unfortunately, most of lovers cannot make up their love. However, Frost was nearly close to be done with his love, when he passed away at the age of 88. This quote gives an apt presentation by the poet. Example 3 William Butler Yeats' Epitaph Yeats in penned his epitaph as; "Cast a cold Eye On Life, on Death. Horseman, pass by!" It seems that he is giving an advice to his readers to not hang back over his corpse for a very long time, nevertheless the words have rather deep meaning. He had taken these lines from the poem "Under Ben Bulben." This is one of most popular modern epitaphs. Example 4 William Shakespeare's Epitaph Good frend for Jesus sake forebeare, To digg þe dust encloased heare. Blese be þe man þat spares þes stones, And curst be he þat moves my bones. Shakespeare had given a prediction that somebody might dig up his grave and due to this fear, he composed his epitaph in a verse form before his death. This poem is chiseled on his gravestone. Example 5 Sylvia Plath's Epitaph Sylvia Plath's husband Ted Hughes had chosen her epitaph engraved on her gravestone that reads, "Even amidst fierce flames, the golden lotus can be planted." Function of Epitaph The major function of writing epitaph is to praise and pay tribute to deceased persons. It is used to provide an example of virtue and goodness how a tomb of the good people could serve to provide a sense of their presence. In addition, a veneration of a dead person's memories could produce similar effects, as we would see in his/her presence. Secondly, its function is to let the audience know and warn them that their lives are also mortal like their predecessors. Thirdly, it preserves the history, as it shows ancestral relationships, date of birth and death and accomplishments of the deceased persons.

Essay

Essay Essay is derived from a French word essayer, which means to attempt, or to try. An essay is a short form of literary composition based on a single subject matter, and often gives personal opinion of an author. A famous English essayist Aldous Huxley defines essays as, "a literary device for saying almost everything about almost anything." Oxford Dictionary describes it as "a short piece of writing on a particular subject." In simple words, we can define it as a scholarly work in writing that provides the author's personal argument. Types of Essay There are two forms of essays; literary and non-literary. Literary essays are of four types: Expository Essay - In an expository essay, the writers give explanation of an idea, theme or issue to the audience by giving their personal opinions. This essay is presented through examples, definitions, comparison, and contrast. Descriptive Essay - As it sounds like, it gives description about a particular topic or describes the traits and characteristics of something or a person in details. It allows artistic freedom and creates images in the minds of readers through the use of five senses. Narrative Essay - Narrative essay is non-fiction, but describes a story with sensory descriptions. The writers not only tell story, but also make a point by giving reasons. Persuasive Essay - In this type of essay, a writer tries to convince his readers to adopt his position on a point of view or issue after he provides them solid reasoning in this connection. It requires a lot of research to claim and defend an idea. It is also called an argumentative essay. Non-literary essays could also be of the same types but they could be written in any format. Examples of Essay in Literature Example 1 "As I passed through the gates I heard a squeaky voice. A diminutive middle-aged man came out from behind the trees — the caretaker. He worked a toothbrush-sized stick around in his mouth, digging into the crevices between algae'd stubs of teeth. He was barefoot; he wore a blue batik shirt known as a buba, baggy purple trousers, and an embroidered skullcap. I asked him if he would show me around the shrine. Motioning me to follow, he spat out the results of his stick work and set off down the trail." (From "The Sacred Grove of Oshogbo" by Jeffrey Tayler) This is an example of a descriptive essay, as the author has used descriptive language to paint a dramatic picture for his readers of an encounter with a stranger. Example 2 "It is impossible to love, and be wise ... Love is a child of folly. ... Love is ever rewarded either with the reciprocal, or with an inward and secret contempt. You may observe that amongst all the great and worthy persons...there is not one that hath been transported to the mad degree of love: which shows that great spirits and great business do keep out this weak passion...That he had preferred Helena, quitted the gifts of Juno and Pallas. For whosoever esteemeth too much of amorous affection quitted both riches and wisdom." (Of Love by Francis Bacon) In this excerpt, Bacon attempts to persuade the readers that people, who want to be successful in this world, they must never fall in love. By giving an example of famous people like Paris, who chose Helen as his beloved but lost his wealth and wisdom, the author attempts to convince the audience that they can lose their mental balance by falling in love. Example 3 "I am afraid I do not attract attention, and yet there is not a single home in which I could done without. I am only a small, black kettle but I have much to interest me, for something new happens to me every day. The kitchen is not always a cheerful place in which to live, but still I find plenty of excitement there, and I am quite happy and contented with my lot..." (The Autobiography of a Kettle by John Russell) In the following example, the author is telling an autobiography of a kettle and describes the whole story in chronological order. The author has described kettle as a human being, and allows the readers to feel, as he has felt. Function of Essay The function of an essay depends upon the subject matter, whether the writer wants to inform, persuade, explain or entertain. In fact, the essay increases the analytical and intellectual abilities of the writers as well as readers. It evaluates and tests the writing skills of a writer and organizes his/her thinking to respond personally or critically to an issue. Through an essay, the writers present their arguments in a more sophisticated manner. In addition, it encourages the students to develop concepts and skills such as analysis, comparison and contrast, clarity, exposition, conciseness, and persuasion.

Ethos

Ethos In rhetoric, ethos represents credibility or an ethical appeal which involves persuasion by the character involved. Origin of Ethos The term has its roots in Aristotle's "ingredients of persuasion" or "appeals". He divides means of persuasion into three distinct categories: ethos, pathos and logos. He says in his treatise "On Rhetoric": "Of the modes of persuasion furnished by the spoken word there are three kinds. [...] Persuasion is achieved by the speaker's personal character when the speech is so spoken as to make us think him credible." It is a means of convincing others of the character or credibility of the persuader. It is natural for us to accept the credibility of people whom we hold in reverence. In an argument, it is of utmost value for a speaker or a writer to impress upon listeners and readers the idea that is worth listening to. In other words, not only the credibility of a speaker or a writer relies on his or her authority on the subject matter but also on the fact that how much he or she is liked and worthy of respect. Ethos and Ad Hominem Argument In an attempt to confirm their credibility, a writer or speaker will make use of a typical type of argument called an "ad hominem argument". It is an argument "against the man," i.e. undermining the ethos of a speaker or a writer in opposition. It is a strategy in which a speaker or a writer attacks the character or personality of an opponent speaker or writer instead of criticizing the matter of his or her point of view. Such an argument, however, is generally thought of to be a logical fallacy; nevertheless it can prove to be exceptionally successful and is fairly common in politics. Ethos Examples Example #1 Choice of words can confirm ethos with customers: "Our expertise in roofing contracting is evidenced not only by our 100 years in the business and our staff of qualified technicians, but in the decades of satisfied customers who have come to expect nothing but the best." The advertisers try to build up their credibility with their customers by mentioning the experience they have in the field and the technical expertise of their staff. Example #2 "Doctors all over the world recommend this type of treatment." People tend to believe the opinions of doctors in the matter of medical treatments. Example #3 "John is a forensics and ballistics expert working for the federal government for many years - if anyone's qualified to determine the murder weapon, it's him." In determining the murder weapon, the basis of ethos of John is his experience of working for the federal government as a forensic and ballistics expert. Example #4 "If his years as a soldier taught him anything, it's that caution is the best policy in this sort of situation." A soldier's opinion is more credible than an ordinary man's opinion in violent situations. Example #5 "My three decades of experience in public service, my tireless commitment to the people of this community, and my willingness to reach across the aisle and cooperate with the opposition, make me the ideal candidate for your mayor." The public can easily be persuaded by letting them have an idea about the past actions and policies of a candidate. Example #6 Ethos examples in TV ads are not only expressed in words. For instance, in a commercial for toothpaste, an actor puts on a white coat and talks about how that particular toothpaste is good for teeth. Putting on a white coat, an actor looks like a doctor and thus gains credibility as people consider a doctor's remarks more credible than an actor's. Function of Ethos The above explanations and examples of ethos reveal the following facts about the said device: Ethos confirms the credibility of a writer or a speaker and thus they become trustworthy in the eyes of listeners and readers who as a result are persuaded by their arguments. Ethos of a speaker or a writer is created largely by the choice of words he or she makes in order to convince listeners or readers. Being an expert on the subject matter that a speaker or a writer chooses determines his or her ethos.

Eulogy

Eulogy Known as homily, the term eulogy originates from a Greek word eulogia, which means to praise somebody or something. A eulogy is a literary device that is a laudatory expression in a speech, or a written tribute to a person deceased recently. We can say, it is a commendation or high praise intended to give honor, generally, to a dead family member, or a loved one, or it is a tribute given to a dead person at his/her funeral. Eulogies are also paid as tributes to living persons; for instance, one can dedicate it to his retired colleagues, bosses or employees for winning respectable position and noble deeds. Hence, in general, it is a gesture of honoring somebody. Difference between Eulogy, Elegy and Obituary All these three terms are often confused due to their meanings. A eulogy and an elegy are similar because both are written for dead ones, but unlike a eulogy, an elegy is a song or a poem with a lamenting tone that expresses loss of a family member or a loved one. A eulogy, in contrast, is a speech or a written tribute to deceased as well as living persons, and it is not necessarily in the form of a poem. However, an obituary is a completely different term than eulogy and elegy, as it is a published biography intended to recount the life of someone recently died. Examples of Eulogy from Literature Example 1 Renowned Spenser, lie a thought more nigh To learned Chaucer, and rare Beaumont lie A little nearer Spenser to make room For Shakespeare in your threefold, fourfold tomb. Betwixt this day and that by fate be slain... Sleep rare tragedian Shakespeare, sleep alone, That unto us and others it may be Honor hereafter to be laid by thee. (From "On Mr. Wm. Shakespeare, he died in April 1616" by William Basse) Basse has dedicated this eulogy to Shakespeare after 25 years of his death, and suggested that his grave should have been next to Spenser, Chaucer and Beaumont in Westminster Abbey. Example 2 I thought of Thee, my partner and my guide, As being past away.—Vain sympathies!... Still glides the Stream, and shall for ever glide; The Form remains, the Function never dies; While we, the brave, the mighty, and the wise, We Men, who in our morn of youth defied The elements, must vanish;—be it so! Through love, through hope, and faith's transcendent dower, We feel that we are greater than we know. (From "After Thought" by William Wordsworth) Wordsworth has written this eulogy in the honor of his close friend. The speaker is recalling his deceased friend's memories in that though he is physically no more with him but his noble deeds will never die. Example 3 O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done, The ship has weather'd every rack, the prize we sought is won, The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting, While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring; But O heart! heart! heart!... (From "O Captain, O Captain" by Walt Whitman) In this poem, Whitman pays tribute to American president Abraham Lincoln, whom many Americans recognize as their hero. The speaker calls him as a captain and then calls "dear father!" He pays high regards to his captain for making mission successful and the services he has done for his country "From fearful trip, the victor ship, comes in with object won." Example 4 Alfred Lord Tennyson's poem "A Farewell" is also a eulogy in which the poet himself says goodbye to nature. He describes this fact beautifully that death is inevitable and nobody can escape it. He says goodbye to trees, seas and rivers and other elements of nature because he will die and will be forgotten except his good deeds but nature will remain the same forever, "A thousand suns will stream on thee/ A thousand moons will quiver;/ But not by thee my steps shall be/ Forever and forever." Function of Eulogy Eulogies are written or spoken memorials that help remind happy and good memories of the dead persons. In literary works, eulogies can make the dead persons appear more real and good to all those people who have not seen or known them. Many writers and poets have written eulogies in the honor of famous literary figures. Another function of eulogy is keeping the memories of dead ones alive. As we have learned from the above mentioned examples that the nature of a eulogy is optimistic, it is very helpful in boosting the morale of the depressed family.

Euphemism

Euphemism The term euphemism refers to polite, indirect expressions which replace words and phrases considered harsh and impolite or which suggest something unpleasant. Euphemism is an idiomatic expression which loses its literal meanings and refers to something else in order to hide its unpleasantness. For example, "kick the bucket" is a euphemism that describes the death of a person. In addition, many organizations use the term "downsizing" for the distressing act of "firing" its employees. Euphemism depends largely on the social context of the speakers and writers where they feel the need to replace certain words which may prove embarrassing for particular listeners or readers in a particular situation. Techniques for Creating Euphemism Euphemism masks a rude or impolite expression but conveys the concept clearly and politely. Several techniques are employed to create euphemism. It may be in the form of abbreviations e.g. B.O. (body odor), W.C. (toilet) etc. Foreign words may be used to replace an impolite expression e.g. faux (fake), or faux pas (foolish error) etc. Sometimes, they are abstractions e.g. before I go (before I die). They may also be indirect expressions replacing direct ones which may sound offensive e.g. rear-end, unmentionables etc. Using longer words or phrases can also mask unpleasant words e.g. flatulence for farting, perspiration for sweat, mentally challenged for stupid etc. Using technical terms may reduce the rudeness exhibited by words e.g. gluteus maximus. Deliberately mispronouncing an offensive word may reduce its severity e.g. darn, shoot etc. Euphemism Examples in Everyday Life Euphemism is frequently used in everyday life. Let us look at some common euphemism examples: You are becoming a little thin on top (bald). Our teacher is in the family way (pregnant). He is always tired and emotional (drunk). We do not hire mentally challenged (stupid) people. He is a special child (disabled or retarded). Examples of Euphemism in Literature Example #1 Examples of euphemism referring to sex are found in William Shakespeare's "Othello" and "Antony and Cleopatra". In "Othello", Act 1 Scene 1, Iago tells Brabantio: "I am one, sir, that comes to tell you your daughter and the Moor are now making the beast with two backs." Here, the expression "making the beast with two backs" refers to the act of having sex. Similarly, we notice Shakespeare using euphemism for sexual intercourse in his play "Antony and Cleopatra". In Act 2 Scene 2, Agrippa says about Cleopatra: "Royal wench! She made great Caesar lay his sword to bed. He plowed her, and she cropped." The word "plowed" refers to the act of sexual intercourse and the word "cropped" is a euphemism for becoming pregnant. Example #2 John Donne in his poem "The Flea" employs euphemism. He says: "Mark but this flea, and mark in this, How little that which thou denies me is; It suck'd me first, and now sucks thee, And in this flea our two bloods mingled be. Thou know'st that this cannot be said A sin, nor shame, nor loss of maidenhead; Yet this enjoys before it woo, And pamper'd swells with one blood made of two; And this, alas! is more than we would do." In order to persuade his beloved to sleep with him, the speaker in the poem tells her how a flea bit both of them and their blood got mixed in it. This is a euphemism. Example #3 "The Squealer", a character in George Orwell's "Animal Farm", uses euphemisms to help "the pigs" achieve their political ends. To announce the reduction of food to the animals of the farm, Orwell quotes him saying: "For the time being," he explains, "it had been found necessary to make a readjustment of rations." Substituting the word "reduction" with "readjustment" was an attempt to suppress the complaints of other animals about hunger. It works because reduction means "cutting" food supply while readjustment implies changing the current amount of food. Function of Euphemism Euphemism helps writers to convey those ideas which have become a social taboo and are too embarrassing to mention directly. Writers skillfully choose appropriate words to refer to and discuss a subject indirectly which otherwise are not published due to strict social censorship e.g. religious fanaticism, political theories, sexuality, death etc. Thus, euphemism is a useful tool that allows writers to write figuratively about the libelous issues.

Irony

Irony Irony is a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way that their intended meaning is different from the actual meaning of the words. It may also be a situation that may end up in quite a different way than what is generally anticipated. In simple words, it is a difference between the appearance and the reality. Types of Irony On the grounds of the above definition, we distinguish two basic kinds of irony i.e. verbal irony and situational irony. A verbal irony involves what one does not mean. When in response to a foolish idea, we say, "what a great idea!" it is a verbal irony. A situational irony occurs when, for instance, a man is chuckling at the misfortune of the other even when the same misfortune, in complete unawareness, is befalling him. Difference between Dramatic Irony and Situational Irony Dramatic irony is a kind of irony in a situation, which the writers frequently employ in their works. In situational irony, both the characters and the audience are fully unaware of the implications of the real situation. In dramatic irony, the characters are oblivious of the situation but the audience is not. For example, in "Romeo and Juliet", we know much before the characters that they are going to die. In real life circumstances, irony may be comical, bitter or sometimes unbearably offensive. Common Examples of Irony Let us analyze some interesting examples of irony from our daily life: I posted a video on YouTube about how boring and useless YouTube is. The name of Britain's biggest dog was "Tiny". You laugh at a person who slipped stepping on a banana peel and the next thing you know, you slipped too. The butter is as soft as a marble piece. "Oh great! Now you have broken my new camera." Irony Examples from Literature Example #1 We come across the following lines in Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet", Act I, Scene V. "Go ask his name: if he be married. My grave is like to be my wedding bed." Juliet commands her nurse to find out who Romeo was and says if he were married, then her wedding bed would be her grave. It is a verbal irony because the audience knows that she is going to die on her wedding bed. Example #2 Shakespeare employs this verbal irony in "Julius Caesar" Act I, Scene II, CASSIUS: "'tis true this god did shake" Cassius, despite knowing the mortal flaws of Caesar, calls him "this god". Example #3 In the Greek drama "Oedipus Rex" written by "Sophocles", "Upon the murderer I invoke this curse - whether he is one man and all unknown, Or one of many - may he wear out his life in misery to miserable doom!" The above lines are an illustration of verbal and dramatic irony. It was predicted that a man guilty of killing his father and marrying his own mother has brought curse on the city and its people. In the above-mentioned lines, Oedipus curses the man who is the cause of curse on his city. He is ignorant of the fact that he himself is that man and he is cursing himself. The audience, on the other hand, knows the situation. Example #4 Irony examples are not only found in stage plays but in poems too. In his poem "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner", Coleridge wrote: "Water, water, everywhere, And all the boards did shrink; Water, water, everywhere, Nor any drop to drink." In the above stated lines, the ship, blown by the south wind, is stranded in the uncharted sea. Ironically, there is water everywhere but they do not have a single drop of water to drink. Function of Irony Like all other figures of speech, Irony brings about some added meanings to a situation. Ironical statements and situations in literature develop readers' interest. Irony makes a work of literature more intriguing and forces the readers to use their imagination and comprehend the underlying meanings of the texts. Moreover, real life is full of ironical expressions and situations. Therefore, the use of irony brings a work of literature closer to the life.

Internal Rhyme

Internal Rhyme Internal rhyme is a poetic device which can be defined as metrical lines in which its middle words and its end words rhymes with each other. It is also called middle rhyme, since it comes in the middle of lines. Types of Internal Rhyme Internal rhyme examples may be classified into the following types: Rhyme in the same line comes when the words rhyme in a single line. For example, "Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, Rhyme in separate lines comes when two or more words rhyme in the middle of the separate lines. For example, "While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door." Rhyme of the words at the end of lines and words in the middle of the lines come when the words at the end of lines rhyme with the words in the middle of the next lines. For example, "Eagerly I wished the morrow; - vainly I had sought to borrow From my books surcease of sorrow - sorrow for the lost Lenore..." Examples of Internal Rhyme from Literature Example #1 Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door. Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door..... Ah, distinctly I remember it was in the bleak December; And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor. Eagerly I wished the morrow; - vainly I had sought to borrow From my books surcease of sorrow - sorrow for the lost Lenore... (The Raven by Edgar Allen Poe) This is the most popular poem of Edgar Allen Poe, where he uses internal rhyme. Here we can see examples of internal rhymes where the words rhyme in the same lines, in separate lines and in the proceeding lines. Example #2 ALL: Double, double toil and trouble, Fire burn and cauldron bubble (Macbeth by William Shakespeare) This is an extract from Macbeth where all witches speak. This is an example of the first type of internal rhyme in which words rhyme in the same line. Example #3 Jenny and Me were engaged, you see,... So a kiss or two was nothing to you... Jenny would go in a domino .... While I attended, clad in a splendid...... Now we had arranged, through notes exchanged At Number Four to waltz no more, ... When Three was over, an eager lover..... (Pink Dominoes by Rudyard Kipling) In the given excerpt, the poet has used the first type of internal rhyme. Example #4 The ship was cheer'd, the harbor clear'd, And every day, for food or play, In mist or cloud, on mast or shroud,.. Whiles all the night, through fog-smoke white, Glimmer'd the white moonshine..... Why look'st thou so?'—'With my crossbow Ah wretch! Said they, the bird to slay... Then all averr'd, I had kill'd the bird... The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, (The Rime of Ancient Mariner by T.S Eliot) In this extract, the rhyming words create a musical effect and give emphasis to the meanings. Example #5 For the moon never beams without bringing me dreams Of the beautiful Annabel Lee; And the stars never rise but I feel the bright eyes Of the beautiful Annabel Lee; And so, all the night-tide, I lie down by the side Of my darling, my darling, my life and my bride, (Annabel Lee by Edgar Allan Poe) In the following example, the first type of internal rhyme is employed. The words which create internal rhyme include "beams, dreams, rise, eyes, tide and side." These words give rhythm and a regular rhyme scheme to the poem. Function of Internal Rhyme The sound repetition due to internal rhyme makes a poem or story unified. It is employed to heighten the poem's effects and this internal rhyme can take place in the same line or two separate alternating lines. Also, it adds to the meanings of words and enhances musical effects of the poem.

Innuendo

Innuendo Innuendo can be defined as an indirect or a subtle observation about a thing or a person. It is generally critical, disparaging or salacious in nature, and its use is almost always derogatory. However, it must be kept in mind that it is the most thinly-veiled form of satire and when it is strong, it takes the shape of criticism. Types of Innuendo Innuendo can be categorized into different forms, such as: Innuendo in nature Innuendo in everyday life Innocent Innuendo Accidental Innuendo Sexual Innuendo Innuendo Examples in Literature Several literary writers consider innuendo as unbelievably gratifying experience, and they feel an urge to create pages laced with innuendo until at last they pour a stream of innuendo that saturates the texts with fun and naughtiness. Let us have a look at some examples: Example #1 The surf on the rocks, Gentle rain falls on cedars, I will **** you raw. These lines offer Basho's spiritual touch, offering voluptuousness of pastoral imagery that he makes use to suggest the subtle color of his diffident affection for a chaste mistress. Example #2 Several characters in Dickens' Hard Times get their names from the author from how he sees their realities in life. For example, the school teacher is named Mr. Choakumchild that reflects his criticism of the educational system of that time. Similarly, he names a union leader as Slackbridge which shows how he viewed dishonest workers of that time. The objective is to provide a comment to the readers according to the situation in the character is thriving and how the reader should view it. This is a mild form of innuendo. Example #3 "Shall I part my hair behind? Do I dare to eat a peach?" These are lines from The Love Song of J Alfred Prufrock, by T. S. Eliot. Spoken by the speaker who is suffering from sexual frustration, and an innuendo is quite visible here. It is the reflection of impotence of the speaker. Example #4 Now look what you've done, She pouted In that exquisitely girlish and Lilting soft voice of hers. It's all red and swollen.... To get bitten by a rattlesnake Right up the crack of her **** ("Now Look What You've Done" by Roderick Molasar) Sexual innuendo has become very common in the romantic poetry and predominantly in that drama which was written at times when it was not possible to use such language openly. Just see an example from this poem. Example #5 "With this irrepressible ebullition of mirth, Master Bates laid himself flat on the floor: and kicked convulsively for five minutes, in an ecstasy of facetious joy. Then jumping to his feet.....advancing to Oliver, viewed him round and round..." ... "'It's the worst of having to do with women,' said the Jew, replacing his club; 'but they're clever, and we can't get on, in our line, without 'em. Charley, show Oliver to bed'."...... "The noise of Charley's laughter, and the voice of Miss Betsy, who opportunely arrived to throw water over her friend.....perform other feminine offices for the promotion of her recovery..." In the novel "Oliver Twist" Charles Dickens offered interesting surprises to readers. He used a lot of innuendos that appear whenever he brings in his character named Master Bates. Example #6 Graze on my lips, and if those hills be dry Stray lower, where the pleasant fountains lie. (Venus and Adonis by William Shakespeare) A good example of innuendos can be seen in this poem. Functions of Innuendos Literature abounds with innuendos - especially romantic poetry, novel and drama. Some authors believe that innuendos are used since they can fill a void in literature and their readers consider them as uplifting and entertaining. However, they come into passive and at the same time aggressive categories of communication since they are indirect and generally used to attack or insult somebody or some section of society. They serve as oblique allusions and vague references to reputation and character. Hence, they could be the best tool for those who do not want to be direct. Innuendo can be an effective way of undermining somebody's character in society.

Meiosis

Meiosis The word meiosis originated from the Greek word "meioo" that means "to diminish" or "to make smaller". Meiosis can be defined as a witty understatement that belittles or dismisses something or somebody, particularly by making use of terms that gives impression that something is less important than it is or it should be. Meiosis examples are sometimes also used in the sense of a synonym of litotes. In literature, however, meiosis describes the use of understatement to highlight a point or explain a situation or to understate a response used to enhance the effect of a dramatic moment. For example, when Mercutio is wounded mortally and he says "ay, ay, a scratch, a scratch..." , this is a form of meiosis(Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare). Features of Meiosis It is intentional understatement. It is used to belittle a person or an event. It is opposite to hyperbole or exaggeration. It often makes use of litotes as synonym to give ironic effect. Examples of Meiosis in Literature There are several examples of meiosis in literature, where the persons and events are understated depending on the situations. Here are some of them: Example #1 An extract from King Lear by William Shakespeare "I am a very foolish fond old man, Fourscore and upward, not an hour more or less; And, to deal plainly, I fear I am not in my perfect mind...." Shakespeare has used meiosis in these lines to create humor. Although it is undoubtedly clear that Lear has gone mad, yet his reaction that "I fear I am not in my perfect mind" is an example of an understatement. Example #2 An extract from Hamlet by William Shakespeare "A little month, or ere those shoes were old With which she followed my poor father's body, O God, a beast that wants discourse of reason Would have mourned longer! O, most wicked speed, to post With such dexterity to incestuous sheets! It is not nor it cannot come to good: But break, my heart; for I must hold my tongue..." In this speech, Hamlet uses understatement or meiosis to conclude his soliloquy where he states that all this cannot come to good, which is a gentle statement as compared to the rest of his speech in which he has lashed out at his mother. The best and the most effective use of meiosis can be seen in tragic plays like this. Example #3 Some say the world will end in fire, Some say in ice. From what I've tasted of desire I hold with those who favor fire. But if it had to perish twice, I think I know enough of hate To say that for destruction ice Is also great And would suffice. (Fire and Ice by Robert Frost) The understatement in the entire poem is given emphasis on the last word which is suffice. That means "adequate. In this poem, ice symbolizes hatred and fire passion that could consume relations quickly. Therefore, both would be more than enough to destroy the world. Example #4 King Arthur: The Lady of the Lake, her arm clad in the purest shimmering samite held aloft Excalibur from the bosom of the water. Peasant: Listen, strange women lying in ponds distributing swords is no basis for a system of government. Power derives from the masses not from some farcical aquatic ceremony. King Arthur: Be quiet! Peasant: You can't expect to wield supreme power because some watery tart threw a sword at you. King Arthur: Shut up! Peasant: If I went around saying I was an emperor because some moistened bint had lobbed a scimitar at me..." (Monty Python and the Holy Grail, 1975) Just check the use of the words moistened bint the peasant says to King Arthur. This is the best use of meiosis used here to belittle the king himself. Function of Meiosis Meiosis, in fact, illustrates tone and mannerism such as quiet and brooding where protagonists are often understated in tone and action. Meiosis is very common everywhere in our daily lives, old and modern literature and media. We can distinguish understatement in modesty, in humor, in composed and calm characters, in personalities where it gives rhetorical effects to the speech delivered by them. Since it is a method used to give information that diminishes the response of an overemotional occurrence, the basic function of meiosis is to reduce the significance of someone or something in order to heighten something else simultaneously.

Metaphor

Metaphor Metaphor is a figure of speech which makes an implicit, implied or hidden comparison between two things or objects that are poles apart from each other but have some characteristics common between them. In other words, a resemblance of two contradictory or different objects is made based on a single or some common characteristics. In simple English, when you portray a person, place, thing, or an action as being something else, even though it is not actually that "something else," you are speaking metaphorically. "He is the black sheep of the family" is a metaphor because he is not a sheep and is not even black. However, we can use this comparison to describe an association of a black sheep with that person. A black sheep is an unusual animal and typically stays away from the herd, and the person you are describing shares similar characteristics. Furthermore, a metaphor develops a comparison which is different from a simile i.e. we do not use "like" or "as" to develop a comparison in a metaphor. It actually makes an implicit or hidden comparison and not an explicit one. Common Speech Examples of Metaphors Most of us think of a metaphor as a device used in songs or poems only, and that it has nothing to do with our everyday life. In fact, all of us in our routine life speak, write and think in metaphors. We cannot avoid them. Metaphors are sometimes constructed through our common language. They are called conventional metaphors. Calling a person a "night owl" or an "early bird" or saying "life is a journey" are common conventional metaphor examples commonly heard and understood by most of us. Below are some more conventional metaphors we often hear in our daily life: My brother was boiling mad. (This implies he was too angry.) The assignment was a breeze. (This implies that the assignment was not difficult.) It is going to be clear skies from now on. (This implies that clear skies are not a threat and life is going to be without hardships) The skies of his future began to darken. (Darkness is a threat; therefore, this implies that the coming times are going to be hard for him.) Her voice is music to his ears. (This implies that her voice makes him feel happy) Literary Metaphor Examples Metaphors are used in all type of literature but not often to the degree they are used in poetry because poems are meant to communicate complex images and feelings to the readers and metaphors often state the comparisons most emotively. Here are some examples of metaphor from famous poems. Example #1 "She is all states, and all princes, I." John Donne, a metaphysical poet, was well-known for his abundant use of metaphors throughout his poetical works. In his well-known work "The Sun Rising," the speaker scolds the sun for waking him and his beloved. Among the most evocative metaphors in literature, he explains "she is all states, and all princes, I." This line demonstrates the speaker's belief that he and his beloved are richer than all states, kingdoms, and rulers in the entire world because of the love that they share. Example #2 "Shall I Compare Thee to a summer's Day", William Shakespeare was the best exponent of the use of metaphors. His poetical works and dramas all make wide-ranging use of metaphors. "Sonnet 18,"also known as "Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer's Day," is an extended metaphor between the love of the speaker and the fairness of the summer season. He writes that "thy eternal summer," here taken to mean the love of the subject, "shall not fade." Example #3 "Before high-pil'd books, in charact'ry / Hold like rich garners the full-ripened grain," The great Romantic poet John Keats suffered great losses in his life - the death of his father in an accident, and of his mother and brother through tuberculosis. When he began displaying signs of tuberculosis himself at the age of 22, he wrote "When I Have Fears," a poem rich with metaphors concerning life and death. In the line "before high-pil'd books, in charact'ry / Hold like rich garners the full-ripened grain", he employs a double-metaphor. Writing poetry is implicitly compared with reaping and sowing, and both these acts represent the emptiness of a life unfulfilled creatively. Functions From the above arguments, explanations and examples, we can easily infer the function of metaphors; both in our daily lives and in a piece of literature. Using appropriate metaphors appeals directly to the senses of listeners or readers, sharpening their imaginations to comprehend what is being communicated to them. Moreover, it gives a life-like quality to our conversations and to the characters of the fiction or poetry. Metaphors are also ways of thinking, offering the listeners and the readers fresh ways of examining ideas and viewing the world.

Memoir

Memoir Memoir is a written factual account of somebody's life. It comes from France, where it is called as 'mémoire' meaning memory or reminiscence. This literary technique tells a story about the experiences of someone's life. However, a literary memoir, on the other hand, is usually about a specific theme, or about a part of someone's life, as it is a story with a proper narrative shape, focus and subject matter, involving reflection on some particular events or places. Memoirs are often associated with popular personalities such as celebrities, sportsmen, soldiers, singers and writers, etc. It allows making a connection with what audience find captivating, interesting, appealing and engaging. Memoir and Autobiography Memoir falls under the category of autobiography, but is used as its sub-genre. The major difference between these two is that a memoir is a centralized and more specific term, while an autobiography spans the entire life of a person with intricate details such as the childhood, family history, education and profession. However, a memoir on the contrary, is specified and focused that tells the story of somebody's life or focuses on an important event occurred on a specific time and place. Examples of Memoir in Literature Real life is always more interesting and appealing as a fiction work. Let us have a look at highly commended memoirs in literature: Ernest Hemingway's A Moveable Feast Ernest Hemingway was an acclaimed celebrity during the times when public would treat American writers like movie stars. His memoir A Moveable Feast was published after his death in 1964. This memoir is about a collection of stories and his time spent in Paris as a writer in 1920s, before attaining popularity. During these days, he was acquainted with many other famous writers including: Ezra Pound, F. Scott Fitzgerald and Gertrude Stein. Vladimir Nabokov's Speak Memory This memoir is about the description of Nabokov's childhood and years he spent before shifting to America in 1940; however, it is not the exact reason of writing this memoir. More notably, this book is about a tale of his art, as it serves as a model of that art. In addition, it includes its themes, imagery and symbols which build up a structure in the minds of readers besides making up the book. Like always, prose writing of Nabokov is flawless, brilliant and overwhelming, while his playful writing style makes his work seem fascinating. George Orwell's Homage to Catalonia This is Orwell's gripping tale of his days during Spanish Civil War. He has described it with his typical trademark of journalistic wink, which is one of the best works. Honest and unwavering, Orwell narrates his personal experience without inducing any agenda, recording different things from that era as he saw them. Philip Mairet mentioned about this account as this work shows the people a heart of innocence living in revolutionary days. Art Spiegelman's Maus Although we can find many wonderful Holocaust and deeply affecting memoirs to make this a list, Maus is one of the most well-liked memoir with its distressing story covered with perfect illustrations by Spiegelman. We might think that imagining different characters appear with animal faces would make the story horrible and look less intense and more irritating; nevertheless, it is rather opposite. If we know the comic style, we learn that blank iconic faces and the outlook of the mice in this memoir that allows the audience to put themselves in their shoes to understand the story more easily. Function of Memoir Memoir has been around since ancient times. Perhaps, Julius Caesar was the first memoirist, who wrote and depicted his personal experiences about epic battles. Later, it became a popular and acclaimed literary genre. Memoir serves as to preserve the history through a person' eyes, having lived it. Through memoir, show biz celebrities also tell harsh sides of their careers; rock stars tell their fans about tough days spent in distress; drug addicts reveal their struggle for seeking normal life; soldiers write war experiences; people who are mentally ill describe ups and downs to achieve clarity, and authors tell particular events happened before their eyes in their lives. Hence, the function of memoir is to provide a window to the audience to have a look into lives of other people.

Meter

Meter Meter is a stressed and unstressed syllabic pattern in a verse or within the lines of a poem. Stressed syllables tend to be longer and unstressed shorter. In simple language, meter is a poetic device that serves as a linguistic sound pattern for the verses, as it gives poetry a rhythmical and melodious sound. For instance, if you read a poem loudly, and it produces regular sound patterns, then this poem would be a metered or measured poem. The study of different types of versification and meters is known as prosody. Meter and Foot A meter contains a sequence of several feet, where each foot has a number of syllables such as stressed/unstressed. Hence, a meter has an overall rhythmic pattern in a line of verse, which a foot cannot describe. Types of Meter English poetry employs five basic meters including; iambic meter (unstressed/stressed), trochaic meter (stressed/unstressed), spondaic meter, (stressed/stressed) anapestic meter (unstressed/unstressed/ stressed) and dactylic meter (stressed/unstressed/unstressed). Meter has two subdivisions: Qualitative Meter It contains stressed syllables with regular intervals such as iambic pentameter containing even numbered syllables. Quantitative Meter Quantitative meter, however, is based on syllabic weight, and not stressed patterns such as dactylic hexameters of classical Greek and classical Latin, however, classical Arabic and Sanskrit also have used this meter. Poets like Virgil used quantitative meter in Aeneid and Homer in Iliad. Examples of Meter from Literature Example 1 If music be the food of love, play on; Give me excess of it, that, surfeiting, The appetite may sicken, and so die. That strain again! it had a dying fall: O, it came o'er my ear like the sweet sound, That breathes upon a bank of violets, (Twelfth Night by William Shakespeare) This is an example of iambic pentameter, which contains first unstressed syllable and second stressed one. Shakespeare has played around on iambic pentameter a lot to create different effects. Here you can see each line consists of accented and unaccented syllables underlined. Example 2 Shadows pointed towards the pithead: In the sun the slagheap slept. Down the lane came men in pitboots Coughing oath-edged talk and pipe-smoke Shouldering off the freshened silence. (The Explosion by Philip Larkin) This extract contains trochaic meter in which stressed syllables are pronounced loudly. Larkin has written frequently trochaic (accented/ unaccented) tetrameter with four trochees. Example 3 Half a league, half a league, Half a league onward, All in the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. "Forward, the Light Brigade! Charge for the guns!" he said. Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. (The Charge of the Light Brigade by Alfred Lord Tennyson) This excerpt presents an example of dactylic meter that contains one accented syllable followed by two unaccented syllables. Example 4 "Just the place for a Snark!" the Bellman cried, As he landed his crew with care; Supporting each man on the top of the tide By a finger entwined in his hair... There was also a Beaver, that paced on the deck, Or would sit making lace in the bow: (The Hunting of the Snark by Lewis Carroll) Here you can see Carroll has used different types of anapestic meter, dimeter, trimeter and tetrameter. This type of meter has two unaccented syllables and a third accented syllable. Example 5 Cry, cry! Troy burns, or else let Helen go. (From Troilus and Cressida by William Shakespeare) If I do prove her haggard, Though that her jesses were my dear heart-strings, (From Othello by William Shakespeare) Spondaic meter has two accented syllables. You can easily identify this type of meter because it contains both stressed syllables. In the first example, "Cry, cry! Troy burns," and in the second example, "heart-strings" is showing spondaic meter. Function of Meter Though meter is a poetic device, playwrights as well as prose writers often use it to heighten the dramatic quality of the work, adding enchantment, mystery and emotion to their language. If you look carefully, you will notice metrical feet are not only suitable in poetry but also in plays to achieve dramatic purposes. However, its basic function is to provide rhythm, uniformity and give a rounded and well-formed structure to the poetic work. It makes the tone of a language more lyrical. When a situation requires heightened language, the poets use meter for artistic effects. Besides, a meter has importance and value to the readers, which could, however, be lost if paraphrased or translated.

Palindrome

Palindrome The term palindrome is derived from two Greek words "palin" means again and "dromos" means way or direction. It is defined as a number, a word, a sentence, a symbol or even signs that can be read forward as well as backward or in reserve order with the same effects and meanings. In English, Ben Jonson was the first writer to introduce this term in the middle of the 17th century. There are two types of palindrome; word-unit palindrome or one-line palindrome. Some words such as civic, radar, level, rotor, and noon or word-unit palindrome, while "Was it a car or a cat I saw?" is an example of one-line palindrome. Types of Palindromes Palindromes are of many types, depending upon the requirements of the subject. The most commonly used types of palindromes are given here: Character by Character Name Palindromes Word Palindrome Number Palindromes Line-unit Palindrome Word-unit Palindrome Palindrome Examples in Literature There are many examples of Palindrome in prose, poetry and criticism. Let us take a look at some examples: Example #1 "Lewd did I live & evil I did dwel." (O.Abootty, The Funny Side of English. Pustak Mahal, 2002) This is the first sentence using a palindrome that appeared in English language, back in 1614. In this sentence the words read the same forward and backward. Example #2 "T.S. Eliot, top bard, notes putrid tang emanating, is sad. I'd assign it a name: gnat dirt upset on drab pot-toilet." (Alastair Reid) Palindrome can be seen in this sentence where the same names are given to T.S. Eliot in the beginning, "putrid tang" and also at the end of the sentence "gnat dirt upset on drab pot-toilet." Example #3 Norma is as selfless as I am, Ron. (credited to poet W.H. Auden) Palindrome is used as the author says that Norma and he both are unselfish. Example #4 Entering the lonely house with my wife I saw him for the first time Peering furtively from behind a bush ... Blackness that moved, A shape amid the shadows, A momentary glimpse of gleaming eyes Revealed in the ragged moon ... A closer look (he seemed to turn) might have Revealed in the ragged moon A momentary glimpse of gleaming eyes A shape amid the shadows, Blackness that moved. Peering furtively from behind a bush, I saw him, for the first time Entering the lonely house with my wife. (A Line-Unit Palindrome Poem, "Doppelgänger" by James A. Lindon) The above-mentioned poem gives the perfect example of a palindrome as it reads in the same manner from the first to the last line as it is going from the last line to the first line. Example #5 Open floodgates, once restrained tightly, suddenly form rippled waters, expressive thoughts flowing freely, by frightful heart attending faithfully INSPIRATION faithfully attending heart frightful by freely flowing expressive thoughts, waters rippled form suddenly, tightly restrained once, floodgates open. (A poem, Inspiration by Memory Trace) This type of poetry is also called as mirrored poetry where palindrome sentences are used which read backward as well forward. Example #6 Some famous names as fine palindrome examples: Lon Nol was a was Prime Minister of Cambodia Nisio Isin was a Japanese novelist Robert Trebor was an actor Stanley Yelnats is a character of a movie Holes Function The purpose of using palindromes in writing, words, numbers and sentences is to create light entertainment and fun. However, some supporters have taken great initiatives in finding long palindromes that cover many sentences and in poetry. In ancient times the palindromes appeared in magic spells, and many have taken this reversibility as a convention. Palindromes can be traced in classical and modern music poetry for rhythmical effects, in acoustics and in dates as well. Even several religious texts are full of palindromes and it is not just a chance that biologically our genes are also palindromes that their order is the same; forward as well as backward. A further interesting point is that numbers also fall in order to create palindromes such as 88, 99, 101, 111, 121, 131, 141, 151, 161, and 171 which can be read backward and forward in the same way.

Parataxis

Parataxis Parataxis is derived from a Greek word which means to place side by side. It can be defined as a rhetorical term in which phrases and clauses are placed one after another independently, without coordinating or subordinating them through the use of conjunctions. It is also called additive style. Parataxis is sometimes used as asyndeton in which the phrases and clauses are coordinated without conjunctions. The Difference between Parataxis and Hypotaxis Hypotaxis is the opposite of parataxis. In hypotaxis, the sentences, clauses and phrases are subordinated and linked. However, in parataxis the phrases, clauses and sentences are not subordinated or coordinated. Examples of Parataxis from Literature Example #1 "Veni, vidi, vici" or, "I came, I saw, I conquered." (Life of Caesar by Plutarch) This is among the famous examples of parataxis. There are no conjunctions or joining words used. The phrases are used equally. That means phrases are placed with equal status. Example #2 "Dogs, undistinguishable in mire. Horses, scarcely better-splashed to their very blinkers. Foot passengers, jostling one another's umbrellas, in a general infection of ill-temper, and losing their foothold at street corners....." (Bleak House by Charles Dickens) This is also among the famous parataxis examples in literature. Here the clauses are connected loosely and create a lopping discourse. For example, at some places conjunctions are used lightly such as "to" and "and". Example #3 Twenty-two years old, weak, hot, frightened, not daring to acknowledge the fact that he didn't know who or what he was . . . with no past, no language, no tribe, no source, no address book, no comb, no pencil, no clock, no pocket handkerchief, no rug, no bed, no can opener, no faded postcard, no soap, no key, no tobacco pouch, no soiled underwear and nothing nothing nothing to do . . . he was sure of one thing only: the unchecked monstrosity of his hands..... (Sula by Toni Morrison) Here in this extract, a grammatically equal relationship is created between the phrases and clauses. Also, there are no coordinating or subordinating conjunctions between the clauses and phrases. Example #4 Nothing is ever really lost, or can be lost, No birth, identity, form—no object of the world. Nor life, nor force, nor any visible thing; Appearance must not foil, nor shifted sphere confuse thy brain. Ample are time and space-ample the fields of Nature..... (Continuities by Walt Whitman) In this excerpt, all the phrases and clauses carry equal weight. This creates the effect of piling up and compression. Example #5 out . . . into this world . . . this world . . . tiny little thing . . . before its time . . . in a god for- . . . what? . . girl? . . yes . . . tiny little girl . . . into this . . . out into this . . . before her time . . . godforsaken hole called . . . called . . . no matter . . . parents unknown . . . unheard of . . . he having vanished . . . thin air . . . no sooner buttoned up his breeches . . . she similarly . . . eight months later . . . almost to the tick . . . so no love . . . spared that . . . no love such as normally vented on the . . . speechless infant . . . in the home . . . no . . . nor indeed for that matter any of any kind . . . no love of any kind . . . at any subsequent stage..... (Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett) Beckett has not used formal constraints (conjunctions). The clauses are juxtaposed without any clear connection. Explaining each other like a single idea in spite of mixing longer and shorter sentences. Function of Parataxis Paratactic sentences, clauses and phrases are useful in explaining a rapid sequence of thoughts in poetry and prose. They could evoke the feelings in a similar way as though they happened at once. It is a helpful device when describing a setting. In simple words, parataxis helps the readers to focus on a particular idea, thought, setting or emotion. Also, cultural theorists use it in cultural texts where a series of events are shown side by side.

Pathetic fallacy

Pathetic Fallacy Pathetic fallacy is a literary device that attributes human qualities and emotions to inanimate objects of nature. The word "pathetic" in the term is not used in the derogatory sense of being miserable; rather, here, it stands for "imparting emotions to something else". Difference between Pathetic Fallacy and Personification Generally, Pathetic fallacy is confused with personification. The fact is that they differ in their function. Pathetic fallacy is a kind of personification that gives human emotions to inanimate objects of nature for example referring to weather features reflecting a mood. Personification, on the other hand, is a broader term. It gives human attributes to abstract ideas, animate objects of nature or inanimate non-natural objects. For example, the sentence "The somber clouds darkened our mood" is a pathetic fallacy as human attributes are given to an inanimate object of nature reflecting a mood. But, "The sparrow talked to us" is a personification because the animate object of nature "sparrow" is given the human quality of "talking". Pathetic Fallacy Examples in Literature Lets us analyze some examples of pathetic fallacy in literature: Example #1 Shakespeare uses pathetic fallacy in his play "Macbeth" to describe the dark murder of "Duncan". In Act 2 Scene 3 "Lennox" says: "The night has been unruly. Where we lay, Our chimneys were blown down and, as they say, Lamentings heard i' th' air, strange screams of death, And prophesying with accents terrible Of dire combustion and confused events New hatched to the woeful time. The obscure bird Clamored the livelong night. Some say the Earth Was feverous and did shake." The pathetic fallacy examples in the above lines describe the ominous atmosphere on the night of the murder of "Duncan". The "unruly" night, the "screams of death" in the air, and the "feverous" earth depict the "evil" act of murder that happened a night before. Example #2 Emily Bronte's novel "Wuthering Heights" is full of pathetic fallacies. The title itself shows the use of this device as "Wuthering Heights" means uproarious and aggressive weather that represents the nature of its residents. There are lots of instances in the novel in which the mood of nature portrays the nature of events in the narrative. For example, "Lockwood" is trapped in a "snow storm" before the nightmare scene, the "wild and windy" night at the time of Mr. Earnshaw's death, the "violent thunderstorm" on the night Heathcliff leaves Wuthering Heights, and the stormy weather outside when "Cathy" makes a choice between "Heathcliff" and "Edgar" indicates her inner turmoil. Example #3 Keats employs pathetic Fallacy in his "Ode to Melancholy", "But when the melancholy fit shall fall Sudden from heaven like a weeping cloud That fosters the droop-headed flowers all And hides the green hills in an April shroud" The feeling of melancholy has been described by attributing a human emotion "weeping" to the "clouds". Example #4 William Wordsworth in his poem "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud" says: "I wandered lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er vales and hills," The poet describes clouds as "lonely" to describe his state. Example #5 Charles Dickens makes use of pathetic fallacy in "Great Expectations". At the beginning of chapter 39, his protagonist"Pip" comments on the "wretched weather": "Day after day, a vast heavy veil had been driving over London from the East, and it drove still, as if in the East there were an Eternity of cloud and wind. So furious had been the gusts, that high buildings in town had had the lead stripped off their roofs; and in the country, trees had been torn up, and sails of windmills carried away; and gloomy accounts had come in from the coast, of shipwreck and death. Violent blasts of rain had accompanied these rages of wind, and the day just closed as I sat down to read had been the worst of all." The "furious" gusts and the "rages" of wind indicate the confused inner world of Pip. Function of Pathetic Fallacy By employing pathetic fallacy, writers try to bring inanimate objects to life so that the nature of emotions they want to convey are understood in a better way because it is easier for the readers to relate to the abstract emotions when they observe it in their natural surroundings . In addition, the use of pathetic fallacy encourages the readers to develop a perspective that is new as well as creative.

Parallelism

Parallelism Parallelism is the use of components in a sentence that are grammatically the same; or similar in their construction, sound, meaning or meter. Parallelism examples are found in literary works as well as in ordinary conversations. This method adds balance and rhythm to sentences giving ideas a smoother flow and thus can be persuasive because of the repetition it employs. For example, "Alice ran into the room, into the garden, and into our hearts." We see the repetition of a phrase that not only gives the sentence a balance but rhythm and flow as well. This repetition can also occur in similar structured clauses e.g. "Whenever you need me, wherever you need me, I will be there for you." Common Parallelism Examples Like father, like son. The escaped prisoner was wanted dead or alive. Easy come, easy go. Whether in class, at work or at home, Shasta was always busy. Flying is fast, comfortable, and safe. Examples of Parallelism in Literature In literature, parallelism is used in different ways to impress upon the readers in order to convey messages or moral lessons. Let us analyze a few examples of parallelism in literature: Example #1 Antithesis is a kind of parallelism in which two opposite ideas are put together in parallel structures. Alexander Pope in his "An Essay on Criticism" uses antithetic parallel structure: "To err is human; to forgive divine." Imperfection is a human trait and God is most forgiving. Through these antithetical but parallel structures, the poet wants to say that God is forgiving because his creation is erring. Example #2 We find parallelism in John Donne's poem "Community", "Good we must love, and must hate ill, For ill is ill, and good good still; But there are things indifferent, Which we may neither hate, nor love, But one, and then another prove, As we shall find our fancy bent." Contrasting ideas of "good" and "ill", "love" and "hate" are placed together in parallel structures to emphasize the fact that we love good because it is always good and we hate bad because it is always bad. Example #3 We see the repetition of parallel structures in the following lines from "A Tale of Two Cities" by Charles Dickens: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair. By repeating "It was..." in the passage, the readers are prompted to focus on the traits of the "age" they will read about in the succeeding passages. Example #4 We see William Blake employ Parallelism in his poem "The Tyger": "What the hammer? what the chain? In what furnace was thy brain? What the anvil? what dread grasp Dare its deadly terrors clasp?" The use of parallel structures, starting with "what", creates a beautiful rhythm in the above lines. Example #5 Parallelism takes form of "Diazeugma" in which a single subject is connected with multiple verbs. Read the following lines from the speech of Norfolk in William Shakespeare Henry VIII, Act 3, Scene 2: "My lord, we have Stood here observing him: Some strange commotion Is in his brain: he bites his lip, and starts; Stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground, Then, lays his finger on his temple; straight, Springs out into fast gait; then, stops again, Strikes his breast hard; and anon, he casts His eye against the moon: in most strange postures We have seen him set himself." The use of multiple verbs in the above lines creates a dramatic effect in the speech of Norfolk that makes his description vivid. Function of Parallelism The use of parallel structures in speech or writing allows speakers and writers to maintain a consistency within their work and create a balanced flow of ideas. Moreover, it can be employed as a tool for persuasion as well because of the repetition it uses.

Parody

Parody Parody is an imitation of a particular writer, artist or a genre, exaggerating it deliberately to produce a comic effect. The humorous effect in parody is achieved by imitating and overstressing noticeable features of a famous piece of literature, as in caricatures, where certain peculiarities of a person are highlighted to achieve a humorous effect. We, in our daily life, can employ the above technique to spoof somebody for the sake of fun. For example, you have an Indian person in your classroom and one day, in a gathering of a few friends, you say, "Will you veddy much bring me a coke please?" This imitation of an Indian accent is a parody. Parody examples are often confused as examples of satire. Although parody can be used to develop satire, it differs from satire to a certain extent. Parody mimics a subject directly to produce a comical effect. Satire, on the other hand, makes fun of a subject without a direct imitation. Moreover, satire aims at correcting shortcomings in society by criticizing them. Parody Examples in Everyday Life Example #1 In our daily watching of television, we may see extremely hilarious examples of parody which are shows that blend parody and satire. "The Daily Show", "The Colbert Report", and "The Larry Sanders Show" are renowned and these shows mimic famous political personalities and this allows them to target what they think are unintelligent political and social viewpoints. Example #2 Parody has entered our day-to-day life through hilarious parody movies that mimic famous blockbusters. "Vampire Sucks" parodies and pokes fun at "Twilight" which was a film adaptation of Stephanie Meyer's novel "Twilight". Examples of Parody in Literature Example #1 Shakespeare wrote "Sonnet 13" in parody of traditional love poems common in his day. He presents an anti-love poem theme in a manner of a love poem mocking the exaggerated comparisons they made: "My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun; Coral is far more red than her lips' red; If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun; If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head. I have seen roses damasked, red and white, But no such roses see I in her cheeks;" Unlike a love-poem goddess, his mistress does not have eyes like the sun, she does not have red lips nor does she have a white complexion. Her cheeks do not have a rosy color and her hair is not silky smooth. All the cliché qualities are missing in his mistress. Such a description allows Shakespeare to poke fun at the love poets who looked for such impossible qualities in their beloved. Example #2 "Don Quixote" written by Miguel de Cervantes is a parody of romances written in his days. "Quixote" and his overweight sidekick "Sancho" delude themselves to think that they are knights of the medieval romances. They believe that they are entrusted with the obligation to save the world. Therefore, the adventure starts as an imitation of the real romances but of course, in a hilarious manner. We laugh at how Quixote was bestowed knighthood in his battle with the giants [windmills]. We enjoy how the knight helps the Christian king against the army of a Moorish monarch [herd of sheep]. These and the rest of the incidents of the novel are written in the style of Spanish romances of the 16th century to mock the idealism of knights in the contemporary romances. Example #3 Swift's "Gulliver's Travel" is a parody of travel narratives as well as a satire on contemporary England. As the empire of England spread to far off lands, it became a center of navigation and exploration. Adventure and travel narratives telling stories of strange lands became popular. Example #4 Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe was a travel narrative. Swift adopted a similar mode to describe Gulliver's travels to the strange land of "Lilliput" and other such places where he meets "Lilliputians" and the giant "Brobdingnagians". He also meets other strange creatures like "Laputians" and "Houyhnhnms and the Yahoos". The parody for Swift was intended as a satire on English society. Function of Parody Parody is a kind of comedy that imitates and mocks individuals or a piece of work. However, when it mingles with satire, it makes satire more pointed and effective. Most importantly, a parody appeals to the reader's sense of humor. He enjoys the writer poking fun at the set ideals of society and becomes aware of the lighter side of an otherwise serious state of affairs. Thus, parody adds spice to a piece of literature that keeps the readers interested.

Pathos

Pathos Pathos is a quality of an experience in life or a work of art that stirs up emotions of pity, sympathy and sorrow. Pathos can be expressed through words, pictures or even with gestures of the body. Pathos is an important tool of persuasion in arguments. Pathos is a method of convincing people with an argument drawn out through an emotional response. Analyzing examples of pathos, one would come to the conclusion that it differs from other "ingredients of persuasion" namely "Ethos" and "logos". Ethos means convincing others through the credibility of a persuader, while Logos is a method to convince others by employing logic and reason. Common Examples of Pathos For a better understanding of the subject, let us examine a few pathos examples from daily conversations: "If we do not leave this place soon, we will end up yelling for help. We do not see anyone to help us here. So, leave this place and live"- the statement evokes emotions of fear. "Made in China" logo on various products sold in China tries to enhance their sales by evoking patriotism among the customers. Ads encouraging donations, show small children living in pathetic conditions to evoke pity in people to urge them to donate for the cause. Referring to a country as "motherland" stirs up patriotic feelings in individuals living in that country or state. A soft instrumental symphony may arouse people emotionally. Pathos Examples in Literature Let us turn to literature to trace some examples of pathos: Example #1 In chapter 8 of Mark Twain's "Adventures of Tom Sawyer. "He had meant the best in the world, and been treated like a dog—like a very dog. She would be sorry someday—maybe when it was too late. Ah, if he could only die TEMPORARILY!" Tom arouses feelings of pity in readers' minds by telling how the girl, whom he loved, treated him like an animal despite his honest feelings for her. He wishes he had died and then she would feel sorry for him. Example #2 Darcy's confession to Elizabeth that he wants her to be his future partner evokes feelings of sympathy in readers as they feel an emotional intensity in his proposal. Jane Austen's "Pride and Prejudice" is well known for its pathos. "Believe me, my dear Miss Elizabeth, that your modesty adds to your other perfections. But you can hardly doubt the object of my discourse, however your feminine delicacy may lead you to dissemble. For, as almost as soon as I entered the house, I singled you out as the companion of my future life!" Example #3 In Act V of Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet". "Then she is well, and nothing can be ill. Her body sleeps in Capels' monument, And her immortal part with angels lives. I saw her laid low in her kindred's vaul" Romeos's servant Balthasar invokes pity among the audience, when he informs Romeo, who was waiting impatiently to hear about Juliet, that Juliet is dead and is buried in her family's death. We feel sorry for the untimely death of Juliet and her heartbroken Romeo. Example #4 These lines are taken from "Ol' Man River" a lyric composed by Paul Robeson. "Darkies work on de Mississippi Darkies work while de white folks play" We feel overcome by pity for Black Americans [Darkie] who were enslaved to White Americans [white folks]. The contrast of the words "work" and "play" shows the social disparity between the two races. Example #5 In Maya Angelou's "Caged Bird", pathos is created by presenting a contrast between "the free bird" and "a caged bird". "The free bird thinks of another breeze and the trade winds soft through the sighing trees and the fat worms waiting on a dawn bright lawn and he names the sky his own But a caged bird stands on the grave of dreams his shadow shouts on a nightmare scream his wings are clipped and his feet are tied so he opens his throat to sing." We see the words "grave", "shouts, scream", "clipped, tied" are associated with a bird in a cage, which makes us feel pity toward that miserable bird. Function of Pathos We humans are emotional beings and writers know it very well. They introduce pathos in their works to touch upon our delicate sensations such as pity, sympathy, sorrow and, consequently, try to develop an emotional connection with readers. In addition, emotions are part of real life. Thus, by giving pathos expression in their works, writers bring their narratives, characters and themes closer to real life. Furthermore, the use of pathos by a debater in an argument appeals to people emotionally, making it a tool to convince people and change their opinions.

Poem

Poem A poem is a collection of spoken or written words that expresses ideas or emotions in a powerfully vivid and imaginative style, comprising of a particular rhythmic and metrical pattern. In fact, it is a literary technique, which is different from prose or ordinary speech, as it is either in metrical pattern or in free verse. Writers or poets express their emotions through this medium more easily, as they face difficulty when expressing through some other medium. It serves the purpose of a light to take the readers towards the right path. Also, sometimes it teaches them a moral lesson through sugar-coated language. Types of Poem Poem has many types, the most popular include: Haiku - It is a type of Japanese poem, consisting of three unrhymed lines with mostly five, seven and five syllables in each line. Free Verse - It consists of non-rhyming lines, without any metrical pattern, but follows a natural rhythm. Epic - It is a form of poem, often written in blank verse, lengthy in size in which poet shows protagonist in action of historical significance or great mythic. Ballad - It is a type of narrative poem narrates a story, often talks about folk or legendary tales. It may take a form of moral lesson or a song. Sonnet - It is a form of lyrical poem containing fourteen lines with iambic pentameter and tone or mood changes after eighth line. Elegy - A melancholic poem in which poet laments the death of a subject, however, consoles towards the end is called elegy. Epitaph - A small poem used as an inscription on tombstone of dead person. Hymn - This type of a poem praises spirituality or God's splendor. Limerick - This is a type of humorous poem with five anapestic lines in which first, second and fifth lines have three feet and third and fourth have two feet with a strict rhyme scheme of aabba. Villanelle - It is a French styled poem with nineteen lines contains three-line stanza with five tercets and final quatrain. It uses refrain at first and third lines of each stanza. Examples of Poems in Literature Example 1 Haiku Poem: While you decline to cry, high on the mountainside a single stalk of plume grass wilts. (While you Decline to Cry by O no Yasumaro) Look at this poem. It contains three lines, which show a typical structure of a haiku poem. It does not follow any formal rhyme scheme or proper rhythmical pattern. Example 2 Epic Poem: By the shore of Gitchie Gumee, By the shining Big-Sea-Water, At the doorway of his wigwam, In the pleasant Summer morning, Hiawatha stood and waited... (The Song of Hiawatha by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) These are few lines from, The Song of Hiawatha, a classic epic poem that presents Indian legend of a loving, brave, patriotic and stoic hero, but bears resemblance to Greek myths of Homer. Longfellow tells sorrows and triumphs of the Indian tribes in details in this lengthy poem. Therefore, this is a fine example of a modern epic though other epics are Paradise Lost by John Milton and Iliad by Homer. Example 3 Free Verse Poem: After the Sea-Ship—after the whistling winds; After the white-gray sails, taut to their spars and ropes, Below, a myriad, myriad waves, hastening, lifting up their necks, Tending in ceaseless flow toward the track of the ship: Waves of the ocean, bubbling and gurgling, blithely prying, (After the Sea-Ship by Walt Whitman) This poem neither has rhyming lines, nor does it adhere to a particular metrical plan. Hence, it is free of artificial expression. It has rhythm and a variety of rhetorical devices used for sounds such as assonance and consonance. Example 4 Ballad: O what can ail thee, knight-at-arms, Alone and palely loitering? The sedge has wither'd from the lake, And no birds sing... And this is why I sojourn here Alone and palely loitering, Though the sedge is wither'd from the lake, And no birds sing. (La Belle Dame sans Merci by John Keats) This poem presents a perfect example of a ballad—a folk style poem that typically narrates a love story. The language of this poem is simple. It contains twelve stanzas with four quatrains and rhyme scheme of abcb. Function of Poem The main function of a poem is to convey an idea or emotion in beautiful language. It paints the picture a poet feels about a thing, person, idea, concept or even an object. Poets grab the attention of the audience through the use of vivid imagery, emotional shades, figurative language and other rhetorical devices. However, the supreme function of a poem is to find out a method through which poets transform imagery and words into verse form to touch the hearts and minds of the readers. They can easily arouse the sentiments of their readers through versification. In addition, poets evoke imaginative awareness about things by using a specific diction, sound and rhythm.

Poetic Justice

Poetic Justice In literature, poetic justice is an ideal form of justice in which the good characters are rewarded and the bad characters are punished by an ironic twist of their fate. It is a strong literary view that all forms of literature must convey moral lessons. Therefore, writers employ poetic justice to conform to the moral principles. For instance, if a character in a novel is pitiless and malicious in most part of the novel. His state has gone beyond improvement. Then, the principles of morality demand this character to experience a twist in his fate and be punished. Similarly, the one's who have suffer at his hand must be rewarded at the same time. Poetic Justice Examples in Literature Let us analyze a few examples of poetic justice in Literature: Example #1 In Shakespeare we see the evil characters, Goneril, Regan, Oswald and Edmund, thrive throughout the play. The good characters, Lear, Gloucester, Kent, Cordelia, and Edgar, suffer long and hard. We see the good characters turn to gods but they are rarely answered. "Lear" in Act 2, Scene 4 calls upon heaven in most pitiful manner: "LEAR [...] O heavens! If you do love old men, if your sweet sway Show obedience, if you yourselves are old, Make it your cause. Send down, and take my part!" Lear loses his kingdom by the conspiracies of his daughters Goneril and Regan supported by Edmund. At Dover, Edmund-led English troops defeats Cordelia-led French troops and Cordelia and Lear are imprisoned. Cordelia is executed in the prison and Lear dies out of the grief of his daughter's death. Despite all the suffering that good undergoes, the evil is punished. Goneril poisons her sister Regan due to jealousy over Edmund. Later, she kills herself when her disloyalty is exposed to Albany. In a climactic scene Edgar kills Edmund in Act 5,Scene 3 and says: "EDGAR My name is Edgar, and thy father's son. The gods are just, and of our pleasant vices Make instruments to plague us. The dark and vicious place where thee he got Cost him his eyes." "the gods are Just" because they punish the evil for their evil actions. Example #2 We see role of poetic justice in the character of the cruel "Mr. Bumble" in Charles Dickens' "Oliver Twist". He was a "beadle" in the town where "Oliver" was born in charge of the orphanage and other charitable institutions in the town. He is a sadist and enjoys excessive torturing of the poor orphans. He marries "Mrs. Corney" for money and become master of her workhouse. Here his fate takes a twist as he lost his post as a beadle and his new wife does not allow him to become a master of her workhouse. She beats him and humiliates him as he himself had done to the poor orphans. Right at the end of the novel, we come to know that both Mr. and Mrs. Bumble end up being so poor that they live in the same workhouse that they once owned. Example #3 A classic example of poetic justice is found in a Greek tragedy "Oedipus Rex" by Sophocles. He committed a crime of defying gods by trying to escape his fate. Therefore he left the kingdom he lived in and went to new kingdom "Thebes". He killed the king of the city after a quarrel and married the queen. Later, we learn that the prophecy turned out true as the man he killed was his father and the queen his own mother. The Greek believed their destinies were predetermining shaped by the gods and goddesses. Whosoever tried to defy them committed a sin and deserved punishment. Function of Poetic Justice Generally, the purpose of poetic justice in literature is to adhere by the universal code of morality i.e. the virtue triumphs vice. The idea of justice in literary texts manifests the moral principle that virtue deserves a reward and vices earn punishment. In addition, the readers often identify themselves with the good characters. They feel emotionally attached to them and feel for them when they suffer at the hands of the wicked characters. Naturally, the readers desire for a compensation for the good characters and equally wish the bad characters be penalized for their evilness. Thus, poetic justice offers contentment to them.

POV

Point of View Point of view is the angle of considering things, which shows us the opinion, or feelings of the individuals involved in a situation. In literature, point of view is the mode of narration that an author employs to let the readers "hear" and "see" what takes place in a story, poem, essay etc. Point of view is a reflection of the opinion an individual from real life or fiction can have. Examples of point of view belong to one of these three major kinds: 1. First person point of view involves the use of either of the two pronouns "I" and "we". Example: "I felt like I was getting drowned with shame and disgrace." 2. Second person point of view employs the pronoun "you". "Sometimes you cannot clearly discern between anger and frustration." 3. Third person point of view uses pronouns like "he", "she", "it", "they" or a name. "Mr. Stewart is a principled man. He acts by the book and never lets you deceive him easily." Point of View Examples in Literature Example # 1 Hamlet, the protagonist, explains the feeling of melancholy, which afflicts him after his father's death in the following lines (from Shakespeare's "Hamlet", Scene II of Act II). "I have of late,—but wherefore I know not,—lost all my mirth, forgone all custom of exercises; and indeed, it goes so heavily with my disposition that this goodly frame, the earth, seems to me a sterile promontory." This is one of the best first person point of view examples. The use of first person point of view gives us a glimpse into the real inner feelings of frustration of the character. The writer has utilized the first person point of view to expose Hamlet's feelings in a detailed way. Example # 2 Notice how William Wordsworth uses the first person point of view to express his subjective feelings about the scene of daffodils in his famous poem "Daffodils". "I gazed-and gazed-but little thought What wealth the show to me had brought." The use of the pronoun "I" gives a special quality to the feelings expressed in these lines. The reader can see that the poet has employed first person point of view to share with us his own personal emotions. Example #3 Ernest Hemingway in "The Sun also Rises" employs the first person point of view which is peculiar to his style. "I could picture it. I have a habit of imagining the conversations between my friends. We went out to the Cafe Napolitain to have an aperitif and watch the evening crowd on the Boulevard." The use of two first person pronouns "I" and "We" gives these lines the quality of having a first person point of view. The reader can feel like he/she is hearing the dialogue directly from the characters. Example #4 Read the following lines from "Bright Lights, Big City" by Jay Mclnemey: "You are not the kind of guy who would be at a place like this at this time of the morning. But here you are, and you cannot say that the terrain is entirely unfamiliar, although the details are fuzzy." The writer illustrates the use of second person point of view by using the pronoun "you". This technique may be a little rare but you can realize that it has its own strength of hooking the reader right from the start. Example #5 Have a look at the following lines from "Pride and Prejudice" by Jane Austen: "When Jane and Elizabeth were alone, the former, who had been cautious in her praise of Mr. Bingley before, expressed to her sister how very much she admired him." "He is just what a young man ought to be," said she, "sensible, good humoured, lively; and I never saw such happy manners! — so much ease, with such perfect good breeding!" These lines demonstrate a fine use of the third person point of view. The excerpt shows the reader two different ways of the use of the third person point of view. Jane Austen first presents two leading characters Jane and Elizabeth, from the third person point of view and then shows us that the two characters are talking about Bingley from their own third person point of view. This can be a good example of the use of dual third person point of view — first by the author and then by the characters. Function of Point of View Point of view is an integral tool of description in the author's hands to portray personal emotions or characters' feelings about an experience or situation. Writers use a point of view to express effectively what they want to convey to their readers.

Portmanteau

Portmanteau Portmanteau is a literary device in which two or more words are joined together to coin a new word. A portmanteau word is formed by blending parts of two or more words but it always refers to a single concept. The coinage of portmanteau involves the linking and blending of two or more words and the new word formed in the process shares the same meanings as the original words. It is different from a compound word in that it could have a completely different meaning from the words that it was coined from. Portmanteau, on the other hand, shares the same semantic features. For example, the word "brunch" is formed by splicing two words "breakfast" and "lunch". The spliced parts "br-" and "-unch" are blended to form a portmanteau word "brunch" which is the meal taken between breakfast and lunch. Interestingly, the word portmanteau is formed by blending two French words i.e. Porter (carry) and Manteau (cloak). Common Portmanteau Examples In modern times, portmanteau words have entered the English language regularly. We see their widespread coinage in different fields of life. No doubt, they are both useful and interesting. Below is a list of examples of portmanteau words nowadays. education + entertainment = edutainment fan + magazine = fanzine cyberspace + magazine = cyberzine Oxford + Cambridge = Oxbridge telephone + marathon = telethon medical + care = Medicare parachute + troops = paratroops motor + hotel = motel camera + recorder = camcorder web + log = blog iPod + broadcasting = podcasting Examples of Portmanteau in Art and Entertainment The world of art and entertainment is replete with portmanteau examples such as: britcom, from British and comedy (see also: sitcom) californication, from California and fornication cassingle, from cassette and single cosplay, from costume and play dramedy, from drama and comedy religulous, from religion and ridiculous sacrilicious, from sacrilege and delicious (Homer Simpson) scanlation, from scan and translation sitcom, from situational and comedy slurve, form slider and curve (baseball pitches) spife, spoon and knife spork, spoon and fork streetbal, from street and basketball Examples of Portmanteau in Literature Example #1 In literature, Lewis Carroll introduces the term Portmanteau in his novel "Through the Looking Glass, and What Alice Found There". In chapter 6, Humpty Dumpty explains the meaning of "slithy" and "mimsy" in the nonsense poem "Jabberwocky". He says that "slithy" is "lithe and slimy" and "mimsy" is "flimsy and miserable". He tells Alice: "You see it's like a portmanteau—there are two meanings packed up into one word." Example #2 James Joyce extensively uses portmanteau words in his novel "Finnegans Wake". For instance: Ethiquetical is formed from ethics and etiquette. Blinkhards is coined from Dutch blinken (= to shine) and the English to blink. "Stop his laysense. Ink him!" Laysense comes from two words layman and sense. Sinduced is from sin and seduced. Comeday is from someday and comedy. Fadograph is formed from fading and photograph. Example #3 Charles Dickens is famous for giving his characters portmanteau names. Such names correspond with the character's disposition as well. For instance, there is a character named Mr. Tulkinghorn, a stout lawyer, in Bleakhouse. Tulking is modification of bulking and horn suggests an injurious nature. Similarly, Mr. Boythorn in Bleakhouse is a compounding of "boyhood" referring to his goodness of heart and "thorn" pointing to his loud and harsh nature. Moreover, Mr. Murdstone seems to come from "murderer" and "stone" that refers to coldness. In "The Mystery of Edwin Drood" The name Crisparkle is a blending of two words i.e. "Christian" that manifests his goodness and "sparkle" that reflects his boy-like temperament. Functions of Portmanteau One of the many factors that distinguish the English language from other languages of the world is the scope it offers for creativity through literary devices such as portmanteau. The existence of portmanteau words rightly testifies to this creative factor in English language where entirely new words with a unique meaning of their own are formed by blending parts of two or more totally different words. Writers are interested in such coinages because it allows them to add creativity to their work which consequently adds the element of interest in their literary texts. Moreover, it attracts readers' attention as readers enjoy and appreciates this subtle demonstration of word play.

Propaganda

Propaganda Propaganda is spreading of rumors, false or correct information, or an idea in order to influence the opinion of the society. It may advance an idea or bring into disrepute an opposite idea. In literature, writers use propaganda as a literary technique to manipulate the public opinion for or against one idea or another. In history, we can search a plethora of literary works used as propaganda to shape the public perceptions, and direct their behavior to get a response. Generally, propaganda is a technique for convincing people, misleading in nature and promotes a viewpoint or a political cause. Popular Examples of Propaganda US dropped leaflets as propaganda campaign in Iraq to let the people know that Saddam Hussein was the real culprit, who caused problems for them. People use name-calling as propaganda, such as "My enemy is a drug addict." During the era of McCarthy, mass media attempted to persuade public as propaganda that Communists had become very powerful and they would take over US. Slogans or shibboleths can work as propaganda, when those repeat several times, eventually public start believing in them. Selling happiness has become popular concept in ads, and serves as propaganda such as famous celebrities explain to the public why they need to purchase the product because it would solve their problems. Examples of Propaganda from Literature Example 1 Propaganda played a very important role in Russian Revolution. George Orwell wrote his novel Animal Farm after this revolution and used anti-communist propaganda as its major theme. The author has manipulated the speech of a character, Squealer that is a pig and portrayed as Napoleon's spokesperson. One example of his propaganda is to get the support of other animals, when he uses manipulated speech for disapproving Snowball's part in uprising revolt after his banishment from the farm. He uses the stupidity of animals for his benefit and plays with their minds by describing a different side of events happened in the Battle of the Cowshed. We can notice another example of propaganda in this novel, when pigs twist the rules and seven commandments for their own advantages. The original rule reads as, "No animal shall be killed by any other animal" which they changed into "No animal shall be killed by any other animal without cause." (From Animal Farm by George Orwell) Example 2 Adam Johnson's novel The Orphan Master's Son deals with the themes of identity, state power and propaganda in North Korea. The story is about two men from North Korea who revolted against tyrannical government of their country. Through their story, the readers get the impression how the North Korean leaders are selfish, as they kidnap their people, steal their money and cheat them. (From The Orphan Master's Son by Adam Johnson) Example 3 Many critics consider some historical plays of Shakespeare as Tudor propagandas, as they depict civil war dangers and commemorate Tudor dynasty's founders. Similarly, in his play Richard III, Shakespeare uses propaganda when we see Richard shapes the readers' perception and convinces other characters in the play to win their sympathies when he declares his deformity is the root cause of wickedness in his character. Hence, he makes use of deformity as propaganda and controls, injures and manipulates other people for his personal gain. (From Richard III by William Shakespeare) Example 4 In William Golding's Lord of Flies, author introduces concept of beast and use propaganda by his character Jack, who plans to take control of totalitarian government. He uses propaganda by manipulating the cognition of the young boys, frightens them about the existence of beast in that area, accuses Ralph who does not carry out his duty of providing protection to the children, and consequently takes the charge of new tribe where he would follow his tyrannical rules. (From Lord of Flies by William Golding) Function of Propaganda We can easily find the use of propaganda technique in mass media advertising, politics and literature. It is a very popular technique in academic commentary, and is taken as an interchangeable form of communication. The primary function of propaganda is to persuade the readers and mold their perceptions about a particular cause. In addition, it aims at getting response of respondents and let them adopt a certain action, because merely securing a commitment or assent would not be enough for making this technique successful, and securing its purpose. Often, it assists in promoting policies. Besides, propaganda serves as an effective weapon to rouse people by making them realized about their vulnerabilities and frailties instead of comforting them with illusions.

Protagonist

Protagonist A protagonist is the central character or leading figure in poetry, narrative, novel or any other story. A protagonist is sometimes called a "hero" by the audience or readers. The word originally came from the Greek language and in Greek drama which refers to the person who led the chorus. Later on, the word started being used as a term for the first actor in order of performance. Iago in Othello could be identified as the protagonist of the novel because he played a central role in all the controversies of the play. The question here would be that, even though he was a central character, was he really the lead character too? Such a kind of indistinctness generally results in completely different interpretations of whether the said character is a protagonist or not. Protagonist Examples from Literature Example #1 Protagonist examples in many stories are not shown to be flawless. They generally undergo some change that causes a turn of events, which makes a story interesting and helps deliver a message. Sometimes, a moral weakness is highlighted that causes the fall of the protagonist. For example: in William Shakespeare's play Hamlet, the protagonist experiences terrible events because of his indecisiveness, which troubles him while murdering his evil uncle. So, Hamlet's struggle in dealing with the antagonist is what precedes the story. Example #2 A protagonist can sometimes be very controversial because of some evil traits. One of the good examples of protagonist who is controversial would be Becky Sharp from William Makepeace Thackeray's Vanity Fair, who can occasionally be very manipulative in order to achieve her own interests. Example #3 There are ensemble stories that do not particularly highlight either one of the characters more than the rest. For instance, Addie Bundren's demise in the novel As I Lay Dying by William Faulkner, results in her family traveling a long way to bury her, and they all tell the story from their own perspective, which makes them all equally important to the story. Thus, it leaves us with more than just one protagonist in the same story. Protagonist Examples from Cinema In the movie Star Wars the character of Luke Skywalker was developed by George Lucas. He plays an outwardly naïve farm boy. Luke desperately wants a life different from his regular monotonous existence. After his uncle and aunt's demise, he has no other choice but to join forces with Obi-wan Kenobe. Luke later on matures to understand the customs of force. His antagonist in the movie is Darth Vader, who turns out to be Luke's father. They both get into a major conflict but eventually Luke succeeds. Function of Protagonist A protagonist is a very important tool used in developing a story. There are different terms used for a protagonist such as a hero, focal character, central character, main character, etc. Regardless of what title you give a protagonist, s/he remains the key ingredient in the development of the story, which is why the story revolves around him/her. More often than not the protagonist is fair and virtuous and is always found supporting the moral good. Further in the plot the protagonist may undergo some change, which will probably be the climax of the story. Being the central element puts grave responsibilities on the shoulders of a protagonist. Since, the story revolves around the protagonist; s/he is the one who has to work as an emotional heart of the story, helping the audience connect with it on a basic level. A well-constructed protagonist attracts the audience emotionally and lets them relate to the joys, fears and hopes of the character in the story. The events occurring in a story is always viewed from the perspective of the protagonist. The audience decides whether or not a particular event is favorable in a story. A wedding is an important and positive event in "The Sound of Music" because it is a positive event for the protagonist, Maria. However, the same kind of event in the movie "While You Were Sleeping" would be unfortunate because in that case the protagonist Lucy was marrying the wrong person. Some stories weave many characters into an ensemble story but even in such stories there is one character that is more important to the story than the rest. For instance, in The Lord of the Rings trilogy there are many characters that have great significance to the story but Frodo Baggins is the one who stands out because everyone else's destiny rests in his hands.

Rhetoric

Rhetoric Rhetoric is a technique of using language effectively and persuasively in spoken or written form. It is an art of discourse, which studies and employs various methods to convince, influence or please an audience. For instance, a person gets on your nerves, you start feeling irritated, and you say, "Why don't you leave me alone?" By posing such a question, you do not ask for a reason. Instead, you simply want him to stop irritating you. Thus, you direct language in a particular way for effective communication or make use of rhetoric. A situation where you make use of rhetoric is called a "rhetorical situation". Difference between Rhetorical Device and Figures of Speech Rhetorical figures or devices are employed to achieve particular emphasis and effect. Rhetorical devices, however, are different from "figures of speech". Wherever and whenever a figure of speech is used in written texts and speech, it alters meanings of words. For example, the metaphor used in the expression "He is a tiger," is a complete altered form of a simple idea "He is brave." Try to compare this example to the use of a rhetorical device in the example below: "I am never ever going to rob anyone for you and never, never ever give in to your sinful wish." The repetition in the above example does lay emphasis on the statement but does not alter the sense of it. Common Rhetoric Examples Below are a few examples on how rhetoric is employed by using various literary devices: How did this idiot get elected? - A rhetorical question to convince others that the "idiot" does not deserve to be elected. Here comes the Helen of our school. - An allusion to "Helen of Troy" to emphasize the beauty of a girl. I would die if you asked me to sing in front of my parents - A hyperbole to persuade others not to use force to make you do something which you don't want to do. All blonde-haired people are dumb. - Using a stereotype to develop a general opinion about a group. Nevertheless, the difference between rhetorical devices and figures of speech is so minute that both share many features. A figure of speech becomes a device in rhetoric when it is aimed at persuading the readers or listeners. Example of Rhetoric in Literature Let us try to analyze the use of rhetoric in some literary works: Example #1 John Milton's Paradise Lost has several examples of rhetoric. To quote an example from Book V: "advise him of his happy state— Happiness in his power left free to will, Left to his own free will, his will though free Yet mutable" The repetition of the phrase "free will" emphasizes the theme of human creation which is making free choices, but the phrase "yet mutable" creates ambiguity that, despite being free, Adam had to be careful, as a wrong act could make him lose his freedom. Example #2 John Donne addresses death in his Death, be not Proud (Holy Sonnet 10) by saying: Thou 'art slave to fate, chance, kings, and desperate men, And dost with poison, war, and sickness dwell, And poppy 'or charms can make us sleep as well And better than thy stroke; why swell'st thou then? The rhetorical question "why swell'st thou then?" serves to play down the horrific nature of death. He devalues death by calling it a "slave", and that it keeps the despicable company of "poison, war, sickness" and seeks their support. Example #3 We see Walt Whitman in his poem Crossing Brooklyn Ferry use anaphora: Flood-tide below me! I watch you, face to face; Clouds of the west! sun there half an hour high! I see you also face to face. Anaphora is a device where the same word or phrase is repeated at regular intervals to achieve a rhetorical effect. Function of Rhetoric Rhetoric, as explained above, is a tool for writers and orators which empowers them to convince their readers and listeners about their point of view. Often, we find rhetoric examples in religious sermons and political speeches. They aim to make comparisons, to evoke tender emotions, to censure rivals and all this is done to persuade listeners. Advertisers give their ads a touch of rhetoric to boost their sales by convincing people that their product is better than other products in the market. For instance, in an advertisement, a girl - after shampooing her hair - says, "I can't stop touching my hair." This is an attempt to entice consumers, through visual rhetoric, to have soft and shiny hair like her.

Rhyme

Rhyme A rhyme is a repetition of similar sounding words occurring at the end of lines in poems or songs. A rhyme is a tool utilizing repeating patterns that brings rhythm or musicality in poems which differentiate them from prose which is plain. A rhyme is employed for the specific purpose of rendering a pleasing effect to a poem which makes its recital an enjoyable experience. Moreover, it offers itself as a mnemonic device smoothing the progress of memorization. For instance, all nursery rhymes contain rhyming words in order to facilitate learning for children as they enjoy reading them and the presence of repetitive patterns enables them to memorize that particular poem effortlessly. We do not seem to forget the nursery rhymes we learnt as a kid. Below are a few nursery rhyme examples with rhyming words in bold and italics: Baa baa black sheep, have you any wool? Yes sir, yes sir, three bags full! One for the master, one for the dame, And one for the little boy who lives down the lane. Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall, Humpty Dumpty had a great fall. All the King's horses, And all the King's men Couldn't put Humpty together again! Mary had a little lamb its fleece was white as snow; And everywhere that Mary went, the lamb was sure to go. It followed her to school one day, which was against the rule; It made the children laugh and play, to see a lamb at school. And so the teacher turned it out, but still it lingered near, And waited patiently about till Mary did appear. Various Types of Rhyme Poems written in English employ the following kinds of rhyme: Perfect Rhyme A perfect rhyme is a case in which two words rhyme in such a way that their final stressed vowel and all following sounds are identical e.g. sight and light, right and might, rose and dose etc. General Rhyme The term general rhyme refers to a variety of phonetic likeness between words. Bottle and fiddle, cleaver and silver, patter and pitter etc. are examples of syllabic rhyme i.e. words having a similar sounding last syllable but without a stressed vowel Wing and caring, sit and perfect, reflect and subject etc, are examples of imperfect rhyme i.e. a rhyme between a stressed and an unstressed syllable. Assonance or Slant Rhyme exists in words having the same vowel sound e.g. kill and bill, wall and hall, shake and hate etc. Consonance exist in words having the same consonant sound e.g. rabbit and robber, ship and sheep Alliteration or Head Rhyme refers to matching initial consonant sounds e.g. sea and seal, ship and short etc. Eye Rhymes Eye Rhymes, also called sight or spelling rhymes, refer to words having the same spelling but different sounds. In such case, the final syllables have the same spellings but are pronounce differently e.g. cough and bough, love and move etc. Types of Rhyme According to Position Classification of rhymes may be based on their positions such as the following examples of rhyme. Example #1 "Twinkle, twinkle little star How I wonder what you are" Classification: Tail Rhyme This is the most common type of rhyme. It occurs in the final syllable of a verse or line. Example #2 "Just turn me loose let me straddle my old saddle, Underneath the western skies, On my cayuse let me wander over yonder, 'Til I see the mountains rise." Classification: Internal Rhyme This is a type of rhyme in which a word at the end of a verse rhymes with another word in the same line. Example #3 "In Ayrshire hill areas, a cruise, eh, lass?" "Inertia, hilarious, accrues, hélas!" Classification: Holo-rhyme This is a type of rhyme in which all the words of two entire lines rhyme. Example #4 "Had I but lived a hundred years ago I might have gone, as I have gone this year, By Warmwell Cross on to a Cove I know, And Time have placed his finger on me there" Classification: Cross rhyme This refers to matching sounds at the end of intervening lines. Function of Rhyme As discussed above, a rhyme serves two distinct functions in the art of writing poetry: 1. It gives poetry a typical symmetry that differentiates poetry from prose. 2. It makes recital of poetry a pleasurable experience for the readers as the repetitive patterns renders musicality and rhythm to it W.H Auden gives his views on the function of rhyme and other tools of prosody saying that these are like servants that a master uses in the ways he wants.

Prose

Prose Prose is a form of language that has no formal metrical structure. It applies a natural flow of speech, and ordinary grammatical structure rather than rhythmic structure, such as in the case of traditional poetry. Normal every day speech is spoken in prose and most people think and write in prose form. Prose comprises of full grammatical sentences which consist of paragraphs and forgoes aesthetic appeal in favor of clear, straightforward language. It can be said to be the most reflective of conversational speech. Some works of prose do have versification and a blend of the two formats that is called prose poetry. Example of a Poetry Verse Read this from "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" written by Robert Frost. "The woods are lovely, dark and deep. But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep." Prose Form "The woods look lovely against the setting darkness and as I gaze into the mysterious depths of the forest, I feel like lingering here longer. However, I have pending appointments to keep and much distance to cover before I settle in for the night or else I will be late for all of them." The above paragraph is conveying a similar message but it is conveyed in ordinary language, without a formal metrical structure to bind it. Some Common Types of Prose 1. Nonfictional Prose: A literary work that is mainly based on fact although it may contain fictional elements in certain cases. Examples are biographies and essays. 2. Fictional Prose: A literary work that is wholly or partly imagined or theoretical. Examples are novels. 3. Heroic Prose: A literary work that may be written down or recited and employs many of the formulaic expressions found in oral tradition. Examples are legends and tales. 4. Prose Poetry: A literary work which exhibits poetic quality using emotional effects and heightened imagery but are written in prose instead of verse. Prose Examples in Popular Literature Prose in Novels This is usually written in the form of a narrative and may be entirely a figment of the author's imagination. Example #1 "It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen." 1984 - George Orwell Example #2 "Whether I shall turn out to be the hero of my own life, or whether that station will be held by anybody else, these pages must show." David Copperfield - Charles Dickens Example #3 "Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way." Anna Karenina - Leo Tolstoy These examples of prose have been taken from novels where writers have employed their imaginations. They are examples of fictional prose. Prose in Speeches Prose used in speeches often expresses thoughts and ideas of the speaker. Example #1 "You can see that there is no easy walk to freedom anywhere, and many of us will have to pass through the valley of the shadow (of death) again and again before we reach the mountain tops of our desires." - Nelson Mandela Example #2 "The poor are very great people. They can teach us so many beautiful things." - Mother Teresa Example #3 "As for the marriage laws, they are due for a sweeping reform, and an excellent beginning would be to wipe the existing ones off the books." - Shirley Chisholm These prose examples have been taken from speeches where prose is often crispy and persuasive and suits the occasion to convey a specific message. Prose in Plays Prose written in plays aims to be dramatic and eventful. Example #1 "You can be young without money, but you can't be old without it." - "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof" - Tennessee Williams Example #2 "All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players. " - "As You Like It" - Shakespeare It is often in conversational mode and is delivered by a character. However, its style stays the same throughout the play according to the personality of the character. Functions of Prose While there have been many critical debates over the correct and valid construction of prose, the reason for its adoption can be attributed to its loosely defined structure which most writers feel comfortable using when expressing, or conveying their ideas and thoughts. It is the standard style of writing used for most spoken dialogues, fictional as well as topical and factual writing and discoursed. It is also the common language used in newspapers, magazines, literature, encyclopedias, broadcasting, philosophy, law, history, the sciences and many other forms of communication.

Pun

Pun Pun Definition A pun is a play on words in which a humorous effect is produced by using a word that suggests two or more meanings or by exploiting similar sounding words having different meanings. Humorous effects created by puns depend upon the ambiguities words entail. The ambiguities arise mostly in homophones and homonyms. For instance, in a sentence "A happy life depends on a liver", liver can refer to the organ liver or simply the person who lives. Similarly, in a famous saying "Atheism is a non-prophet institution" the word "prophet" is used instead of "profit" to produce a humorous effect. Common Pun Examples In everyday life, pun examples are found intentionally or accidentally used in jokes and witty remarks. Such as: The life of a patient of hypertension is always at steak. Why do we still have troops in Germany? To keep the Russians in Czech. A horse is a very stable animal. Time flies like an arrow. Fruit flies like a banana. An elephant's opinion carries a lot of weight. What is the difference between a conductor and a teacher? The conductor minds the train and a teacher trains the mind. Examples of Pun in Literature In literature, puns have been used by famous writers in their literary works. Example #1 In constructing puns, William Shakespeare was a master craftsman. We find many examples of puns in his plays. Let us have a look at some of them: "It is the unkindest tied that ever any man tied."(Richard III) "winter of our discontent...made glorious summer by this Son of York."(Richard III) Romeo: "Not I, believe me. You have dancing shoes with nimble soles; I have a soul of lead" (Romeo and Juliet) Claudius: "...But now, my cousin Hamlet, and my son..." Hamlet: [aside] "A little more than kin, and less than kind. (Kindred)" (Hamlet) Example #2 John Donne's "A Hymn to God the Father" has several examples of pun. Read the following lines: "When Thou hast done, Thou hast not done for I have more. That at my death Thy Son / Shall shine as he shines now, and heretofore And having done that, Thou hast done; I fear no more." He is playing with his name Donne and with the name of his wife Anne More. Besides, he uses Son, referring to the Christ, instead of sun. Example #3 Oscar Wilde employs puns in his play "Importance of being Earnest". Jack Earnest tells Aunt Augusta in Act III: "On the contrary, Aunt Augusta, I've now realised for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest" Similarly, in Act III we see Jack puns his family name again: "I always told you, Gwendolen, my name was Ernest, didn't I? Well, it is Ernest after all. I mean it naturally is Ernest." Here Jack discovers his father name which makes him truly earnest. Example #4 Charles Dickens plays around with words in his novel "Great Expectations". In his opening chapter "Pip" says: "They seemed to think the opportunity lost, if they failed to point the conversation to me, every now and then, and stick the point into me" Note the pun in the use of the word "point". We see another interesting example in Chapter 2: "Tickler was a wax-ended piece of cane, worn smooth by collision with my tickled frame." The writer puns the word "tickle". Example #5 We notice a unique use of multilingual puns in Vladimir Nabokov's "Lolita". For example, the name of a character "Humbert" is a pun in two languages. In French it means "Shadow" and in Spanish it means "man". Similarly, "Lolita" changing her name to "Dolores" which means pain in Latin and her nick name "Dolly" refers to a toy in English. Function of Pun Apart from being witty and humorous, puns add profound meanings to texts and shape the way in which the text is interpreted by the readers. By playing with the words, the writers reveal their cleverness and the cleverness of their characters. Besides, puns in a literary works act as a source of comic relief or an intentional effort on the part of the writer to show his/her creative ability in using language.

Rhetorical question

Rhetorical Question A rhetorical question is asked just for effect or to lay emphasis on some point discussed when no real answer is expected. A rhetorical question may have an obvious answer but the questioner asks rhetorical questions to lay emphasis to the point. In literature, a rhetorical question is self-evident and used for style as an impressive persuasive device. Broadly speaking, a rhetorical question is asked when the questioner himself knows the answer already or an answer is not actually demanded. So, an answer is not expected from the audience. Such a question is used to emphasize a point or draw the audience's attention. Common Rhetorical Question Examples Rhetorical questions, though almost needless or meaningless, seem a basic need of daily language. Some common examples of rhetorical questions from daily life are as follows. "Who knows?" "Are you stupid?" "Did you hear me?" "Ok?" "Why not?" Mostly, it is easy to spot a rhetorical question because of its position in the sentence. It occurs immediately after the comment made and states the opposite of it. The idea again is to make a point more prominent. Some rhetorical question examples are as follows. Keep in mind that they are also called tag questions if used in everyday conversation. "It's too hot today. Isn't it?" "The actors played the roles well. Didn't they?" Examples of Rhetorical Questions in Literature Rhetorical questions in literature are as important as they are in daily language or perhaps even more. The reason is that the significant change a rhetorical question can bring about. The absence or presence of a rhetorical question in some of the most famous lines in literature would change the impact altogether. Some examples of rhetorical questions in literature show that writers sometimes ask such type of question and then goes on to answer it to produce a desired effects. Example #1 A very good example of rhetorical questions in literature is from Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. Have a look and feel the difference the absence of the two rhetorical questions could have made. JULIET: "Thou art thyself, though not a Montague. Montague? It is nor hand, nor foot, Nor arm, nor face, nor any other part Belonging to a man. O, be some other name! What's in a name? That which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet." Example #2 Percy Bysshe Shelley ends his masterpiece Ode to the West Wind with a rhetorical question. "O Wind, If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?" The poet achieves the desired effect by asking this rhetorical question instead of making a statement. The answer to this question is not sought; rather, an effect is successfully created giving a fine finishing touch to the ode. Example #3 Mrs. Hladia Porter Stewart in her poem Creation employs rhetorical questions to create effect and achieve the desired appeal of the poem. "What made you think of love and tears And birth and death and pain?" Without rhetorical questions in the poem, it could have been impossible for the poetess to express herself as impressively as she does using rhetorical questions. Example #4 The clarifying aspect of the poem The Solitary Reaper by William Wordsworth is enhanced with the use of a rhetorical question. "Will no one tell me what she sings?" Notice, an answer is not expected to this question. The poet prefers a rhetorical question to a plain statement to emphasize his feelings of pleasant surprise. Example #5 The Merchant of Venice by Shakespeare also has the effective use of rhetorical questions. Following are some of the most famous rhetorical questions by Shylock in the play. Shylock: "If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge?" The questions don't necessarily need an answer. They are neither questions nor plain statements rather something in between the two. Function of a Rhetorical Question Writers employ rhetorical questions for rhetorical effects and we cannot easily quantify the impact rendered by a rhetorical question. The idea becomes all the more powerful, and our interest is aroused to continue to read and enjoy the technical and aesthetic beauty that a rhetorical question generates. Moreover, it is a requirement in persuasive speeches.

Rhythm

Rhythm The word rhythm is derived from rhythmos (Greek) which means, "measured motion". Rhythm is a literary device which demonstrates the long and short patterns through stressed and unstressed syllables particularly in verse form. Types of rhythm English poetry makes use of five important rhythms. These rhythms are of different patterns of stressed (/) and unstressed (x) syllables. Each unit of these types is called foot. Here are the five types of rhythm: 1. Iamb (x /) This is the most commonly used. It consists of two syllables. The first syllable is not stressed while the second syllable is stressed. Such as "compare" in "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?" 2. Trochee (/ x) A trochee is type of poetic foot which is usually used in English poetry. It has two syllables. The first syllable is strongly stressed while the second syllable is unstressed, as given below. "Tell me not, in mournful numbers" (Psalm of Life by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) 3. Spondee (/ /) Spondee is a poetic foot which has two syllables that are consecutively stressed. For example: "White founts falling in the Courts of the sun" (Lepanto by G.K. Chesterton) 4. Dactyl (/ x x) Dactyl is made up of three syllables. The first syllable is stressed and the remaining two syllables are not stressed such as the word "marvelous". For example: "This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks," (Evangeline by Longfellow) The words "primeval" and "murmuring" show dactyls in this line. 5. Anapest (x x /) Anapests are totally opposites of the dactyls. They have three syllables; where the first two syllables are not stressed while the last syllable is stressed. For example: "Twas the night before Christmas, and all through the house," Examples of Rhythm in Literature English literature is full of rhythmical poems and pieces of prose. There are many poets and authors who have used rhythm in their works. Just have a look at some examples: Example #1 Two households, both alike in dignity, In fair Verona, where we lay our scene, From ancient grudge break to new mutiny, Where civil blood makes civil hands unclean. From forth the fatal loins of these two foes A pair of star-cross'd lovers take their life; (Romeo Juliet by Shakespeare) There are ten syllables in iamb pentameter, where the second syllable is accented or stressed. As in above mentioned lines the stressed syllables are expressed in bold. Example #2 "And Life-blood streaming fresh; wide was the wound." (Paradise Lost by Milton) Milton has used spondee in his entire epic poem. The spondaic meter is explicitly visible in the words like "wide was". However, the remaining line is iambic pentameter. Example #3 DOU-ble, / DOU-ble / TOIL and / TROU-ble; FI-re / BURN, and / CAL-dron / BUB-ble. (Macbeth by Shakespeare) These two lines are taken from Macbeth. The chorus of the witches' spell shows a perfect example of trochees. Stressed pattern is shown in capitals. Example #4 Why so pale and wan, fond Lover? Prithee why so pale? Will, when looking well can't move her, Looking ill prevail? Prithee why so pale? (Song by Sir John Suckling) Sir John has written this poem in trochaic meter. Here the stressed or accented syllables of trochaic pattern are shown in bold-face types. This poem gives strong rhythmical effect. Example #5 Tyger! Tyger! burning bright In the forests of the night, What immortal hand or eye Could frame thy fearful symmetry? (Tiger by William Blake) The trochees are perfectly used in this poem by William Blake; here first syllables in the words "tyger tyger burning, forests" are stressed; however the second syllables are unstressed. Example #6 "Half a League, Half a League" (The Charge of the Light Brigade by Tennyson) This single line is an example of dactylic pattern as one stressed syllable is followed by two unstressed syllables like "HALF a league, HALF a league". Function of Rhythm Rhythm in writing acts as beat does in music. The use of rhythm in poetry arises from the need that some words are to be produced more strongly than others. They might be stressed for longer period of time. Hence, the repeated use of rhythmical patterns of such accent produces rhythmical effect which sounds pleasant to the mind as well as to the soul. In speech, rhythm is used unconsciously to create identifiable patterns. Moreover, rhythm captivates the audience and readers alike by giving musical effect to a speech or a literary piece.

Sarcasm

Sarcasm Sarcasm is derived from French word sarcasmor and also from a Greek word sarkazein that means "tear flesh" or "grind the teeth". Somehow, in simple words it means to speak bitterly. Generally, the literal meaning is different than what the speaker intends to say through sarcasm. Sarcasm is a literary and rhetorical device that is meant to mock with often satirical or ironic remarks with a purpose to amuse and hurt someone or some section of society simultaneously. For instance: "I didn't attend the funeral, but I sent a nice letter saying I approved of it." (Mark Twain) Types of Sarcasm Sarcasm often depends upon the voice tone. There are seven types: Self-Deprecating Sarcasm - This category of sarcasm expresses an overstated sense of inferiority and worthlessness. Brooding Sarcasm - In this criticism, the speaker utters something polite. However, the tone of his speech has a marked bitterness in it. Deadpan Sarcasm - It is expressed without emotion or laughter making it difficult for the listener to judge whether the speaker is joking or mocking. Polite Sarcasm - A speaker is said to have delivered a polite sarcasm when his listeners only get to realize that his kind remark was a sarcastic one after they had given it some thought. Obnoxious Sarcasm - This kind of sarcasm makes people feel like punching the speaker in the face. It is not very funny and it gets under your skin. Manic Sarcasm - This type of sarcasm is delivered in an unnatural happy mood that it makes the speaker look like he has gone crazy. Raging Sarcasm - This kind of sarcasm relies mainly on exaggeration and violent threats. Examples of Sarcasm in Literature There are so many examples of sarcasm in literature, just have a look at some of these: Example #1 "Friends, countrymen, lend me your ears." (Julius Caesar by Shakespeare) Mark Antony repeatedly uses the phrase "honorable man" In this speech several times, talking of Brutus' actions (who has murdered Caesar) were nothing except honorable. His repetition of this phrase completely reverses the literal meanings of the phrase. Example #2 "Thrift, thrift, Horatio! The funeral bak'd meats did coldly furnish forth the marriage tables." (Hamlet Act 1 Scene 2, by Shakespeare) The most disturbing issue to Hamlet in the play is his mother's marriage to his uncle. While talking to Horatio in a sarcastic manner, Hamlet sums up the ridiculous affairs using this statement. Example #3 "Good fences make good neighbors." (Mending walls by Robert Frost) This line points out in a sarcastic way two neighbors who have made a wall between them. However this wall falls apart every winter, therefore the neighbors meet and mend this wall, hence they spend more time together in this way. Example #4 "Two roads diverged in a wood, and I, I took the one less traveled by, and that has made all the difference." (Road not taken by Robert Frost) The poet is talking about two roads, one is less traveled by and one is chosen by the majority. He had taken the less-traveled one. He uses sarcastic remarks that he feels regret for having chosen this path or road which made a difference. Example #5 A FRERE ther was, a wantown and a merye, A limitour, a ful solempne man, So muche of daliaunce and fair langage. He hadde maad ful many a mariage Of yonge wommen, at his owne cost. Ful wel biloved and famulier was he With frankeleyns over-al in his contree, He wiste that a man was repentaunt. For many a man so hard is of his herte, (Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer) Here Chaucer describes the character of friar in a sarcastic manner, he is a clergyman, who accepts bribes from wealthy people of the town .He uses money on merry making and women that he takes from confessions; and doesn't care about the people. Example #6 "Wherefore art thou, Romeo?" (Romeo and Juliet by Shakespeare) This is the central conflict in this play, when Juliet sarcastically asks Romeo that why his name is Romeo since they could never be together as their families were enemies. Function of Sarcasm Sarcasm can be used for many purposes. However, in most of the cases, it is utilized as a mask or scathe. Others use it as a defensive mechanism. It is used when bitterness is hard to express in a pleasant way or the objective is to say something without hurting somebody directly. The basic purpose of sarcasm in literary works is to bring a flavor in order to make the stories seem real to the readers.

Satire

Satire Satire is a technique employed by writers to expose and criticize foolishness and corruption of an individual or a society by using humor, irony, exaggeration or ridicule. It intends to improve humanity by criticizing its follies and foibles. A writer in a satire uses fictional characters, which stand for real people, to expose and condemn their corruption. A writer may point a satire toward a person, a country or even the entire world. Usually, a satire is a comical piece of writing which makes fun of an individual or a society to expose its stupidity and shortcomings. In addition, he hopes that those he criticizes will improve their characters by overcoming their weaknesses. Satire and Irony Satire and irony are interlinked. Irony is the difference between what is said or done and what is actually meant. Therefore, writers frequently employ satire to point at the dishonesty and silliness of individuals and society and criticize them by ridiculing them. Examples of Satire in Everyday Life Most political cartoons which we witness every day in newspapers and magazines are examples of satire. These cartoons criticize some recent actions of political figures in a comical way. Some shows on television are satire examples like The Daily Show, The Colbert Report, and The Larry Sanders Show. These shows claim to target what they think are stupid political and social viewpoints. Let us see a sample of Stephen Colbert's social satire: "If this is going to be a Christian nation that doesn't help the poor, either we have to pretend that Jesus was just as selfish as we are, or we've got to acknowledge that He commanded us to love the poor and serve the needy without condition and then admit that we just don't want to do it." Satire Examples in Literature Example #1 There are numerous examples of satire in Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn. He uses satire as a tool to share his ideas and opinion on slavery, human nature and many other issues that afflicted American society at that time. Below are a few citations from the novel that demonstrate satire: "What's the use you learning to do right, when it's troublesome to do right and isn't no trouble to do wrong, and the wages is just the same?" (Chap 16) "There warn't anybody at the church, except maybe a hog or two, for there warn't any lock on the door, and hogs likes a puncheon floor in summer-time because it's cool. If you notice, most folks don't go to church only when they've got to; but a hog is different." (Chap 18) "The pitifulest thing out is a mob; that's what an army is-a mob; they don't fight with courage that's born in them, but with courage that's borrowed from their mass, and from their officers. But a mob without any man at the head of it is beneath pitifulness." (chap 22) Example #2 Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock is an example of poetic satire in which he has satirized the upper middle class of eighteenth century England. It exposes the vanity of young fashionable ladies and gentlemen and the frivolity of their actions. For example, Pope says about Belinda after losing her lock of hair: "Whether the nymph shall break Diana's law, Or some frail china jar receive a flaw, Or stain her honor, or her new brocade" The line mocks at the values of the fashionable class of that age. The trivial things were thought of as equal to significant things. For Belinda, the loss of her virtue becomes equal to a China jar being cracked. Example #3 Jonathan Swift's Gulliver Travels is one of the finest satirical works in English Literature. Swift relentlessly satirizes politics, religion, and Western Culture. Criticizing party politics in England, Swift writes, "that for above seventy Moons past there have been two struggling Parties in this Empire, under the Names of Tramecksan and Slamecksan from the high and low Heels on their shoes, by which they distinguish themselves." During Swift's times, two rival political parties, the Whigs and the Tories, dominated the English political scene. Similarly, "The Kingdom of Lilliput" is dominated by two parties distinguished by the size of the heels of their boots. By the trivial disputes between the two Lilliputian parties", Swift satirizes the minor disputes of the two English parties of his period. Function of Satire The role of satire is to ridicule or criticize those vices in the society, which the writer considers a threat to civilization. The writer considers it his obligation to expose these vices for the betterment of humanity. Therefore, the function of satire is not to make others laugh at persons or ideas they make fun of. It intends to warn the public and to change their opinions about the prevailing corruption/conditions in society.

Simile

Simile A simile is a figure of speech that makes a comparison, showing similarities between two different things. Unlike a metaphor, a simile draws resemblance with the help of the words "like" or "as". Therefore, it is a direct comparison. We can find simile examples in our daily speech. We often hear comments like "John is as slow as a snail." Snails are notorious for their slow pace and here the slowness of John is compared to that of a snail. The use of "as" in the example helps to draw the resemblance. Some more examples of common similes are given below. Common Examples of Simile Our soldiers are as brave as lions. Her cheeks are red like a rose. He is as funny as a monkey. The water well was as dry as a bone. He is as cunning as a fox. Simile inputs vividness into what we say. Authors and poets utilize comparisons to convey their sentiments and thoughts through vivid word pictures like a simile. Simile Examples in Literature Example #1 Written by Joseph Conrad, "I would have given anything for the power to soothe her frail soul, tormenting itself in its invincible ignorance like a small bird beating about the cruel wires of a cage." The lines have been taken from Lord Jim. The helplessness of the soul is being compared with a bird in a cage beating itself against the merciless wires of the cage, to be free. Example #2 In her novel To the Lighthouse, Virginia Woolf compares the velocity of her thoughts about the two men with that of spoken words. ". . . impressions poured in upon her of those two men, and to follow her thought was like following a voice which speaks too quickly to be taken down by one's pencil . . ." She says both are difficult to follow and cannot be copied in words by a pencil. Example #3 Taken from a short story Lolita written by Vladimir Nabokov, "Elderly American ladies leaning on their canes listed toward me like towers of Pisa." This simile produces a humorous effect by comparing old women leaning on walking sticks with the ancient leaning tower of Pisa. Example #4 Robert Burns uses a simile to describe the beauty of his beloved. "O my Luve's like a red, red rose That's newly sprung in June; O my Luve's like the melodie That's sweetly played in tune." He says that his love is a fresh red rose that blossoms in the spring. Example #5 Taken from the poem the Daffodils. "I wandered lonely as a cloud that floats on high o'er vales and hills." The poet envisions himself as a free lone cloud that floats in a blue sky above valleys and the mountains. By choosing this simile, Wordsworth describes his loneliness. Example #6 A significant thing to consider here is that at times simile is drawn without using "as" or "like". Consider the following example, "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? / Thou art more lovely and more temperate" (William Shakespeare, Sonnet 18) In the above example, we see a comparison being drawn between the poet's darling and "a summer's day" not using "as" or "like". However, it is not a metaphor. The use of the word "compare" makes the comparison a simile. Function of Simile From the above discussion, we can infer the function of similes both in our everyday life as well as in literature. Using similes attracts the attention and appeals directly to the senses of listeners or readers encouraging their imagination to comprehend what is being communicated. In addition, it inspires life-like quality in our daily talks and in the characters of fiction or poetry. Simile allows readers to relate the feelings of a writer or a poet to their personal experiences. Therefore, the use of similes makes it easier for the readers to understand the subject matter of a literary text, which may have been otherwise too demanding to be comprehended. Like metaphors, similes also offer variety in our ways of thinking and offers new perspectives of viewing the world.

Sonnet

Sonnet The word sonnet is derived from the Italian word "sonetto". It means a small or little song or lyric. In poetry, a sonnet has 14 fourteen lines and is written in iambic pentameter. Each line has 10 syllables. It has a specific rhyme scheme and a "volta" or a specific turn. Generally, sonnets are divided into different groups based on the rhyme scheme they follow. The rhymes of a sonnet are arranged according to a certain rhyme scheme. The rhyme scheme in English is usually abab-cdcd-efef-gg and in Italian abba-abba-cde-cde. Types of Sonnet The sonnets can be categorized into six major types: Italian Sonnet Shakespearean Sonnet Spenserian Sonnet Miltonic Sonnet Terza Rima Sonnet Curtal Sonnet Examples of Sonnets in literature Let us take a look at the examples of sonnets in Literature based on its different categories: 1. Italian or Petrarchan Sonnet Italian or Petrarchan sonnet was introduced by an Italian poet Francesco Petrarch of 14th century. Being one day at my window all alone, So manie strange things happened me to see, As much as it grieveth me to thinke thereon. At my right hand a hynde appear'd to mee, So faire as mote the greatest god delite; Two eager dogs did her pursue in chace. Of which the one was blacke, the other white: With deadly force so in their cruell race They pincht the haunches of that gentle beast, That at the last, and in short time, I spide, Under a rocke, where she alas, opprest, Fell to the ground, and there untimely dide. Cruell death vanquishing so noble beautie Oft makes me wayle so hard a desire. (Visions by Francesco Petrarch) The rhyme scheme of Petrarchan sonnet has first eight lines called octet that rhymes as abba -abba -cdc-dcd. The remaining six lines called sestet might have a range of rhyme schemes. 2. Shakespearean Sonnet A Shakespearean sonnet is generally written in an iambic pentameter, there are 10 syllables in each line. The rhythm of the lines must be as below: From fairest creatures we desire increase, That thereby beauty's rose might never die. But as the riper should by time decease, His tender heir might bear his memory: But thou, contracted to thine own bright eyes, Feed'st thy light's flame with self-substantial fuel, Making a famine where abundance lies, Thyself thy foe, to thy sweet self too cruel. Thou that art now the world's fresh ornament And only herald to the gaudy spring, Within thine own bud buriest thy content And, tender churl, mak'st waste in niggarding. Pity the world, or else this glutton be, To eat the world's due, by the grave and thee (William Shakespeare) The rhyme scheme of Shakespearian sonnet is abab-cdcd-efef-gg and this is difficult to follow. Hence only Shakespeare is known to have done it. 3. Spenserian Sonnet Sir Edmund Spenser was the first poet who modified the Petrarch's form and introduced a new rhyme scheme as follows: What guile is this, that those her golden tresses She doth attire under a net of gold; And with sly skill so cunningly them dresses, That which is gold or hair, may scarce be told? Is it that men's frail eyes, which gaze too bold, She may entangle in that golden snare; And being caught may craftily enfold Their weaker hearts, which are not yet well aware? Take heed therefore, mine eyes, how ye do stare Henceforth too rashly on that guileful net, In which if ever ye entrapped are, Out of her bands ye by no means shall get. Folly it were for any being free, To covet fetters, though they golden be. (From Amoretti by Edmund Spenser) The rhyme scheme in this sonnet is abab-bcbc-cdcd-ee which is specific to Spenser and such types of sonnets are called Spenserian sonnets. Function of Sonnet The sonnet has become popular among different poets because it has a great adaptability to different purposes and requirements. Rhythms are strictly followed. It could be a perfect poetic style for elaboration or expression of a single feeling or thought with its short length in iambic pentameter. In fact, it gives an ideal laboratory to a poet for exploration of strong emotions. Due to its short length, it is easy to manage for both the writer and the reader.

Soliloquy

Soliloquy A soliloquy is a popular literary device often used in drama to reveal the innermost thoughts of a character. It is a great technique used to convey the progress of action of the play by means of expressing a character's thoughts about a certain character or past, present or upcoming event while talking to himself without acknowledging the presence of any other person. The word soliloquy is derived from Latin word "solo" which means "to himself" and "loquor" means "I speak" respectively. A soliloquy is often used as a means of character revelation or character manifestation to the reader or the audience of the play. Due to a lack of time and space, it was sometimes considered essential to present information about the plot and to expose the feelings and intentions of the characters. Dramatists made extensive use of soliloquies in their plays but it has become outdated, though some playwrights still use it in their plays. Soliloquy examples abound during the Elizabethan era. Soliloquy and Monologue Sometimes soliloquy is wrongly mixed up with monologue and aside. These two techniques are distinctly different from a soliloquy. Although, like soliloquy, a monologue is a speech, the purpose and presentation of both is different. In a monologue, a character usually makes a speech in the presence of other characters, while in a soliloquy, the character or speaker speaks to himself. By doing so, the character keeps these thoughts secret from the other characters of the play. An aside on the other hand, is a short comment by a character towards the audience for another character usually without his knowing about it. Examples of Soliloquy from Literature Shakespeare made extensive use of soliloquies in his plays. But before Shakespeare, we find considerable use of this significant dramatic technique in Christopher Marlow's play Doctor Faustus . Modern plays do not have as much examples of soliloquy as the Renaissance era. Example #1 "Yet art thou still but Faustus and a man" In the first soliloquy of Doctor Faustus, Marlow has nicely summed up Faustus' life, motives, intentions and growth of his ideas that took place before the start of action. An extra-ordinary ambitious soul of Doctor Faustus is revealed here who was not satisfied with the existing branches of knowledge and needed something beyond the powers of man. Example #2 "Fair Nature's eye, rise, rise again, and make Perpetual day; or let this hour be but A year, a month, a week, a natural day, That Faustus may repent and save his soul!" (Dr. Faustus by Christopher Marlow) These lines are taken from his last soliloquy where Faustus makes an appeal in the last hour's anguish to stop whatever was done. Example #3 "To be, or not to be-that is the question: Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune ...................................................." (Hamlet by William Shakespeare) Hamlet is in a state of mind that only Shakespeare can describe through his magnificent pen. Uncertain, reluctant Prince Hamlet was literally unable to do anything but merely wait to "catch the conscience of the king" to complete his supposed plan. Example #4 "O Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore art thou Romeo? Deny thy father and refuse thy name; Or, if thou wilt not, be but sworn my love, And I'll no longer be a Capulet." (Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare) Juliet was thinking aloud about the traditional enmity between Romeo's clan and her family, expressing her hopelessness about the success of their love. Example #5 "Peace. It is providence, and no great change; we are only what we always were, but naked now. . . Aye, naked! And the wind, God's icy wind will blow." (The Crucible by Arthur Miller) Although modern plays hardly use any soliloquies, The Crucible has some used in the second act. This short form of soliloquy comes at the end of Act 2 where John Proctor faces the open sky when talking to Mary Warren. Function of Soliloquy A soliloquy in a play is a great dramatic technique or tool that intends to reveal the inner working of the character. No other technique can perform the function of supplying essential progress of the action of the story better than a soliloquy. It is used not only to convey the development of the play to the audience but also provide an opportunity to see inside the mind of a certain character.

Superlative

Superlative Superlative is a literary device which is usually an adjective or adverb used to distinguish an object from three or more others of its type. Superlative is used in both literary as well as scientific writing to emphasize certain objects, persons, places or events, which have unique or extraordinary attributes. The term superlative can only be applied when three or more objects are compared. Superlatives are usually formed by adding the suffix -est to most adjectives and adverbs, or adding "most" or "least" before them. Some common examples of superlative are given below. My cousin is the tallest among the giants Ellen DeGeneres gave the funniest commencement speech in the history of our university. Which do you suppose is the most difficult language to learn? Superlative and Adjective/Adverb It is important to note here that superlatives should not be confused with comparative adjectives and adverbs. In comparative adjectives or adverbs, you compare two objects while the superlative comparison is between three or more objects. Examples of Superlative from Literature Example #1 "While I may scape, I will preserve myself: and am bethought To take the basest and most poorest shape, That ever penury, in contempt of man, Brought near to beast." (King Lear, Act Two, Scene 3 by William Shakespeare) Just observe the italicized words. Here the double superlative has been used by Shakespeare. Example #2 Sweetest Love! I do not go For weariness of thee, Nor in hope the world can shew A fitter love for me; (Song by John Donne) John Donne employed some of the most beautiful usage of superlatives in his famous poems such as one given here: "Sweetest Love". Example #3 Or if when thou, the world's soul, goest It stay,'t is but thy carcase then, The fairest woman but thy ghost, But corrupt worms the worthiest men. (A Fever by John Donne) The words in bold are two superlative examples. Example #4 "Mama, who has the most worms?" heasked. Mama smiled."Max, your can is full of the liveliest worms. And Julian, your can has the juiciest." (I Love You the Purplest by Barbara M. Joosse) Barbara M. Joosse has used some beautiful examples of superlatives in her "I Love You the Purplest" in 1996. Example #5 "It has the longest rides of any subway in the world, the biggest stations, the fastest trains, the most track, the most passengers, the most police officers. It also has the filthiest trains, the most bizarre graffiti, the noisiest wheels, the craziest passengers, the wildest crimes." (Subterranean Gothic by Paul Theroux) Paul Theroux, in "Subterranean Gothic", makes a very interesting use of superlative as can be seen in this paragraph. Example #5 "It is turning out to be the most beautiful, most quiet, largest, most generous, sky-vaulted summer I've ever seen or known-inordinately blue, with greener leaves and taller trees than I can remember, and the sound of the lawnmowers all over this valley is a sound I could hum to forever." Another amusing example of superlatives can be found in "The Anthologist" by Nicholson Baker as shown in the above excerpt. Function of Superlative A superlative is used to indicate an extreme or unsurpassed level of emotions, association, or hatred for an object or a person or even an event. Particularly, in literature, it is used to show the best or the worst of something to add color or romance to a literary piece.

Synesthesia

Synesthesia In literature, synesthesia refers to a technique adopted by writers to present ideas, characters or places in such a manner that they appeal to more than one senses like hearing, seeing, smell etc. at a given time. Generally, the term synesthesia refers to a certain medical condition in which one of the five senses simultaneously stimulates another sense. A person with such condition may not only see alphabets but also associate them with particular scents. This happens when the different parts of the brain that are responsible in identifying color, sound, taste, and smell somehow get interlinked and thus one sense triggers another sense. Everyday Life Examples of Synesthesia In everyday language, we find many examples of synesthesia such as the frequently used adjective "cool". This word is generally associated with temperature. However, in casual conversations, ne can hear phrases like "cool dress" , "cool colors" or "you are looking cool" wherein the visual sensation is blended with the sense of touch. Moreover, we commonly hear phrases like "loud colors", "frozen silence" and "warm colors", "bitter cold" etc. Synesthesia Examples in Literature In literature, synesthesia is a figurative use of words that intends to draw out a response from readers stimulating multiple senses. Example #1 Dante's The Devine Comedy contains one of the good synesthesia examples in literature. In the first canto, the poet tells us about a place called "Inferno". He says, "Back to the region where the sun is silent." Here, Dante binds the sense of sight (sun) with the sense of hearing(silent). Example #2 We notice synesthetic imageries in John Keats Ode to a Nightingale: "Tasting of Flora and the country green, Dance, and Provencal song, and sun burnt mirth!" In the above example, Keats combines visual sensation with gustatory and auditory sensations. In the same poem, he further states: "In some melodious plot, Of beechen green, Singest of summer in full throated ease." Keats associates the act of melodious singing with a plot covered with green beechen trees and thus connects visual sense with the sense of hearing. Example #3 We see Shakespeare employing synesthetic device in play King Lear Act 2, Scene 2: "Thou art a lady: if only to go warm were gorgeous, Why nature needs not what thou gorgeous wear'st, Which scarcely keeps thee warm." In the above extract, "Lear" makes fun of his daughter "Goneril" for wearing revealing attire. He associates the word "warm" with "gorgeous" which is an attempt to blend the sense of touch with the sense of sight. Example #4 Robert Frost in his poem A Tuft of Flowers uses synesthesia: "The butterfly and I had lit upon, Nevertheless, a message from the dawn, That made me hear the wakening birds around, And hear his long scythe whispering to the ground..." In the above excerpt, the speaker reveals a blend of sensory experiences that the speaker is experiencing. The speaker's visual sense and his sense of hearing make him aware of his surroundings. Example #5 Emily Dickens in her poem Dying: "With blue, uncertain, stumbling buzz, Between the light and me; And then the windows failed, and then could not see to see." Here, the poetess added a visual element of the sound "buzz" by describing it as having blue color. Example #6 The character "Saga" in Julia Glass' novel The Whole World Over has a condition of synesthesia in which she seems to sense colors of the words she reads as illustrated below: "The word would fill her mind for a few minutes with a single color: not an unpleasant sensation but still an intrusion... Patriarch: Brown, she thought, a temple of a word, a shiny red brown, like the surface of a chestnut." These lines are comments spoken by "Duffy" who thinks that Saga's synesthesia is a distraction. Function of Synesthesia Writers employ this device to be creative in communicating their ideas to the readers. It makes their ideas more vivid and adds more layers of meaning to a text for the readers' pleasure. By blending different senses, writers make their works more interesting and appealing.

Tautology

Tautology Tautology is a repetitive use of phrases or words which have similar meanings. In simple words, it is expressing the same thing, an idea or saying two or more times. The word tautology is derived from the Greek word "tauto" (the same) and "logos" (a word or an idea). A grammatical tautology means when an idea is repeated within a phrase, sentence or paragraph to give an impression that the writer is providing extra information. Tautologies are very common in the English language due to the large variety of words it has borrowed from other languages. Given the fact that during its evolution the English language has been greatly influenced by several other languages including Germanic and Latin, it is not uncommon to find several exotic tautologies. Since English has the capacity to borrow words from foreign languages, multiple similar words are used in it and this is how tautologies can often be found in poetry as well as prose. Types of Tautology There are several types of tautology which are commonly used in everyday life, in poetry, in prose, in songs, and in discussions depending on the requirements of a situation. Some of the common categories are: Due to inadequacies in Language Intentional ambiguities Derision As a Poetic Device Psychological significance Used by inept Speakers Examples of Tautology in Literature Tautology is often confused with repetition. Some authorities say the latter uses the same words while the former uses words with similar meanings. That tautology is the repetition not of words but of ideas. Others say, there is no clear distinction between the two. That tautology includes the repetition of words. To understand this better, read the following examples of Tautology. Example #1 "Your acting is completely devoid of emotion." Devoid is defined as "completely empty". Thus, completely devoid is an example of Tautology. Example #2 "Repeat that again" and "reiterate again" To repeat or reiterate something is to do or say something again. Example #3 "Shout It Out Loud!" - Kiss When a person shouts, it is always loud. Example #4 "This is like deja vu all over again" (Yogi Berra) Example #5 The emphatic function of tautology reveals itself as in the example given below: "To Carthage then I came Burning burning burning burning." (T. S. Eliot, The Wasteland) See how Thomas Stern Eliot used the same words in the lines Example #6 In some excerpts, tautology is used intentionally that involves derision inherent in it. "Polonious: What do you read, my lord? Hamlet: Words, words, words." (Hamlet, II: ii] Shakespeare) Here Hamlet has used words in order to show that he is lost in words that Polonius is famous in using. Example #7 As a Poetic Device "Keeping time, time, time, In a sort of Runic rhyme... From the bells, bells, bells, bells." (The Bells by Edgar Allen Poe) "Twit twit twit/ Jug jug jug jug jug jug" (The Wasteland" by T. S. Eliot) "This is the way the world ends This is the way the world ends This is the way the world ends Not with a bang but a whimper." (The Hollow Men by T. S. Eliot) Here, different types of tautologies have been used in a technical way of repetition that dominates others such as figures of speech, imitation and ornamentation. All of above mentioned examples might appear in the daily use of language and also as poetic devices. Example #8 Unlike the artistic inspiration inbuilt in the preceding types of redundancy; here are a couple of tautology examples with psychological implications. The speakers show the acceptance of their destiny in these types of repetition: "If I perish, I perish." (Esther 4:15) "If I be bereaved (of my children), I am bereaved." (Genesis 43:14) Function of Tautology The importance of tautology cannot be denied in modern literary writing. Today, however, writers try to avoid using tautological words and phrases to avoid monotony and repetition. It has almost become a norm to present short and to-the-point language instead of repetitious and redundant piece. Despite it being counted as a major style error, several writers commonly use tautology as a powerful tool to emphasize a particular idea or draw their readers' attention to a certain aspect of life. But it is not always taken as a quality of poor grammar; rather it has been taken as a specific rhetorical device.

Synecdoche

Synecdoche Synecdoche is a literary device in which a part of something represents the whole or it may use a whole to represent a part. Synecdoche may also use larger groups to refer to smaller groups or vice versa. It may also call a thing by the name of the material it is made of or it may refer to a thing in a container or packing by the name of that container or packing. Difference between Synecdoche and Metonymy Synecdoche examples are often misidentified as metonymy (another literary device). Both may resemble each other to some extent but they are not the same. Synecdoche refers to the whole of a thing by the name of any one of its parts. For example, calling a car "wheels" is a synecdoche because a part of a car "wheels" stands for the whole car. However, in metonymy, the word we use to describe another thing is closely linked to that particular thing, but is not necessarily a part of it. For example, "crown" that refers to power or authority is a metonymy used to replace the word "king" or "queen". Synecdoche Examples from Everyday Life It is very common to refer to a thing by the name of its parts. Let us look at some of the examples of synecdoche that we can hear from casual conversations: The word "bread" refers to food or money as in "Writing is my bread and butter" or "sole breadwinner". The phrase "gray beard" refers to an old man. The word "sails" refers to a whole ship. The word "suits" refers to businessmen. The word "boots" usually refers to soldiers. The term "coke" is a common synecdoche for all carbonated drinks. "Pentagon" is a synecdoche when it refers to a few decision makers. The word "glasses" refers to spectacles. "Coppers" often refers to coins. Examples of Synecdoche in Literature Example #1 Coleridge employs synecdoche in his poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner: "The western wave was all a-flame. The day was well was nigh done! Almost upon the western wave Rested the broad bright Sun" The "western wave" is a synecdoche as it refers to the sea by the name of one of its parts i.e. wave. Example #2 Look at the use of synecdoche in the lines taken from Shakespeare's Sonnet 116: "O no! It is an ever-fixed mark That looks on tempests and is never shaken." The phrase "ever-fixed mark" refers to a lighthouse. Example #3 Look how Shelly uses synecdoche in his poem Ozymandias: "Tell that its sculptor well those passions read Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things, The hand that mocked them." "The hand" in the above lines refers to the sculptor who carved the "lifeless things" into a grand statue. Example #4 Observe the use of synecdoche in the following lines from The Secret Sharer by Joseph Conrad: "At midnight I went on deck, and to my mate's great surprise put the ship round on the other tack. His terrible whiskers flitted round me in silent criticism." The word "whiskers" mentioned in the above lines refers to the whole face of the narrator's mate. Example #5 Jonathan Swift in The Description of the Morning uses synecdoche: "Prepar'd to scrub the entry and the stairs. The youth with broomy stumps began to trace." In the above lines the phrase "broomy stumps" refers to the whole broom. Example #6 Note the use of synecdoche in The Lady or the Tiger? by Frank R. Stockton: "His eye met hers as she sat there paler and whiter than anyone in the vast ocean of anxious faces about her." "Faces" refers to people (not just their faces). Function of Synecdoche Literary symbolism is developed by the writers who employ synecdoche in their literary works. By using synecdoche, the writers give otherwise common ideas and objects deeper meanings and thus draw readers' attention. Furthermore, the use of synecdoche helps writers to achieve brevity. For instance, saying "Soldiers were equipped with steel" is more concise than saying "The soldiers were equipped with swords, knives, daggers, arrows etc." Like any other literary device, synecdoche when used appropriately adds a distinct color to words making them appear vivid. To insert this "life" factor to literary works, writers describe simple ordinary things creatively with the aid of this literary device.

Syntax

Syntax Syntax is a set of rules in a language. It dictates how words from different parts of speech are put together in order to convey a complete thought. Syntax and Diction Syntax and diction are closely related. Diction refers to the choice of words in a particular situation while syntax determines how the chosen words are used to form a sentence. Most often than not, adopting a complex diction means a complex syntactic structure of sentences and vice versa. In combination, syntax and diction help writers develop tone, mood and atmosphere in a text along with evoking interest of the readers. Syntax Examples Syntax in Poetry The general word order of an English sentence is "Subject+Verb+Object". In poetry, however, the word order may be shifted to achieve certain artistic effects such as producing rhythm or melody in the lines, achieving emphasis, heightening connection between two words etc. The unique syntax used in poetry makes it different from prose. Let us consider the following examples of syntax: Example #1 In casual conversations, we can simply say, "I cannot go out" to convey our inability to go out. P J Kavanagh's in his poem Beyond Decoration does not rely on merely stating a prosaic "I cannot go out". Rather, he shifts the syntax and says "Go out I cannot", which lays a much stronger emphasis on the inability to go out conveyed by the word "cannot". Example #2 Similarly, Milton shifts words in his poems frequently. Let us analyze lines from his poem Lycidas: "Thee, Shepherd, thee the woods and desert caves, With wild thyme and the gadding vine o'ergrown, And all their echoes mourn" The modified word order in the above lines is Object+Subject+Subject Complement+Verb. Syntax in Prose Syntax affects the nature of a prose text as well. It enhances its meanings and contributes toward its tone. Quickness, decisiveness and speed are added to a text by using short phrase, clauses and sentences. Whereas, in a text where the subject matter is serious that requires contemplation, long, convoluted sentence are used to slow down the pace of a prose text. Example #1 "That night I sat on Tyan-yu's bed and waited for him to touch me. But he didn't. I was relieved." (The Joy Luck Club by Amy Tan) Example #2 "They left me alone and I lay in bed and read the papers awhile, the news from the front, and the list of dead officers with their decorations and then reached down and brought up the bottle of Cinzano and held it straight up on my stomach, the cool glass against my stomach, and took little drinks making rings on my stomach from holding the bottle there between drinks, and watched it get dark outside over the roofs of the town." (A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway) The two syntax examples above show a distinct use of syntax. Amy Tan uses short sentences to communicate in a powerful and concise manner. Ernest Hemingway, on the other hand, uses long and complex structures to emphasize the laziness of his character. Syntax in Shakespeare Writing all of his plays and sonnets in iambic pentameter, Shakespeare habitually reversed the general order of English sentences by placing verbs at the end of the sentences. Example #1 In Romeo and Juliet, he writes, "What light from yonder window breaks?" instead of using a common expression "What light breaks from yonder window?" Example #2 In Richard III, he deliberately reverses the word order of a sentence, "and all the clouds that lowered upon our house buried in the deep bosom of the ocean." into "And all the clouds that lower'd upon our house in the deep bosom of the ocean buried." Function of Syntax To convey meaning is one of the main functions of syntax. In literature, writers utilize syntax and diction to achieve certain artistic effects like mood, tone etc. Like diction, syntax aims to affect the readers as well as express the writer's attitude.

Theme

Theme Theme is defined as a main idea or an underlying meaning of a literary work that may be stated directly or indirectly. Major and Minor Themes Major and minor themes are two types of themes that appear in literary works. A major theme is an idea that a writer repeats in his work, making it the most significant idea in a literary work. A minor theme, on the other hand, refers to an idea that appears in a work briefly and gives way to another minor theme. Examples of theme in Jane Austen's "Pride and Prejudice" are matrimony, love, friendship, and affection. The whole narrative revolves around the major theme of matrimony. Its minor themes are love, friendship, affectation etc. Difference between a Theme and a Subject It is important not to confuse a theme of a literary work with its subject. Subject is a topic which acts as a foundation for a literary work while a theme is an opinion expressed on the subject. For example, a writer may choose a subject of war for his story and the theme of a story may be writer's personal opinion that war is a curse for humanity. Usually, it is up to the readers to explore a theme of a literary work by analyzing characters, plot and other literary devices. Presentation of Themes A writer presents themes in a literary work through several ways. A writer may express a theme through the feelings of his main character about the subject he has chosen to write about. Similarly, themes are presented through thoughts and conversations of different characters. Moreover, the experiences of the main character in the course of a literary work give us an idea about its theme. Finally, the actions and events taking place in a narrative are consequential in determining its theme. Theme Examples in Literature Example #1 Love and friendship are frequently occurring themes in literature. They generate emotional twists and turns in a narrative and can lead to a variety of endings: happy, sad or bittersweet. The following are famous literary works with love and friendship themes: Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy Sense and Sensibility by Jane Austen Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen Example #2 The theme of war has been explored in literature since ancient times. The literary woks utilizing this theme may either glorify or criticize the idea of war. Most recent literary works portray war as a curse for humanity due to the suffering it inflicts. Some famous examples are: Iliad and Odyssey by Homer War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway Arms and the Man by Bernard Shaw A Band of Brothers: Stories from Vietnam by Walter McDonald Example #3 Crime and mystery are utilized in detective novels. Such narratives also include sub-themes such as "crimes cannot be hidden", "evil is always punished" etc. Some well-known crime and mystery theme examples are: The Murders in the Rue Morgue by Edgar Allan Poe Sherlock Holmes by Arthur Conan Doyle Bleak House by Charles Dickens Murder on the Orient Express by Agatha Christie Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown Example #4 Revenge is another recurrent theme found in many popular literary works. A character comes across certain circumstances that make him aware of his need for revenge. The outcome of his action is often bitter but sometimes they may end up being satisfied. Examples are: Hamlet and Macbeth by William Shakespeare The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexander Dumas The Girl Who Kicked the Hornet's Nest by Stieg Larsson A Time to Kill by John Grisham Function of Theme Theme is an element of a story that binds together various other essential elements of a narrative. It is a truth that exhibits universality and stands true for people of all cultures. Theme gives readers better understanding of the main character's conflicts, experiences, discoveries and emotions as they are derived from them. Through themes, a writer tries to give his readers an insight into how the world works or how he or she views human life.

Thesis

Thesis A thesis is a statement in a non-fiction or a fiction work that a writer intends to support and prove. One can find examples of thesis statement at the beginning of literary pieces. These thesis statemets are of utmost importance, as they serve as clear indicators as to which directions writers will follow in their work. A thesis statement is carefully chosen by a writer and is marked by vigilant selection of words that will never miss its target. Generally, such a statement shows up in the first paragraph or what is called an introduction. Despite writers' efforts to prove their thesis statements, not all of these statements can be verified for their exactness. Nevertheless, they do develop an argument. Importance of a Thesis Statement In writing an essay, a thesis statement determines the worth of an essay by its capacity to stay focused on its thesis statement. For an instance, if a writer fails to clearly mention or define a solid thesis statement in his or her essay, it will be almost impossible for him or her to pay attention to the issue he or she plans to discuss and explain. Suppose a writer wants to write an essay on how to make a perfect fruit salad, the quality of his or her writing will exceedingly improve if he or she lets the readers have knowledge of the subject matter at the start of the essay: "In this essay, I will tell you how to make the perfect fruit salad in the world that is not only tasteful for your taste buds but also healthful for your body." Narrative Thesis In a narrative essay or narrative section of a piece of literature, a thesis statement is called a narrative thesis. A narrative thesis can be an apparent one or a hidden or implied one. In both cases, such a statement is a powerful propelling force behind an entire work that guides it toward its ultimate purpose and the lesson it intends to instruct. Narrative Thesis Examples Below is a list of a few narrative thesis examples - opening lines, which determine the entire course of the narratives: Example #1 It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife. (Pride and Prejudice, Jane Austen) Example #2 Many years later, as he faced the firing squad, Colonel Aureliano Buendía was to remember that distant afternoon when his father took him to discover ice. (One Hundred Years of Solitude, Gabriel García Márquez) Example #3 Lolita, light of my life, fire of my loins. (Lolita, Vladimir Nabokov) Example #4 Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way. (Anna Karenina, Leo Tolstoy) Example #5 It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen. (1984, George Orwell) Example #6 It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair. (A Tale of Two Cities, Charles Dickens) Example #7 If you really want to hear about it, the first thing you'll probably want to know is where I was born, and what my lousy childhood was like, and how my parents were occupied and all before they had me, and all that David Copperfield kind of crap, but I don't feel like going into it, if you want to know the truth. (The Catcher in the Rye, J. D. Salinger) Example #8 Once upon a time and a very good time it was there was a moocow coming down along the road and this moocow that was coming down along the road met a nicens little boy named baby tuckoo. (A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, James Joyce) Function of Thesis The above arguments clearly reveal the function of a thesis statements or a narrative thesis as a driving force behind a literary composition. It guides the narrative toward its ultimate purpose, which is the moral lesson it aims to inculcate.

Juxtaposition

Juxtaposition Juxtaposition is a literary technique in which two or more ideas, places, characters and their actions are placed side by side in a narrative or a poem for the purpose of developing comparisons and contrasts. In literature, juxtaposition is a useful device for writers to portray their characters in great detail to create suspense and achieve a rhetorical effect. It is a human quality to comprehend one thing easily by comparing it to another. Therefore, a writer can make readers sense "goodness" in a particular character by placing him or her side by side to a character that is predominantly "evil". Consequently, goodness in one character is highlighted by evil in the other character. Juxtaposition in this case is useful in the development of characters. Juxtaposition Examples in Literature Example #1 John Milton's "Paradise Lost" is one of the narrative poems that can be used as examples of juxtaposition. This well-crafted literary piece is clearly based on the juxtaposition of two characters: God and Satan. Frequently in the poem, the bad qualities of Satan and the good qualities of God are placed side by side and comparison hence made brings to the surface the contrast between the two characters. The juxtaposition in the poem helps us to reach a conclusion that Satan deserved his expulsion from the paradise because of his unwillingness to submit to God's will. Example #2 Charles Dickens uses the technique of juxtaposition in the opening line of his novel "A Tale of Two Cities": "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way..." In order to give us an idea of the factors responsible for the French Revolution, Dickens uses Juxtaposition throughout the novel in which the have not's and the haves are put side by side to highlight the presence of severe disparity and discord in the then French society that paved the way for the revolution. By examining the given juxtaposition, readers can vividly imagine the calamitous atmosphere before the revolution and understand its need at that time. Example #3 We can see juxtaposition examples in poems, too. In Dylan Thomas' poem "Do not Go Gentle into that Good Night": "Grave men, near death, who see with blinding sight Blind eyes could blaze like meteors and be gay, Rage, rage against the dying of the light. And you, my father, there on the sad height, Curse, bless, me now with your fierce tears, I pray. Do not go gentle into that good night. Rage, rage against the dying of the light." The speaker is requesting his father not to give up before like ordinary dying men but to put a fight against it to survive. The juxtaposition is in action of struggle for life to put off death against the action of merely lying down waiting for death. Example #4 Juxtaposition is a literary device that William Shakespeare uses most commonly in his play "Romeo and Juliet". We notice the juxtaposition of "light and "darkness" repeatedly. Consider an example from Act I, Scene V: "O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night Like a rich jewel in an Ethiope's ear;" Here, the radiant face of Juliet is juxtaposed with a black African's dark skin. Romeo admires Juliet by saying that her face seems brighter than brightly lit torches in the hall. He says that at night her face glows like a bright jewel that shines against the dark skin of an African. Function of Juxtaposition Writers employ the literary technique of juxtaposition in order to surprise their readers and evoke their interest by means of developing a comparison between two dissimilar things by placing them side by side. The comparison drawn adds vividness to a given image, controls pacing of poem or a narrative and provides a logical connection between two various vague concepts.

Persona

Persona The term persona has been derived from a Latin word "persona" that means the mask of an actor, and is therefore etymologically linked to the dramatis personae which refers to the list of characters and cast in a play or a drama. It is also known as a theatrical mask. It can be defined in a literary work as a voice or an assumed role of a character that represents the thoughts of a writer or a specific person the writer wants to present as his mouthpiece. Most of the time, the dramatis personae are identified with the writers though sometimes a persona can be a character or an unknown narrator. Examples of persona are found not only in dramas but in poems and novels, too.Examples of persona in Literature Example #1 Let us go then, you and I, When the evening is spread out against the sky Like a patient etherized upon a table; Let us go, through certain half-deserted streets, The muttering retreats Of restless nights in one-night cheap hotels And sawdust restaurants with oyster-shells: Streets that follow like a tedious argument Of insidious intent To lead you to an overwhelming question.... Oh, do not ask, "What is it?" Let us go and make our visit. In the room the women come and go Talking of Michelangelo. (The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by T.S. Eliot) These are the initial fifteen lines of the poem Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock. The speaker is a persona of T. S. Eliot that he wants to present before the world though the poet himself is not suffering from the same mental conflict. Example #2 That's my last Duchess painted on the wall, Looking as if she were alive. I call That piece a wonder, now: Fra Pandolf's hands.... Will't please you sit and look at her? I said "Fra Pandolf" by design, for never read...... At starting, is my object. Nay, we'll go Together down, sir. Notice Neptune, though, Taming a sea-horse, thought a rarity, Which Claus of Innsbruck cast in bronze for me! (My Last Duchess by Robert Browning) This poem is a dramatic monologue (uses persona). The poet mainly communicates about the shocking appearance of the "duke" character. In this stanza the persona is discussing the painting as the monologue opens. Through simple technique the poet describes the superficiality of the duke's character though it seems to be the voice of the poet put into the mouth of the duke. Example #3 An excerpt from "The Old Man and Sea" "He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-four days now without taking a fish. In the first forty days a boy had been with him. But after forty days without a fish the boy's parents had told him that the old man was now definitely and finally salao, which is the worst form of unlucky....... The sail was patched with flour sacks and, furled, it looked like the flag of permanent defeat....." The first paragraph of this book sounds as if Hemingway himself is Santiago. Through the characterization of Santiago, Hemingway is expressing his belief in the struggle against unconquerable natural forces of the world. However, it is up to the persona (Santiago) to determine whether he wants to change his luck or not. Example #4 An excerpt from "Heart of Darkness" by Joseph Conrad "Now when I was a little chap I had a passion for maps. I would look for hours at South America, or Africa, or Australia, and lose myself in all the glories of exploration...., and when I saw one that looked particularly inviting on a map (but they all look that) I would put my finger on it and say, 'When I grow up I will go there...... Well, I haven't been there yet, and shall not try now. The glamour's off.... well, we won't talk about that......" Marlow is probably one of the most famous persona examples in novels. In this novel, Marlow is used as Conrad's mouthpiece. In this extract, Conrad is telling us through Marlow about his own visit to the Congo and his experiences of sailing to distant places and his boyhood ambition of sailing. Hence, Marlow is used as a persona in this novel. Function of Persona The speaker of a dramatic monologue is also known as a persona. Such a monologue is presented without commentary or analysis. However, emphasis is laid on subjective qualities and finally left up to the audience to interpret it. In literature, authors use persona to express their ideas, beliefs and voices they are not able to express freely due to some restrictions or that they cannot put into words otherwise. Persona is also sometimes a role a person or a character assumes in public or in the society he lives in.

Repetition

Repetition Repetition is a literary device that repeats the same words or phrases a few times to make an idea clearer. There are several types of repetitions commonly used in both prose and poetry. As a rhetorical device, it could be a word, a phrase or a full sentence or a poetical line repeated to emphasize its significance in the entire text. Repetition is not distinguished solely as a figure of speech but more as a rhetorical device. Types of Repetition The following examples of repetition are classified according to the different types of repetition used both in literature and in daily conversations. Anadiplosis: Repetition of the last word in a line or clause. Anaphora: Repetition of words at the start of clauses or verses. Antistasis: Repetition of word s or phrases in opposite sense. Diacope: Repetition of words broken by some other words. Epanalepsis: Repetition of same words at the end and start of a sentence. Epimone: Repetition of a phrase (usually a question) to stress a point. Epiphora: Repetition of the same word at the end of each clause. Gradatio: A construction in poetry where the last word of one clause becomes the first of the next and so on. Negative-Positive Restatement: Repetition of an idea first in negative terms and then in positive terms. Polyptoton: Repetition of words of the same root with different endings. Symploce: It is a combination of anaphora and epiphora in which repetition is both at the end and at the beginning. Repetition Examples Example 1 I'm nobody! Who are you? Are you nobody too? Then there's a pair of us-don't tell! They'd banish us you know. These lines have been taken from "I'm nobody! Who are You?" by Emily Dickinson. Observe how she has used "nobody" to emphasize her point in her poem to create an association with the person she is talking about. Example 2 Because I do not hope to turn again Because I do not hope Because I do not hope to turn... These three lines have been taken from "Ash-Wednesday" authored by T. S. Eliot, a famous modern poet of the 20th century. The repetition of a full phrase shows us mastery the poet has acquired in using words and phrases to make his point clear and emphasize that he has no hope of coming back. Example 3 I looked upon the rotting sea, And drew my eyes away; I looked upon the rotting deck, And there the dead men lay. These lines have been taken from the famous poem "Rime of the Ancient Mariner" by S.T. Coleridge. The poem tells a story where a seafarer tells about his adventures in the sea. Example 4 "My conscience hath a thousand several tongues, And every tongue brings in a several tale, And every tale condemns me for a villain." These lines have been taken from "Richard III" by William Shakespeare, Richard. These lines show the repetition of a phrase that occurs at the end of the first and then start of the second line. It is called anadiplosis. Example 5 "A horse is a horse, of course, of course, And no one can talk to a horse of course That is, of course, unless the horse is the famous Mister Ed." These lines are among the repetition examples from the theme song of Mr. Ed, a 1960s TV program. This is an example of a diacope type of rhetorical repetition. There is repetition but it is broken up with several other words. Function of Repetition The beauty of using figurative language is that the pattern it arranges the words into is nothing like our ordinary speech. It is not only stylistically appealing but it also helps convey the message in much more engaging and notable way. The aura that is created by the usage of repetition cannot be achieved through any other device. It has the ability of making a simple sentence sound like a dramatic one. It enhances the beauty of a sentence and stresses on the point of main significance. Repetition often uses word associations to express the ideas and emotions in an indirect manner. The beauty of reading a piece with repetition in it is the balance where we, as readers, have to decipher such associations and understand the underlying meanings. Repetition as a literary term can be used both constructively and destructively. The constructive usage encompasses functions such as, putting emphasis on a point, confirming a fact or an idea, cohesion, mimesis, transition, showing impartiality and or describing a notion. The same literary device when used destructively can disintegrate the entire piece of writing. Erasure, redundancy, continuous present, fragmentation, copying and habitual misuse of the literary device are among the destructive effects.

Plot

Plot Plot is a literary term used to describe the events that make up a story or the main part of a story. These events relate to each other in a pattern or a sequence. The structure of a novel depends on the organization of events in the plot of the story. Plot is known as the foundation of a novel or story which the characters and settings are built around. It is meant to organize information and events in a logical manner. When writing the plot of a piece of literature, the author has to be careful that it does not dominate the other parts of the story. There are five main elements in a plot. The first is the exposition or the introduction. This is known as the beginning of the story where characters and setting are established. The conflict or main problem is introduced as well. The second element of a plot is known as the rising action which occurs when a series of events build up to the conflict. The main characters are established by the time the rising action of a plot occurs and at the same time, events begin to get complicated. It is during this part of a story that excitement, tension or crisis is encountered. The third element of a plot is known as the climax or the main point of the plot. This is the turning point of the story and is meant to be the moment of highest interest and emotion. The reader wonders what is going to happen next. The fourth element of a plot is known as falling action or the winding up of the story. Events and complications begin to resolve and the result of actions of the main characters are put forward. The last element of a plot is the resolution or the conclusion. It is the end of a story and ends with either a happy or a tragic ending. Plot Examples Example #1 Among the examples of plot in modern literature, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone (written by J.K. Rowling) is probably the most familiar to both readers and moviegoers. The plot of the story begins when Harry learns that Professor Snape is after the Sorcerer's Stone. The Professor lets loose a troll, who nearly kills Harry and his friends. In addition, Harry finds out that Hagrid let out the secret of the giant dog to a stranger in return for a dragon which means that Snape can now reach the Sorcerer's Stone. Example #2 Romantic fiction plot examples in the 1800 include the book Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. The plot of the story begins when Lizzie's sister, Jane, falls in love with Darcy's friend named Mr. Bingley. Lizzie develops and interest in for Mr. Wickham, who accuses Darcy of destroying him financially. When Lizzie goes to meet her friend, she runs into Mr. Darcy, who proposes and Lizzie rejects. She then writes him a letter telling him why she dislikes him. He writes back, clearing up all misunderstandings and accusations. Jane runs away with Mr. Wickham and Lizzie realizes that Mr. Darcy is not as bad a man as she thought him to be. Functions of a Plot A plot is one of the most important parts of a story and has many different purposes. Firstly, the plot focuses attention on the important characters and their roles in the story. It motivates the characters to affect the story and connects the events in an orderly manner. It creates a desire for the reader to go on reading by absorbing them in the middle of the story, wanting to know what happens next. The plot leads to the climax, but by gradually releases the story in order to maintain the reader's interest. During the plot of a book, a reader gets emotional and connects with the book, not allowing himself to put the book down. Eventually, the plot reveals the entire story and gives the reader a sense of completion that he has finished the story and reached a conclusion. The plot is what forms a memory in the readers' mind, allowing them to think about the book and even making them want to read it again. By identifying and understanding the plot, the reader is able to understand the message being conveyed by the author and the explicit or implicit moral of the story.

Style

Style The style in writing can be defined as the way a writer writes and it is the technique which an individual author uses in his writing. It varies from author to author and depends upon one's syntax, word choice, and tone. It can also be described as a voice that readers listen to when they read the work of a writer. Types of Style There are four basic literary styles used in writing. These styles distinguish the work of different authors from one another. Here are four styles of writing: Expository or Argumentative style Expository writing style is a subject-oriented style. The focus of the writer in this type of writing style is to tell the readers about a specific subject or topic and in the end the author leaves out his own opinion about that topic. Descriptive style In descriptive writing style, the author focuses on describing an event, a character or a place in detail. Sometimes, descriptive writing style is poetic in nature in, where the author specifies an event, an object or a thing rather than merely giving information about an event that has happened. Usually the description incorporates sensory details. Persuasive style Persuasive style of writing is a category of writing in which the writer tries to give reasons and justification to make the readers believe his point of view . The persuasive style aims to persuade and convince the readers. Narrative style Narrative writing style is a type of writing where the writer narrates a story to. It includes short stories, novels, novellas, biographies and poetry. Examples of Style in Literature Here are some examples of different writing styles from literature: Example #1 An excerpt from "The Pleasures of Imagination" by Joseph Addison The pleasures of the imagination, taken in their full extent, are not so gross as those of sense... A man of polite imagination is let into a great many pleasures... A man should endeavour, therefore, to make the sphere of his innocent pleasures as wide as possible, that he may retire into them with safety ... Delightful scenes, whether in nature, painting, or poetry, have a kindly influence on the body, as well as the mind, and not only serve to clear and brighten the imagination, but are able to disperse grief and melancholy... This is an example of expository writing style in which the author describes advantages of imagination with facts and logical sequence and tells his delight of imagination. Then, he discusses its benefits and finally gives opinions in its favor. Example #2 Here is an excerpt from a poem. A drop fell on the apple tree, Another on the roof, And made the gables laugh, The breezes brought dejected lutes, And bathed them in the glee; And signed the fete away. (Summer Shower by Emily Dickinson) This poem is giving an example of descriptive style. Emily gives a description of a summer rainstorm in detail and visualizes with images so that the readers could visualize this storm in their own minds as if it is actually happening. Example #3 It is an ancient Mariner, And he stoppeth one of three.' By thy long grey beard and glittering eye, Now wherefore stopp'st thou me? The bridegroom's doors are opened wide, ... The guests are met, the feast is set: Mayst hear the merry din. (The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge) In this poem, Coleridge uses narrative style and tells a story about the ancient mariner. He uses dialogues, disputes, actions and events in a sequence, thus provides a perfect example of the narrative style of writing. Example #4 An excerpt from Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde "The studio was filled with the rich odor of roses, and when the light summer wind stirred amidst the trees of the garden... The sullen murmur of the bees shouldering their way through... or circling with monotonous insistence..." This is a good example of descriptive writing style since the author gives visualizations, feelings, description of a location and details about bees that could be seen and heard. Function of Style A unique literary style can have great impact on the piece in which it is used and on the readers. When authors write and put their ideas into words, they meet with a large number of choices which include: words, sounds, logic, sentence structures. However, different authors use different literary styles that depend on their distinct expression and their utilization of these choices. And their choice creates their niche.

Limerick

Limerick Limerick is a comic verse, containing five anapestic (unstressed/unstressed/stressed) lines in which the first, second and fifth lines are longer, rhyme together and follow three metrical feet, while the third and fourth lines rhyme together, are shorter and follow two metrical feet. However, sometimes it may vary and amphibrachic (unstressed/stressed/unstressed) form can replace anapestic. In fact, it is a bawdy, humorous, or nonsensical verse written in the form of five anapests with aabba rhyme scheme. Since it has a special structure and format, it is called fixed or closed form of poetry. Limerick and Villanelle Though both of these are types of poems, having fixed structures, they may look similar. However, both are different in their forms, as villanelle consists of 19 lines with refraining rhyming sounds appear in the first and the third lines, while final quatrain have a closing couplet, whereas limerick has five lines, having anapestic form with first, second and fifth lines rhyming together but third and fourth are different and rhyme together. Examples of limerick in Literature We can find the use of limericks in eighteenth century. They are associated with Edward Lear, who first published this verse form in his book A Book of Nonsense in the year 1846. Later this form became popular and many poets, including Alfred Lord Tennyson, Shakespeare, Rudyard Kipling, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Ogden Nash, H. G. Wells, W. H. Auden, T. S. Eliot, James Joyce, and Lewis Carroll, tried their hands in this form of poetry. Here we have a few examples of limericks from literature: Example 1 There was a young lady of station "I love man" was her sole exclamation But when men cried, "You flatter" She replied, "Oh! no matter Isle of Man is the true explanation. (From To Miss Vera Beringer by Lewis Carroll) This limerick contains five lines with rhyme scheme aabba. Here we can notice the first, second and fifth lines rhyme together with three feet, whereas third and fourth lines contain two feet and rhyme together. Example 2 There was an Old Man with a beard, Who said, 'It is just as I feared! Two Owls and a Hen, Four Larks and a Wren, Have all built their nests in my beard! (From "There was an Old Man with a Beard" by Edward Lear) Edward Lear was considered to be the father of limericks. This is one of the very good examples of limerick poems, following its typical format with first, second and fifth lines rhyming together and longer in length, while remaining two are shorter, and give a faster read. Lear has referred this form as nonsense. Example 3 There was a small boy of Quebec Who was buried in snow to his neck When they said, "Are you friz?" He replied, "Yes, I is — But we don't call this cold in Quebec." (From "There was a small boy of Quebec" by Rudyard Kipling) Notice, Kipling has penned a good limerick with irrelevant zaniness and weirdness. First four lines look funny, while the final line creates curious and special mood in this poem. Example 4 And let me the canakin clink, clink; And let me the canakin clink A soldier's a man; A life's but a span; Why, then, let a soldier drink. (From "Othello" by William Shakespeare) It is quite interesting that earliest written limericks were linked with drinking. We can guess that people would have drinks and sang bawdy, funny songs or poems. Similarly, William Shakespeare has employed this form in drinking song of Stephano to create nonsensical and humorous effects. Example 5 A man hired by John Smith and Co. Loudly declared that he'd tho. Men that he saw Dumping dirt near his door The drivers, therefore, didn't do. (From "A Man Hired by John Smith & Co" by Mark Twain) As we know, Mark Twain is also a popular for writing limericks. Here he has used a funny and whimsical limerick poem, with a concluding punch line. Function of Limerick The poets use limericks as literary or poetic forms to convey and create funny and humorous images. The purpose of using this form is to replace everyday expression with unusual alternative to express emotion and a particular mood by adding eccentricity and weirdness. We can find its usage in literature to describe humor or light subject matter, containing first four lines creating jokes and ending on a punch line. It also is used frequently in nursery rhymes to make kids love reading.

Jargon

Jargon Jargon is a literary term that is defined as a use of specific phrases and words by writers in a particular situation, profession or trade. These specialized terms are used to convey hidden meanings accepted and understood in that field. Jargon examples are found in literary and non-literary pieces of writing. The use of jargon becomes essential in prose or verse or some technical pieces of writing when the writer intends to convey something only to the readers who are aware of these terms. Therefore, jargon was taken in early times as a trade language or as a language of a specific profession, as it is somewhat unintelligible for other people who do not belong to that particular profession. In fact, specific terms were developed to meet the needs of the group of people working within the same field or occupation. Jargon and Slang Jargon sometimes is wrongly confused with slang and people often take it in the same sense but a difference is always there. Slang is a type of informal category of a certain language developed within a certain community and consists of words or phrases whose literal meanings are different than the actual meanings. Hence, it is not understood by people outside of that community or circle. Slang is more common in spoken language than written. Jargon, on the other hand, is broadly associated with a subject, occupation or business that makes use of standard words or phrases frequently comprising of abbreviations e.g. HTH, LOL. However, unlike slang, its terms are developed and composed deliberately for the convenience of a specific section of society. We can see the difference in two sentences given below. Did you hook up with him? (Slang) Getting on a soapbox (Jargon) Examples of Jargon from Literature Example #1 Legal jargon used by Shakespeare Why, may not that be the skull of a lawyer? Where be his quiddities now, his quillities, his cases, his tenures, and his tricks? Why does he suffer this mad knave now to knock him about the sconce with a dirty shovel, and will not tell him of his action of battery? Hum! This fellow might be in's time a great buyer of land, with his statutes, his recognizances, his fines, his double vouchers, his recoveries: is this the fine of his fines, and the recovery of his recoveries, to have his fine pate full of fine dirt? Will his vouchers vouch him no more of his purchases and double ones too, than the length and breadth of a pair of indentures? The very conveyances of his lands will scarcely lie in this box; and must the inheritor himself have no more, ha? (Hamlet to Horatio in Hamlet by Shakespeare) You can see that the use of words specifically related to the field of law. Lawyer, tenure, battery, recognizances and statutes are legal words used at the time of Shakespeare. Example #2 Medical Jargons Certain medications can cause or worsen nasal symptoms (especially congestion). These include the following: birth control pills, some drugs for high blood pressure (e.g., alpha blockers and beta blockers), antidepressants, medications for erectile dysfunction, and some medications for prostatic enlargement. If rhinitis symptoms are bothersome and one of these medications is used, ask the prescriber if the medication could be aggravating the condition. (Robert H Fletcher and Phillip L Lieberman) This passage is full of medical jargon such as nasal, congestions, alpha blockers and anti-depressants. Perhaps only those in the medical community would fully understand all of them.. Example #3 Modern legal jargon In August 2008, 19 individuals brought a putative class action lawsuit in the U. S. District Court for the Northern District of California against Facebook and the companies that had participated in Beacon, alleging violations of various federal and state privacy laws. The putative class comprised only those individuals whose personal information had been obtained and disclosed by Beacon during the approximately one-month period in which the program's default setting was opt out rather than opt in. The complaint sought damages and various forms of equitable relief, including an injunction barring the defendants from continuing the program. (MAREK v. LANE, Supreme Court Order) Just check this statement given in a case by the Supreme Court. This is full of modern legal jargon starting with "putative, lawsuit, alleging, privacy laws, equitable, injunction" and so on that a layman could only understand with the help of his lawyer. Function of Jargon The use of jargon is significant in prose and verse. It seems unintelligible to the people who do not know the meanings. Examples of jargon used in literature are used to emphasize a situation or to refer to something exotic to the readers or audience. In fact, the use of jargon in literature shows the dexterity of the writer of having knowledge of other spheres. Writers use jargon to make a certain character a real one in fiction as well as in plays and poetry.

Line Break

Line Break A line break is a poetic device which is used at the end of a line and the beginning of the next line in a poem. It could be employed without traditional punctuation. Also it can be described as a point where in a line is divided into two halves at the end of a line. Sometimes, examples of line break at mid-clause where they create enjambment. Examples of Line Break from Literature Example #1 With his own sword, Which he did wave against my throat, I have ta'en His head from him I am absolute Twas very Cloten (Cymbeline by William Shakespeare) There are two line break examples in the given passage. One line break cuts the lines in the middle of the second line. Another line break is used in the fourth line, "I" being a person has an absolute meaning. These line breaks are determining the visual shape of this text. Example #2 Match'd with an aged wife, I mete and dole Unequal laws unto a savage race, That hoard, and sleep, and feed, and know not me. I cannot rest from travel: I will drink Life to the lees:All times I have enjoy'd Greatly, have suffer'd greatly, both with those That loved me, and alone, on shore, and when Vext the dim sea: I am become a name Much have I seen and known; cities of men And manners, climates, councils, governments (Ulysses by Alfred Lord Tennyson) There are many line breaks within this extract. In line three, a line break cuts the two lines at, "I mete and dole". Similarly, a break occurs in other lines like "I will drink...", "all times I have enjoyed" and "I am become a name". Example #3 My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains My sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk, Or emptied some dull opiate to the drain..:.... That thou, light-winged Dryad of the trees In some melodious plot Of beechen green, and shadows numberless, Singest of summer in full-throated ease (Ode to a Nightingale by John Keats) In this excerpt, Keats has employed line breaks to create different types of artistic effects. The line also forces the readers to take a slight break that in turn reinforces the disclosure of the following lines. Example #4 Turning and turning in the widening gyre The falcon cannot hear the falconer; Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold; The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere The ceremony of innocence is drowned; The best lack all conviction, while the worst Are full of passionate intensity........ The Second Coming! Hardly are those words out And what rough beast, its hour come round at last, (The Second Coming by William Butler Yeats) This excerpt is also filled with several line breaks. These include "the center cannot hold", "and everywhere...." The poet takes the readers into surprising and multiple ideas. Example #5 Half sunk, a shattered visage lies, whose frown, And wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold command, Tell that its sculptor well those passions read Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things, Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair! Nothing beside remains. Round the decay Of that colossal wreck,boundless and bare The lone and level sands stretch far away. (Ozymandias by Percy Bysshe Shelley) This extract is also a good example of line breaks. These line breaks are providing dynamism to the poem, also giving breaks in the flow of reading. Function of Line Break Line breaks could be the source of dynamism in poetry since they provide a manner whereby poetic forms inculcate contents with strength and consequential meanings - which might not be possible in other types of text in the same level. Line breaks are used as important poetic devices, because they often bring ambiguity and also affect the meaning. However, they lead the readers into surprising ideas and different understandings, as well as controlling the manner wherein they come upon ideas.

Fable

Fable The word fable is derived from a Latin word "fibula" which means a story that is a derivative of a word "fari" which means to speak. Fable is a literary device which can be defined as a concise and brief story intended to provide a moral lesson at the end. In literature, it is described as a didactic lesson given through some sort of animal story. In prose and verse, a fable is described through plants, animals, forces of nature and inanimate objects by giving them human attributes wherein they demonstrate a moral lesson at the end. Features of Fable A fable is intended to provide a moral story. Fables often use the main characters as animals that are presented with anthropomorphic characteristics such as the ability to speak and to reason. Fables personify the animal characters. Examples of Fables in Literature Example #1 "A crow was sitting on a branch of a tree with a piece of cheese in her beak when a fox observed her and set his wits to work to discover some way of getting the cheese. "Coming and standing under the tree he looked up and said, 'What a noble bird I see above me! Her beauty is without equal..... Down came the cheese and the fox, snatching it up, said, 'You have a voice, madam, I see: what you want is wits...." (The Fox and the Crow from Aesop's Fables) Aesop is probably the most notable author of famous examples of fable. Aesopian fables put emphasis on the social communications of human beings and hence the morals he draws deal with the realities of life. In this excerpt, Aesop gives a moral lesson that flatterers must not be trusted. Example #2 "Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are miserable, laborious, and short. We are born, we are given just so much food as will keep the breath in our bodies... and the very instant that our usefulness has come to an end.... No animal in England knows the meaning of happiness or leisure after he is a year old. No animal in England is free. The life of an animal is misery and slavery...." (Animal Farm by George Orwell) Here old Major is speaking to other animals. It is presented as the story of the development and emergence of Soviet communism through an animal fable. He advises the animals to struggle against the humans, telling them that rebellion is the only feasible way out to their miserable situation. Example #3 First Voice But tell me, tell me! speak again, Thy soft response renewing - What makes that ship drive on so fast? What is the ocean doing? Second Voice Still as a slave before his lord, The ocean hath no blast;.... Up to the moon is cast -....... See! see! (I cried) she tacks no more.... Without a breeze, without a tide, She steadies with upright keel!..... (The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by S.T. Coleridge) The voices in this poem explain the moving ship without waves and wind. There is a supernatural force at work. This literary piece is one of the well-written fable examples that teach about penance, redemption and sin. The killing of a bird symbolizes the original sin. Example #4 "I attempted to rise, but was not able to stir: for, as I happened to lie on my back, I found my arms and legs were strongly fastened on each side to the ground; and my hair, which was long and thick, tied down in the same manner.......... In a little time I felt something alive moving on my left leg, which advancing gently forward over my breast, came almost up to my chin;...." (Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift) Gulliver's Travels is mixture of political allegory, moral fable, mock utopia and social anatomy. In this extract, Captain Gulliver reaches an unknown place among strange creatures who speak a strange language. This is a type of modern fable intended to satirize political vices. Function of Fable The purpose of writing fables is to convey a moral lesson and message. Fables also give readers a chance to laugh at the follies of human beings and they can be employed for the objective of satire and criticism. They are very helpful in teaching children good lessons based on examples. However, in literature, fables are used for didactic purposes at a much broader level.

Imagery

Imagery Imagery means to use figurative language to represent objects, actions and ideas in such a way that it appeals to our physical senses. Usually it is thought that imagery makes use of particular words that create visual representation of ideas in our minds. The word imagery is associated with mental pictures. However, this idea is but partially correct. Imagery, to be realistic, turns out to be more complex than just a picture. Read the following examples of imagery carefully: It was dark and dim in the forest. - The words "dark" and "dim" are visual images. The children were screaming and shouting in the fields. - "Screaming" and "shouting" appeal to our sense of hearing or auditory sense. He whiffed the aroma of brewed coffee. - "whiff" and "aroma" evoke our sense of smell or olfactory sense. The girl ran her hands on a soft satin fabric. - The idea of "soft" in this example appeals to our sense of touch or tactile sense. The fresh and juicy orange are very cold and sweet. - " juicy" and "sweet" when associated with oranges have an effect on our sense of taste or gustatory sense. Imagery needs the aid of figures of speech like simile, metaphor, personification, onomatopoeia etc. in order to appeal to the bodily senses. Let us analyze how famous poets and writers use imagery in literature. Imagery Examples in Literature Example #1 Imagery of light and darkness is repeated many times in Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet". Consider an example from Act I, Scene V: "O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night Like a rich jewel in an Ethiope's ear;" Romeo praises Juliet by saying that she appears more radiant than the brightly lit torches in the hall. He says that at night her face glows like a bright jewel shining against the dark skin of an African. Through the contrasting images of light and dark, Romeo portrays Juliet's beauty. Example #2 John Keats' "To the Autumn" is an ode rich with auditory imagery examples. In the last five lines of his ode he says: "Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies; And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn; Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble soft The redbreast whistles from a garden-croft, And gathering swallows twitter in the skies." The animal sounds in the above excerpt keep appealing to our sense of hearing. We hear the lamb bleating and the crickets chirping. We hear the whistles of the redbreast robin and the twitters of swallows in the sing. Keats call these sounds as the song of autumn. Example #3 In prose, imagery aids writers to accomplish a vivid description of events. Below is an example of an effective use of imagery from E.B. White's "Once More to the Lake": "When the others went swimming my son said he was going in, too. He pulled his dripping trunks from the line where they had hung all through the shower and wrung them out. Languidly, and with no thought of going in, I watched him, his hard little body, skinny and bare, saw him wince slightly as he pulled up around his vitals the small, soggy, icy garment. As he buckled the swollen belt, suddenly my groin felt the chill of death." The images depicting the dampness of clothes, in the above lines, convey a sense of chilly sensation that we get from wet clothes. Example #4 In "The Great Expectations" written by Charles Dickens, Pip (the hero of the novel) uses many images to describe a damp morning in a marsh: "It was a rimy morning, and very damp. I had seen the damp lying on the outside of my little window... Now, I saw the damp lying on the bare hedges and spare grass,.... On every rail and gate, wet lay clammy; and the marsh-mist was so thick, that the wooden finger on the post directing people to our village—a direction which they never accepted, for they never came there—was invisible to me until I was quite close under it." The repeated use of the words "damp" and "wet" makes us feel how rough it was for him in that damp and cold morning. The thick "marsh-mist" aids our imagination to visualize the scene of mourning in a marshland. Function of Imagery The function of imagery in literature is to generate a vibrant and graphic presentation of a scene that appeals to as many of the reader's senses as possible. It aids the reader's imagination to envision the characters and scenes in the literary piece clearly. Apart from the above mentioned function, images , which are drawn by using figures of speech like metaphor, simile, personification, onomatopoeia etc. serve the function of beautifying a piece of literature.

Nemesis

Nemesis Nemesis is a literary device that refers to a situation of poetic justice where the good characters are rewarded for their virtues and the evil characters are punished for their vices. The term nemesis comes from Nemesis in Greek mythology, the goddess of revenge or divine retribution against the people guilty of hubris i.e. showing arrogance before gods. In a general sense, nemesis refers to an indomitable rival or an inescapable situation that causes misery and death. For instance, you may have encountered your nemesis at school, a boy who is no more capable than you are, but who somehow always finishes ahead of you in school examinations, making you feel frustrated. Nemesis Examples in Literature We find a number of examples of nemesis in both ancient and modern literature. Let us analyze a few: Example #1 In a famous Greek Tragedy "Oedipus Rex" by Sophocles, the nemesis of "King Oedipus" is his Hubris or excessive pride. He is so proud that he does not even shun from defying prophecies of gods. We see that he ends up doing what he fears and tries to avoid. The Oracle of Delphi tells him that he will kill his father and marry his mother. In his attempt to defy gods' prophecy, he leaves "Corinth" and travels towards "Thebes". On his way, he kills an old man in a quarrel and later marries the queen of "Thebes" as he ascends throne after delivering the city from a deadly "Sphinx". One can argue that he commits all these sins in complete ignorance, yet he deserves retribution because he becomes so swollen with pride that he does not even shy from attempting to revolt against his fate. Thus, his nemesis is his arrogance. Example #2 In Christopher Marlowe's "Doctor Faustus", Faustus' Nemesis was his pride in his scholarship and his overambitious nature. Overcome by his irresistible desire, he sells his soul to "Lucifer" by signing a contract with his blood. He defies Christianity by learning the art of black magic. Consequently, he pays for his arrogance and his pride. As the time mentioned in the contract with the devil exhausts, the devil takes his soul to Hell where he suffers eternal damnation. Example #3 We find two nemesis examples in Shakespeare's "Hamlet": Hamlet and Hamlet's indecisiveness. Hamlet acts as a nemesis for Claudius who kills Hamlet's father and marries his mother. Claudius' devilishness calls for immediate retribution. A ghost of his dead father appears before Hamlet and convinces him to exact revenge. He finds Claudius as the real murderer and after much indecisive thinking kills him. In the same play, Hamlet's nemesis is his indecisiveness. He is unable to make up his mind about the dilemma he confronts. He discloses his state of mind in the following lines in Act 3 Scene 1 of the play: "To be, or not to be-that is the question: Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune Or to take arms against a sea of troubles And by opposing end them. To die, to sleep..." He wants to take vengeance on his father's murderer "Claudius" but destroys his own life by postponing the act as he looks for evidence to validate his action. In the process, however, he spoils his relationship with his mother and sends "Ophelia" into such a state of depression that she commits suicide. Example #4 In Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein", the protagonist "Victor" exhibits hubris in his venture to become an unrivaled scientist. After years of experiments, he triumphs in creating a "monster" which he calls "Frankenstein". Ironically, the thing which he considers his supreme invention proves his nemesis. "Frankenstein" ultimately becomes the source of his disaster punishing him justly for his over-ambition. Function of Nemesis The main function of nemesis in a literary work is to establish grounds for poetic justice. Nemesis acts as a source of punishment for hubristic and wicked characters on universal moral grounds i.e. the wicked and evil individuals should be penalized for their evilness. Besides, it imparts a moral lesson to the readers to develop and refine their characters in order to ensure they remove certain flaws which can prove to be their nemesis in time to come.

Verisimilitude

Verisimilitude In a literary work, verisimilitude is likeness to the truth i.e. resemblance of a fictitious work to a real event even if it is a far-fetched one. Verisimilitude ensures that even a fantasy must be rooted in reality, which means that events should be plausible to the extent that readers consider them credible enough to be able to relate them somehow to their experiences of real life. Origin of Verisimilitude The theory of verisimilitude comes from a Platonic and Aristotelian dramatic theory called "mimesis". According to this theory, a work of art should convince the audience by imitating and representing nature and having basis in reality. The playwright, conforming to the above- mentioned theory, had to draw themes from sources well-known to the common people of his time and maintain the unities of action, place and time. Besides, he had to bring a realistic union between the style and the subject. Suspension of Disbelief The theory of verisimilitude leads to the idea of "suspension of disbelief" or "willing suspension of disbelief," a term coined in 1817 by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. He was of the opinion that if a writer was able to fill his work with a "human interest and a semblance of truth", the readers would willingly suspend or delay their judgment in relation to the doubtfulness of a narrative. In his Biographia Literaria, Coleridge says: "... It was agreed, that my endeavours should be directed to persons and characters supernatural, or at least romantic, yet so as to transfer from our inward nature a human interest and a semblance of truth sufficient to procure for these shadows of imagination that willing suspension of disbelief for the moment, which constitutes poetic faith. Mr. Wordsworth on the other hand was to propose to himself as his object, to give the charm of novelty to things of every day, and to excite a feeling analogous to the supernatural, by awakening the mind's attention from the lethargy of custom, and directing it to the loveliness and the wonders of the world before us ..." Verisimilitude Examples in Literature Example #1 Jonathan Swift's "Gulliver Travels" is a brilliant work of fantasy that may be considered as one of the best examples of Verisimilitude. It achieves verisimilitude due to the fact it is one of the finest examples of political satire in English Literature. Readers find in it a resemblance to a reality as they are aware of the fact that Swift satirizes contemporary politics, religion, and English culture. For instance, criticizing party politics in England, Swift writes, "that for above seventy Moons past there have been two struggling Parties in this Empire, under the Names of Tramecksan and Slamecksan from the high and low Heels on their shoes, by which they distinguish themselves." Two rival political parties, the Whigs and the Tories, dominated England political scene during Swift's time. In his novel the fictitious kingdom of Lilliput is dominated by two parties distinguished by the size of the heels of their boots. By relating the trivial disputes between the two Lilliputian parties, Swift relentlessly satirizes the insignificant disputes of the two English parties of his period. He achieves verisimilitude through this. Example #2 Mark Twain in "Adventure of Huckleberry Fin" used Black American Vernacular to show realistically how the "negroes" [Black Americans] talked in real life: "I didn't want to go back no more. I had stopped cussing, because the widow didn't like it; but now I took to it again because pap hadn't no objections... But by-and-by pap got too handy with his hick'ry, and I could't stand it. I was all over with welts. He got to going away so much, too, and locking me in. Once he locked me in and was gone three days. It was dreadful lonesome." Twain successfully achieves verisimilitude or resemblance to a reality by introducing colloquialism in his narrative. The use of double negatives is quite evident in the above passage. Example #3 Drawing analogies from real life gives a semblance of truth to even fantastic ideas. For instance, "The white mares of the moon rush along the sky Beating their golden hoofs upon the glass Heavens." In the above quote, Amy Lowell in her poem "Night Clouds" constructs an analogy between clouds and mares. She compares the movement of the white clouds in the sky at night with the movement of white mares on the ground. Such comparisons give her far-fetched ideas an air of reality. Function of Verisimilitude A literary work throws a lasting impression on its readers if it presents the theme in such a way that readers could relate to real life. Conformity to the theory of verisimilitude ensures the existence of reality in a literary work. Political satires are abundant with verisimilitude examples.

Aposiopesis

Aposiopesis Aposiopesis is derived from a Greek word that means "becoming silent". It is a rhetorical device that can be defined as a figure of speech in which the speaker or writer breaks off abruptly and leaves the statement incomplete, as if the speaker is not willing to state what is present in his mind due to being overcome by passion, excitement or fear. In a piece of literature, it means to leave a sentence unfinished so that the reader could determine his own meanings. Types of Aposiopesis Aposiopesis examples may be classified according to the following types: Emotive aposiopesis - This type of aposiopesis is used in conditions of conflicts between emotional outbursts of a speaker and environment that does not react. Usually, the writer or speaker pauses in the middle of a sentence. Calculated aposiopesis - This type of aposiopesis is based on the conflict of missing thought and its opposing force that rejects the substance of that thought. Hence, the idea is removed that is explicitly expressed afterwards. Audience-respecting aposiopesis - It is based on the removal of thoughts which are unpleasant to the readers or offensive to the audience. Transitio-aposiopesis - It removes the ideas from the end part of a speech in order to immediately get the audience interested in the subsequent section. Emphatic aposiopesis - It avoids the use of full utterance to present the idea as greater and really inexpressible. Examples of Aposiopesis from Literature Example #1 King Lear: I will have revenges on you both That all the world shall-I will do such things- What they are yet, I know not; but they shall be The terrors of the earth! (King Lear by William Shakespeare) Shakespeare has used this technique wonderfully to show moods of his characters. Here, it is employed when King Lear gets furious against his wicked daughters. He cannot declare punishment but he breaks down and burst into tears. Example #2 "All quiet on Howth now. The distant hills seem. Where we. The rhododendrons. I am a fool perhaps, He gets the plums, and I the plumstones. Where I come in." (Ulysses by James Joyce) In the following passage, Joyce deliberately paused twice in order to create dramatic effect. The idea is left unfinished. This break also gives an impression of reluctance to continue. The unfinished thoughts are shown in bold. Example #3 Hotspur: O, I could prophesy, But that the earthy and cold hand of death Lies on my tongue. No, Percy, thou art dust, And food for- Prince Hal: For worms, brave Percy: fare thee well, great heart! (Henry IV by William Shakespeare) Shakespeare has been famous for using emotional pauses or moments of sudden silence in soliloquies. The unfinished thought in this extract is shown with dashes (-). This is a pivotal moment in the play where a character pauses abruptly. Example #4 She looked perplexed for a moment, and then said, not fiercely, but still loud enough for the furniture to hear: Well, I lay if I get hold of you I'll - She did not finish, for by this time she was bending down and punching under the bed with the broom, and so she needed breath to punctuate the punches with. She resurrected nothing but the cat.... (The Adventures of Tom Sawyer by Mark Twain) There are two examples of aposiopesis in this excerpt. First, the writer pauses at "hold of you I'll -", and then at the end of the excerpt, "nothing but the cat". Both sentences are left incomplete. Example #5 O judgment! thou art fled to brutish beasts, And men have lost their reason. Bear with me, My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar, And I must pause till it come back to me..... (Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare) Again, Shakespeare uses aposiopesis in the soliloquy spoken by Antony at Caesar's funeral ceremony. Anthony is making an emotional speech; hence, he is unable to finish his thought. This gives a perfect dramatic impact. Function of Aposiopesis The purpose of using aposiopesis is to create dramatic or comic effects. The writers or speakers use it whenever they want to express ideas which are too overwhelming to finish. Several playwrights use this technique to make the dialogues seem sincere and realistic. But the most effective use of aposiopesis is seen when the readers successfully figure out the missing thoughts that the writer has left unfinished.

Archaism

Archaism Archaism is the derivative of a Greek word, archaïkós, which means beginning or ancient. It is a figure of speech in which a used phrase or word is considered very old fashioned and outdated. It can be a word, a phrase, a group of letters, spellings and syntax.. Archaism is the use of writing or speech which is now rarely used. It is the use of older versions of language and art. Such as in these lines, "To thine own self be true" (Hamlet by William Shakespeare). Sentences that may be considered as examples of archaism will most probably contain the words "thine" and "thou". Evolution of Archaism Archaism is also known as the archaic diction. Languages evolve over the years. The English language which Shakespeare has written and spoken is very different from the English which is used today. The use of archaic language were found in the literary works of ancient medieval ages, as well as in the Victorian, Edwardian, 19th and 20th centuries. Examples of Archaism from Literature Archaism examples are found in the masterpieces of Shakespeare, S.T. Coleridge, Hemingway, and Keats. Example #1 It is an ancient Mariner, And he stoppeth one of three. 'By thy long grey beard and glittering eye, Now wherefore stopp'st thou me? He holds him with his skinny hand, 'There was a ship,' quoth he. 'Hold off! unhand me, grey-beard loon!' Eftsoons his hand dropt he 'I fear thy skinny hand!.... I fear thee and thy glittering eye, And thy skinny hand, so brown.'— Fear not, fear not, thou Wedding-Guest! This body dropt not down... (The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by S.T Coleridge) In the following extract, archaic words are used extensively. These words are: stoppeth, wherefore, thy, thou, quoth, unhand and dropt. Example #2 "Where the hell are you going? .... "Thy duty," said Agustín mockingly. "I besmirch the milk of thy duty." Then turning to the woman, "Where the un-nameable is this vileness that I am to guard?" "In the cave," Pilar said. "In two sacks. And I am tired of thy obscenity." "I obscenity in the milk of thy tiredness," Agustín said. "Then go and befoul thyself," Pilar said to him without heat. "Thy mother," Agustín replied.... (For Whom the Bell Tolls by Earnest Hemingway) Hemingway has filled this paragraph with archaism. Such as the words "un-namable" and "vileness" are old fashioned and out of use. He has, however, used them purposefully to create special mysterious effect. Example #3 Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store? Sometimes whoever seeks abroad may find Thee sitting careless on a granary floor, Thy hair soft-lifted by the winnowing wind;..... Drowsed with the fume of poppies, while thy hook And sometimes like a gleaner thou dost keep Steady thy laden head across a brook;.... Thou watchest the last oozings, hours by hours. (Ode to Autumn by John Keats) John Keats has used archaism frequently in his poems. This example is also based on old fashioned words. Like, "hath" is an older version of has, thou has replaced you, "watchest" is used as the past participle of watch. Example #4 Perhaps he loves you now, And now no soil nor cautel doth besmirch The virtue of his will There- my blessing with thee! And these few precepts in thy memory Look thou character. Give thy thoughts no tongue, 545.... I find thee apt; And duller shouldst thou be than the fat weed That rots itself in ease on Lethe wharf, 770 Wouldst thou not stir in this... (Hamlet by William Shakespeare) Shakespeare is famous for using archaic words to make his work more rhythmic, realistic and to draw the attention of readers. Here, "doth, thou, shouldst, thee and thy" are considered as archaic. Function of Archaism Archaism is frequently used in poetry, prose, science, law, geography, ritual and technology speech and writing. It may have been used accidentally or purposefully. The role of archaism in history is to suggest a superior, but maybe mythical, ancient golden age. Also, it can be used for creating humor and irony. However, the most effective use of archaism are in poetry. The sound patterns of the archaic words are helpful when it comes to assonance, alliteration and rhyme scheme.

Dialect

Dialect The language used by the people of a specific area, class, district or any other group of people. The term dialect involves the spelling, sounds, grammar and pronunciation used by a particular group of people and it distinguishes them from other people around them. Dialect is a very powerful and common way of characterization, which elaborates the geographic and social background of any character. Dialect Examples from Literature There are plenty of dialect examples in literature that show the best usage of dialect as a literary device. One of them is Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn where he used exaggerated dialect to distinguish between the characters: Example #1 Jim: "We's safe, Huck, we's safe! Jump up and crack yo' heels. Dat's de good ole Cairo at las', I jis knows it." Huck: "I'll take the canoe and go see, Jim. It mightn't be, you know." Example #2 The characters that are less educated and less sophisticated usually are shown to be speaking with a much stronger dialect. At certain points you might even need translations. Such as: Walter: Reckon I have. Almost died first year I come to school and et them pecans — folks say he pizened 'em and put 'em over on the school side of the fence. (To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee) Translation: I suppose I have. The first year I came to school and ate those pecans, I almost died. Some people accuse him [Mr. Radley] of poisoning them and keeping them over on the school side of the fence. Example #3 Lula: I wants to know why you bringing' white chillun to ****** church. (To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee) Translation: I want to know why you are bringing white children to a church for Negroes. Dialect Examples from Poetry Example #4 Will no one say hush! to thee, poor lass, poor bit of a wench? Will never a man say: Come, my pigeon, come an' be still wi' me, my own bit of a wench! (Poor Bit of a Wench by D.H. Lawrence) Example #5 I, the man with the red scarf, Will give thee what I have, this last week's earnings. Take them and buy thee a silver ring And wed me, to ease my yearnings. For the rest when thou art wedded I'll wet my brow for thee With sweat, I'll enter a house for thy sake, Thou shalt shut doors on me. (Gipsy by D.H. Lawrence) You can also find great examples of dialect usage in two of George Eliot's novels named Silas Mariner and Middlemarch. Another method of using dialect is to knowingly misspell a word to build an artistic aura around a character, which is termed as Metaplasmus. Dialects in American and British English There have been several very unique dialects in literature in the past, out of which some have grown to be more dominant. Old and middle English had distinctive regional dialects. The major dialects in old English involved Kentish, Northumbrian, Mercian and West Saxon English dialects, while as years passed, the West Saxon dialect became the standard. Moreover, middle English included Southern, West Midlands, Northern, East Midlands and Kentish dialects. In the British Isles, modern English give out hints of class as well as regional dialects. Almost every British country has its own variation to a certain extent. A.C Baugh pointed out that in one place, at times, you can mark three dialectal regions in a single shire. Modern American English consists of dialects such as Eastern New England, Mid-southern, Inland Northern, Southern, General American North, Midland, New York, and Black English Vernacular. Function of Dialect The narrative voice in literature usually aspires to speak in concert with the reality it illustrates. African American authors often criticize this condition while discussing the significance of speaking in so-called "standard" American English in comparison with African American English. Toni Cade Bambara has made a remarkable contribution in this aspect by choosing the language of her culture and community. She used her language as a very productive critical tool and her dialect illustration in "The Lesson" functioned as an examination of how the people who listen to it ultimately hear the disparaged talking. By reviving the language that was long marginalized she contributes towards the effort to salvage the cultural identity of African Americans. This integration of non-standard linguistic features into the literature in "the lesson" works as an insightful response to marginalization. It also proves the strength and power of language in portraying the diverse realities of people from different places.

Dialogue

Dialogue A dialogue is a literary technique in which writers employ two or more characters to be engaged in conversation with each other. In literature, it is a conversational passage or a spoken or written exchange of conversation in a group or between two persons directed towards a particular subject. The use of dialogues can be seen back in classical literature, especially in Plato's Republic. Several other philosophers also used this technique for rhetorical and argumentative purposes. Generally, it makes a literary work enjoyable and lively. Types of Dialogue There are two types of dialogues in literature: Inner Dialogue - In inner dialogue, the characters speak to themselves and reveal their personalities. To use inner dialogue, writers employ literary techniques like stream of consciousness or dramatic monologue. We often find such dialogues in the works of James Joyce, Virginia Wolf and William Faulkner. Outer Dialogue - It is a simple conversation between two characters used in almost all types of fictional works. Examples of Dialogue in Literature Let us see how famous writers have used dialogues for resonance and meaning in their works: Example 1 "Now he is here," I exclaimed. "For Heaven's sake, hurry down! Do be quick; and stay among the trees till he is fairly in." I must go, Cathy," said Heathcliff, seeking to extricate himself from his companion's arms. I won't stray five yards from your window... "For one hour," he pleaded earnestly. "Not for one minute," she replied. "I must-Linton will be up immediately," persisted the intruder." (Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte) Miss Bronte has employed surprises, opposition and reversals in this dialogue like will-it-happen? when he says, "But, if I live, I'll see you . . ." She has inserted these expressions in order to develop conflict in the plot. Example 2 "But who did he tell it to? You and me?" "And Porfiry." "What does it matter?" "And, by the way, do you have any influence over them, his mother and sister? Tell them to be more careful with him today . . ." "They'll get on all right!" Razumikhin answered reluctantly. "Why is he so set against this Luzhin? A man with money and she doesn't dislike him . . . "But what business is it of yours?" Razumikhin cried with annoyance. (Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky) In this excerpt, notice the use of conflict, emotions, information, conflict, reversal and opposition flowing by. The ideas and information are expressed with perfect timing, but here an important point is that the characters are not responding with a definite answer. This is a beautiful piece of dialogue. Example 3 Cal. Have you no visions that you cannot name? Ar. A picture should extend beyond its frame, There being no limitation To bright reality: For all their declaration And complexity, Words cannot see. (A Dialogue between Caliban and Ariel by John Fuller) Fuller has written this poem in the dialogue form. Two characters, Caliban and Ariel are conversing, revealing the conflict, as Caliban asks questions, and Ariel gives answers that make the poem alive and interesting. Example 4 "Oh! Single, my dear, to be sure! A single man of large fortune; four or five thousand a year. What a fine thing for our girls!" "How so? How can it affect them?" "My dear Mr. Bennet, "replied his wife, "how can you be so tiresome! You must know that I am thinking of his marrying one of them... My dear, you flatter me. I certainly have had my share of beauty, but I do not pretend to be anything extraordinary now...she ought to give over thinking of her own beauty." (Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen) Austen explores the characters in her novels through dialogue. Likewise, in the following conversation, the author unfolds Mrs. Bennet's character as stupid and worthless. Mr. Bennet makes fun of her wife, and this dialogue sums up their relationship and gives hints about their personalities. Function of Dialogue The use of dialogues is prevalent in fiction, but this technique can also be found in poetry, non-fiction, films and drama. The dialogue has several purposes, such as advances the plot of a narrative, and reveals the characters that cannot be understood otherwise. Further, it presents an exposition of the background or the past events and creates the tone of a narrative. Its usage can also be seen in the modern literary works, where it colors the personalities of the characters, creates a conflict, highlights the vernacular and moves the storyline forward. Moreover, dialogue makes a literary piece interesting and alive, and gives enjoyable experience to the readers.

Exposition

Exposition Exposition is a literary device used to introduce background information about events, settings, characters etc. to the audience or readers. The word comes from the Latin language and its literal meaning is "a showing forth." Exposition is crucial to any story, for without it nothing makes sense. There are many ways to present an exposition and they include monologues, dialogues, in-universe media (newspaper, letters, reports, journal etc.), a protagonist's thoughts or a narrator's explanation of past events. It is one of the four rhetorical modes of communication - the other three being narration, description and argumentation. Exposition Examples Exposition in Movies Example #1 There are countless examples of exposition in many great movies and one of them, which comes across particularly well is from Star Wars. The exposition in this movie is the opening title sequence that gives information about the past events to the viewers. The crawling text on the screen at the beginning of each part gives the audience every piece of information they need to understand the upcoming events in the film. The opening lines usually begin like this: "A long time ago in a galaxy far away, far away..." Exposition in Literature Example #2 An exposition is typically positioned at the beginning of a novel or a movie because the author wants the readers to be fully aware of the characters in the story. The famous story for children titled "The Three Little Bears" applies this technique of exposition. Once upon a time, there were three bears. There was a Daddy Bear, who was very big, a Mama Bear, who was middle-sized, and a Baby Bear, who was very small. They all lived together in a little cottage in the middle of the woods. Their favorite breakfast was porridge. One morning, after they made their porridge, Daddy Bear said, 'Let's go for walk in the woods until it cools.' Mama Bear and Baby Bear liked the idea, so off they went. While they were away, a little girl named Goldilocks came walking through the forest and smelled the porridge... With the help of a single passage, the author of the story has given us an overview of the bear family, their residence and information on how the story sets in motion. All of Shakespeare's writings contain excellent exposition examples. Take Othello, Romeo and Juliet, Henry V, and Richard III, and you will see how exceptionally he has used the art of expository writing. Here, two examples from Othello have been taken to elaborate the point. Example #3 Act I: the opening scene of Othello shows a fierce argument between Roderigo and Iago, which helps build the interest of the readers. The readers/audiences realize that Iago is persistently trying to convince Roderigo to be his accomplice in destroying Othello. The exposition in this scene plays the following roles: It explicates Iago's treacherous, spiteful and scheming nature. The main conflict of the play is revealed here. It revolves around Iago's concealed bitterness towards his boss Othello who, in Iago's opinion, is overloooking him for promotion. It ascertains two basic themes of the play: racism and that appearance is not always the same as reality. Example #4 End of Act 1: this part of the play tells the audience a few facts about Othello that include: He is a very respectable man. He had run off with Desdemona, Brabantio's daughter. He is a great general who is sought by Venice to defend it in the war against the Turks. As it is evident from the examples given above, exposition always gives us an insight into the characters' personalities and adds a flavor to the tragedy and drama we see towards the end of the play. Function of exposition The importance of exposition in literature, as well as in our practical lives, cannot be ignored. Examining the types of writing we come across in our daily lives show us that almost all of them are incomplete without exposition. The fiction books, articles and magazines that people read in their everyday lives essentially rely on exposition to connect the readers to the main story by giving them the background information. In most cases, a narrative or script loses its essence if not accompanied by an exposition. Not only is it important for bringing clarity to a script but it is also vital to enhance its literary value. The true essence of a book usually lies in how the reader is introduced to the characters in it and, if done correctly, the reader automatically starts relating to them. Moreover, exposition is also widely used for academic purposes in schools, colleges and universities. Generally, students are asked to submit research reports and pass exams to establish their progress. The exposition here is keeping the academia updated on what you have learned so far. Also, employees are also asked very often to put together business reports and memorandums to update their employers about their progress.

Analogy

An analogy is a comparison in which an idea or a thing is compared to another thing that is quite different from it. It aims at explaining that idea or thing by comparing it to something that is familiar. Metaphors and similes are tools used to draw an analogy. Therefore, analogy is more extensive and elaborate than either a simile or a metaphor. Consider the following example: "Structure of an atom is like a solar system. Nucleus is the sun and electrons are the planets revolving around their sun." Here an atomic structure is compared to a solar system by using "like". Therefore, it is a simile. Metaphor is used to relate the nucleus to the sun and the electrons to the planets without using words "like" or "as'. Hence, similes and metaphors are employed to develop an analogy. We use analogy in our everyday conversation. Some common analogy examples are given below: Life is like a race. The one who keeps running wins the race and the one who stops to catch a breath loses. Just as a sword is the weapon of a warrior, a pen is the weapon of a writer. How a doctor diagnoses diseases is like how a detective investigates crimes. Just as a caterpillar comes out of its cocoon, so we must come out of our comfort zone. You are as annoying as nails on a chalkboard. Analogy Examples in Literature Below are a few examples of analogy in literature: Examples #1 The given lines are from Amy Lowell's poem "Night Clouds". "The white mares of the moon rush along the sky Beating their golden hoofs upon the glass Heavens." The poetess constructs the analogy between clouds and mares. She compares the movement of the white clouds in the sky at night with that of the white mares on the ground. Function of Analogy in Literature Writers use analogies to link an unfamiliar or a new idea with common and familiar objects. It is easier for readers to comprehend a new idea, which may have been difficult for them to understand otherwise. Their comprehension of a new idea picks up the pace when they observe its similarity to something that is familiar to them. In addition, by employing this literary tool, writers catch the attention of their readers. Analogies help increase readers' interest as analogies help them relate what they read to their life.

Symbolism

Symbolism Symbolism is the use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities by giving them symbolic meanings that are different from their literal sense. Symbolism can take different forms. Generally, it is an object representing another to give it an entirely different meaning that is much deeper and more significant. Sometimes, however, an action, an event or a word spoken by someone may have a symbolic value. For instance, "smile" is a symbol of friendship. Similarly, the action of someone smiling at you may stand as a symbol of the feeling of affection which that person has for you. Symbols do shift their meanings depending on the context they are used in. "A chain", for example, may stand for "union" as well as "imprisonment". Thus, symbolic meaning of an object or an action is understood by when, where and how it is used. It also depends on who reads them. Common Examples of Symbolism in Everyday Life In our daily life, we can easily identify objects, which can be taken as examples of symbol such as the following: The dove is a symbol of peace. A red rose or red color stands for love or romance. Black is a symbol that represents evil or death. A ladder may stand as a symbol for a connection between the heaven and the earth. A broken mirror may symbolize separation Symbolism Examples in Literature To develop symbolism in his work, a writer utilizes other figures of speech, like metaphors, similes, allegory, as tools. Some symbolism examples in literature are listed below with brief analysis: Example #1 We find symbolic value in Shakespeare's famous monologue in his play As you Like It: "All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players; they have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts," The above lines are symbolic of the fact that men and women, in course of their life perform different roles. "A stage" here symbolizes the world and "players" is a symbol for human beings. Example #2 William Blake goes symbolic in his poem Ah Sunflower. He says: "Ah Sunflower, weary of time, Who countest the steps of the sun; Seeking after that sweet golden clime Where the traveler's journey is done;" Blake uses a sunflower as a symbol for human beings and "the sun" symbolizes life. Therefore, these lines symbolically refer to their life cycle and their yearning for a never-ending life. Example #3 Emily Bronte's Wuthering Heights presents almost every character, house, surroundings and events in a symbolic perspective. The word "Wuthering", which means stormy, represents the wild nature of its inhabitants. The following lines allow us to look into the symbolic nature of two characters: "My love for Linton is like the foliage in the woods. Time will change it; I'm well aware, as winter changes the trees. My love for Heathcliff resembles the eternal rocks beneath a source of little visible delight, but necessary." The phrase "foliage of leaves" for Linton is a symbol for his fertile and civilized nature. On the contrary, Heathcliff is likened to an "eternal rock" which symbolizes his crude and unbendable nature. Example #4 Sara Teasdale in her poem Wild Asters develops a number of striking symbols: "In the spring, I asked the daisies If his words were true, And the clever, clear-eyed daisies Always knew. Now the fields are brown and barren, Bitter autumn blows, And of all the stupid asters Not one knows." In the above lines, "spring" and "daisies" are symbols of youth. "Brown and barren" are symbols of transition from youth to old age. Moreover, "Bitter autumn" symbolizes death. Function of Symbolism Symbolism gives a writer freedom to add double levels of meanings to his work: a literal one that is self-evident and the symbolic one whose meaning is far more profound than the literal one. The symbolism, therefore, gives universality to the characters and the themes of a piece of literature. Symbolism in literature evokes interest in readers as they find an opportunity to get an insight of the writer's mind on how he views the world and how he thinks of common objects and actions, having broader implications.

Antecedent

Antecedent Antecedent is an earlier clause, phrase or word to which a pronoun, another word or a noun refers back to. Broadly speaking, antecedent is a literary device in which a word or pronoun in a line or sentence refers to an earlier word, for instance, "while giving treats to children or friends offer them whatever they like." In these lines, children and friends are antecedents, while they is a pronoun, referring to friends and children. It is a typical linguistic term and originates from grammar. Often antecedents and their respective pronouns agree in numbers, which means if antecedents are singular, the pronouns that replace them will also be singular. However, sometimes writers might not follow this rule, and we see singular antecedents are replaced with plural pronouns. Likewise, antecedents and their following pronouns have the same gender. Difference between Antecedent and Postcedent Both of these terms are opposite to each other, as antecedent refers to in front of or before. It is an expression that gives meaning to a proform (a noun, pronoun, pro-adverb or pro-verb). Hence, proforms follow their respective antecedents such as "Elizabeth says, she likes coffee." Sometimes these proforms or pronouns precede them that are called postcedents, meaning behind or after such as, "when it gets ready, I shall definitely get my cup of tea." Common Examples of Antecedent David plays football in the courtyard. All the children have gathered there. My uncle likes candies. He requests everyone to give him candies as gift. When children are happy, they clap to express their pleasure. The leaves have turned yellow; even then they are on the tree. The bird ate the fish quickly and immediately it died. A good story must a quality about it; it must have characters, setting, narration and dialogues. Antecedent Examples from Literature Example 1 And still more, later flowers for the bees, Until they think warm days will never cease, For Summer has o'er-brimmed their clammy cell. (From "Ode to Autumn" by John Keats) In the above lines, bees are used as antecedent and pronouns, "they" and "their" refer to this noun used earlier. See that antecedent and its pronoun are italicized. If we remove pronouns, these lines will have entirely different and confusing impressions, and their meanings will change. Example 2 There's not a man I meet but doth salute me As if I were their well-acquainted friend And every one doth call me by my name. Some tender money to me; some invite me; (From "A Comedy of Errors" by William Shakespeare) Here, Shakespeare uses pronoun of vague reference by employing singular antecedent "a man" with plural pronoun "their." However, the noun everyone is singular and both agree in their numbers. The speaker tries to explain he did not meet a single person but everyone knew his name and hence calls everyone as "their." Example 3 I was angry with my foe: I told it not, my wrath did grow. And I watered it in fears, Night and morning with my tears; And I sunned it with smiles,... (From "A Poison Tree" by William Blake) This poem presents a very good example of antecedent in which the speaker uses a noun "foe" as antecedent and replaces it with a pronoun "it" in the very next line. Similarly, he again makes use of "wrath" as an antecedent, and replaces it with "it." Example 4 Me thinks the wind has spoke aloud at land, A fuller blast ne'er shook our battlements If it hath ruffianed so upon the sea What ribs of oak, when moutains melt on them... (From "Othello" by William Shakespeare) In this excerpt, antecedent is "wind" and pronoun "it" is its denotation, replacing it in the third line. Antecedent makes these lines clear and easy to understand for the readers. Function of Antecedent Antecedent is a very important and useful literary device, as it makes the sense of a sentence clear to the readers. By using references such as they, their, them, it, he and she without any subject would become confusing to understand. Hence, antecedent makes the composition words, grammar and the expression of the writers clear and precise, as without it, a sentence remains vague and cannot convey exact meanings. Besides, it is a tricky concept, however, a worthwhile rule to grasp, because it helps the writers improve their writing style too.

Haiku

Haiku A haiku poem has three lines, where the first and last lines have five moras, while the middle line has seven. The pattern in Japanese genre is 5-7-5. The mora is another name of a sound unit, which is like a syllable, but it is different from a syllable. As the moras cannot be translated into English, they are modified and syllables are used instead. The lines of such poems rarely rhyme with each other. Haiku became popular as tanka poems in Japan during the 9th and 12th centuries. Initially, it was called "hokku" and Basho, Buson and Issa were the first three masters of the haiku genre. Haiku poetry is also full of metaphors and personifications. However, this has been often argued against, since haikus are supposed to be written on objective experiences and not subjective ones. In English, several experiments were made in this genre as given below. Below is a translation of one of the popular haiku examples. Autumn moonlight- a worm digs silently into the chestnut. (Autumn Moonlight by Basho) Features of Haiku It contains three lines. It has five moras (syllables) in the first line, seven in the second and five in the last line. It contains 17 syllables in total. A Haiku poem does not rhyme. Haiku poems frequently have a kigo or seasonal reference. Haiku poems are usually about nature or natural phenomenon. The poem has two juxtaposed subjects that are divided into two contrasting parts. In English, this division between two parts can be shown by a colon or dash. Examples of Haiku in Literature Example #1 Old pond a frog jumps the sound of water (Old Pond by Basho) In this example, we can clearly see two contrasting parts of the poem; one is about frog that is jumping and second is about the sound of water. The syllable pattern is also following a 5-7-5 format. Example #2 Snow in my shoe- Abandoned Sparrow's nest (Book of Haikus by Jack Kerouac) This haiku is presenting an image in the first part; "snow in my shoe". And there are two contrasting ideas that mingle with each other as the second part is about nature. The pattern of syllables is 5-7-5. The poet has tried to present a little story in this haiku. Example #3 Calling home- the color of mother's voice before her words (Dust of Summers by Hilary Tann) Twilight... his voice deep purple (Dust of Summers by Ludmila Balabanova) In these haikus, figurative device such as metaphors have been used to present an insight of the world. Through this technique, multiple senses are used to gather sensory information. Example #4 Song birds at the train yard's edge two cars coupling (Thirds by Jeffrey Winke) Personification is also a definite trait of haiku poetry. This is to assign a human quality or qualities to nonhuman things, though less prevalent in haiku as compared to metaphors. In this poem, personification is very well done, hence allowing the poem to speak for itself. Example #5 To a leg of a heron Adding a long shank Of a pheasant. (To a Leg of Heron, from "The Book of Master Tchouang" by Basho) The theme of this poem is to laugh at yourself. This is a perfect example of haiku poetry, as it is perfectly following the pattern of syllable counts. It is also giving an amusing and ironic touch, since reality is the major aspect of this form of poetry. Example #6 Lily: out of the water out of itself Bass Picking bugs off the moon ("Lily" and "Bass" From Selected Haiku by Nick Virgilio) Nick Virgilio is an American poet who is a great supporter of Japanese haiku. He has written 5-7-5 syllable style poems when translated in Japanese. These examples of haiku poems are natural, mystical and refined. Function of Haiku Haikus are short poems written on topics and things that the readers could identify with easily. For example, seasons and animals are readily recognizable topics to the readers. Generally, haiku is written for realistic and objective reasons; however, haikus are also written for children. Sometimes it presents two juxtaposed ideas to express meanings through internal comparison.

Apostrophe

In literature, apostrophe is a figure of speech sometimes represented by exclamation "O". A writer or a speaker, using an apostrophe, detaches himself from the reality and addresses an imaginary character in his speech. It is important not to confuse the apostrophe which is a figure of speech and the apostrophe which is a punctuation mark ('). It shows possession or a mark to indicate omission of one or more letters (contractions) while apostrophe used in literature is an arrangement of words addressing a non-existent person or an abstract idea in such a way as if it were present and capable of understanding feelings. Example #1 William Shakespeare makes use of an apostrophe in his play "Macbeth": "Is this a dagger which I see before me, The handle toward my hand? Come, let me clutch thee! I have thee not, and yet I see thee still." In his mental conflict before murdering King Duncan, Macbeth has a strange vision of a dagger and talks to it as if it were another person. Function of Apostrophe By employing apostrophe in their literary works, writers try to bring abstract ideas or non-existent persons to life so that the nature of emotions they want to communicate gets across in a better way - because it is more convenient for the readers to relate themselves to the abstract emotions when they observe them in their natural surroundings. In addition, the use of apostrophe motivates the readers to develop a perspective that is fresh as well as creative.

Archetype

In literature, an archetype is a typical character, an action or a situation that seems to represent such universal patterns of human nature. An archetype, also known as universal symbol, may be a character, a theme, a symbol or even a setting. Many literary critics are of the opinion that archetypes, which have a common and recurring representation in a particular human culture or entire human race, shape the structure and function of a literary work. Carl Jung, Swiss psychologist, argued that the root of an archetype is in the "collective unconscious" of mankind. The phrase "collective unconscious" refers to experiences shared by a race or culture. This includes love, religion, death, birth, life, struggle, survival etc. These experiences exist in the subconscious of every individual and are recreated in literary works or in other forms of art. Example #1 The Hero: He or she is a character who predominantly exhibits goodness and struggles against evil in order to restore harmony and justice to society e.g. Beowulf, Hercules, D'artagnan from "The Three Musketeers" etc. Function of Archetype The use of archetypical characters and situations gives a literary work a universal acceptance, as readers identify the characters and situations in their social and cultural context. By using common archetype, the writers attempt to impart realism to their works, as the situations and characters are drawn from the experiences of the world.

Anaphora

In writing or speech, the deliberate repetition of the first part of the sentence in order to achieve an artistic effect is known as Anaphora. Anaphora, possibly the oldest literary device, has its roots in Biblical Psalms used to emphasize certain words or phrases. Gradually, Elizabethan and Romantic writers brought this device into practice. Examine the following psalm: "O LORD, rebuke me not in thine anger, neither chasten me in thy hot displeasure. Have mercy upon me, O LORD; for I am weak: O LORD, heal me; for my bones are vexed. My soul is also sore vexed: but thou, O LORD, how long?" The repetition of the phrase "O Lord," attempts to create a spiritual sentiment. This is anaphora. Common Anaphora Examples It is common for us to use anaphora in our everyday speech to lay emphasis on the idea we want to convey or for self affirmation. Read the following anaphora examples: "Every day, every night, in every way, I am getting better and better" "My life is my purpose. My life is my goal. My life is my inspiration." "Buying nappies for the baby, feeding the baby, playing with the baby: This is what your life is when you have a baby. "I want my money right now, right here, all right?" Example of Anaphora in Literature: Read the following examples: Example #1 Shakespeare does not disappoint us in the use of anaphora too. Read the following example taken from his play "Richard II" Act 2 Scene 1: "This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England, This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings [. . .] This land of such dear souls, this dear dear land," The repetition of the word "this" creates an emotional effect on the readers particularly those who are English. Further, it highlights the significance of England. The repetition of the word "dear" shows emotional attachment of the writer to the land and expects a similar response from the readers as well. Functions of Anaphora Apart from the function of giving prominence to ideas, the use of anaphora in literature adds rhythm to it and thus, making it more pleasurable to read and easier to remember. As a literary device, anaphora serves the purpose of furnishing artistic effect to the passages of prose and poetry. As a rhetorical device, it is used to appeal to the emotions of the audience in order to persuade, inspire, motivate and encourage them.

Logos

Logos Logos is a Greek word meaning logic. Logos is a literary device that can be defined as a statement, sentence or argument used to convince or persuade the targeted audience by employing reason or logic. In everyday life, arguments depend upon pathos and ethos besides logos. Logos mostly employs the utilization of inductive and deductive reasoning methods to be effective. There are many examples of logos in literature and in debates. Classification of Logos Logos examples may be classified according to the following categories. Inductive reasoning - Inductive reasoning involves a specific representative fact or case which is drawn towards a conclusion or generalization. However, inductive reasoning requires reliable and powerful evidence that is presented to support the point. Deductive reasoning - Deductive reasoning involves generalization at the initial stage and then moves on towards the specific case. The starting generalization must be based on reliable evidence to support it at the end. In some cases, both of these methods are used to convince the audience. Examples of Logos in Literature Example #1 The wage system has made people believe that what a man needs is work. This, of course, is absurd. What he needs is the goods produced by work, and the less work involved in making a given amount of goods, the better...... But owing to our economic system...where a better system would produce only an increase of wages or a diminution in the hours of work without any corresponding diminution of wages. (Political Ideals by Bertrand Russell) In this paragraph, Russell is presenting arguments for the unjust distribution of wealth and its consequences. He gives the answer through logic and states that a reason for this injustice is due to evils in institutions. His deduction is that capitalism and the wage system should be abolished to improve the economic system. Example #2 All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (The Art of Rhetoric by Aristotle) Aristotle is using syllogistic arguments here, where some of the arguments or assertions remain unstated. Since, Socrates is a man therefore, he is mortal; all men are mortal so eventually they will die. This is the logic presented here. Example #3 "Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man". (Of Studies by Francis Bacon) This example is exact, precise and compact with arguments as well as a deduction or conclusion. At first, Bacon points out what is reading, conference and writing and simultaneously gives the logic and reasoning to read, write or conference (discussion). Example #4 "Crafty men condemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them; for they teach not their own use; but that is wisdom without them, and above them, won by observation". (Of Studies by Francis Bacon) This is also a perfect example of logos. Here, Bacon discusses the matter of theories versus skills. There comes a clash between reading and not reading. He argues that a reader is better than those who cling to what they already know. He uses logic that reading is necessary because it improves the skills. Example #5 Oh, beware, my lord, of jealousy! It is the green-eyed monster which doth mock The meat it feeds on..... Who, certain of his fate, loves not his wronger, But, oh, what damnèd minutes tells he o'er Who dotes, yet doubts— suspects, yet soundly loves... She did deceive her father, marrying you... She loved them most.... I humbly do beseech you of your pardon For too much loving you.... (Othello by Shakespeare) In this extract, Iago convinces Othello with logic and reasoning and makes him doubtful that there is a secret relationship between Desdemona and Cassio. Function of Logos Logos is used in citing facts besides statistical, literal and historical analogies. It is something through which inner thoughts are presented in a logical way before the audience for persuasion. In society, rationality and logic are greatly valued and this type of convincing approach is generally honored more than appeals made by a speaker or character to the audience. On the other hand, scientific reasoning and formal logic are perhaps not suitable for general audiences, as they are more appropriate for scientific professionals only.

Allusion

Allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical, cultural, literary or political significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing to which it refers. It is just a passing comment and the writer expects the reader to possess enough knowledge to spot the allusion and grasp its importance in a text. For instance, you make a literary allusion the moment you say, "I do not approve of this quixotic idea," Quixotic means stupid and impractical derived from Cervantes's "Don Quixote", a story of a foolish knight and his misadventures. Allusion Examples in Everyday Speech The use allusions are not confined to literature alone. Their occurrence is fairly common in our daily speech. Look at some common allusion examples in everyday life: "Don't act like a Romeo in front of her." - "Romeo" is a reference to Shakespeare's Romeo, a passionate lover of Juliet, in "Romeo and Juliet". The rise in poverty will unlock the Pandora's box of crimes. - This is an allusion to one of Greek Mythology's origin myth, "Pandora's box". "This place is like a Garden of Eden." - This is a biblical allusion to the "garden of God" in the Book of Genesis. "Hey! Guess who the new Newton of our school is?" - "Newton", means a genius student, alludes to a famous scientist Isaac Newton. "Stop acting like my ex-husband please." - Apart from scholarly allusions we refer to common people and places in our speech. Examples of Allusion in Literature Let us analyze a few examples of the use of allusions in literature: Example #1 Milton's "Paradise Lost" gives allusions a fair share. Look at the example from Book 6 below: "All night the dread less Angel unpursu'd Through Heav'ns wide Champain held his way, till Morn, Wak't by the circling Hours, with rosie hand Unbarr'd the gates of Light. There is a Cave Within the Mount of God, fast by his Throne" In the above lines "dread less Angel" is a reference to "Abdiel", a fearless angel. "Circling Hours" alludes to a Greek Myth "The Horae", the daughters of "Zeus" and "Themis" namely "Thallo (Spring), Auxo (Summer) and Carpo (Fall). " With rosie hand" Milton refers to Homer's illustration of the "rosy fingered dawn" (Odyssey Book 2). Function of Allusion By and large, the use of allusions enables writers or poets to simplify complex ideas and emotions. The readers comprehend the complex ideas by comparing the emotions of the writer or poet to the references given by them. Furthermore, the references to Greek Mythology give a dreamlike and magical touch to the works of art. Similarly, biblical allusions appeal to the readers with religious backgrounds.

Anachronism

Anachronism is derived from a Greek word anachronous which means "against time". Therefore, an anachronism is an error of chronology or timeline in a literary piece. In other words, anything that is out of time and out of place is an anachronism. Anachronisms appear in literature, paintings etc. and it is fascinating to explore them. Generally, they are considered errors that occur due to lack of research. For example, if a painter paints a portrait of Aristotle and shows him wearing a wrist watch, it would be an example of anachronism, as we all are aware that wristwatches did not exist during Aristotle's time. Similarly, the presence of a wall clock in a stage setting that depicts the interior of a Roman fort is an anachronism. Example #1 The most famous anachronism example comes from Act 2 Scene 1 of William Shakespeare's play "Julius Caesar": "Brutus: Peace! Count the clock. Cassius: The clock has stricken three." The time this play depicts is a point in history dating back to 44 AD. Mechanical clocks referred to in the above-mentioned dialogue had not been invented at that time but were present in Shakespeare's time. Thus, the mention of a clock in this play is an anachronism. The same play presents another example of anachronism in Act 1 Scene 2: "...he plucked me open his doublet and offered them his throat to cut" Romans at the time of Julius Caesar did not wear a doublet, a close-fitted jacket, but it was a fashion among men at the time of Shakespeare, and therefore its use in the play is an anachronism. Function of Anachronism Generally, an anachronism is considered an unintentional error that is a result of a writer's carelessness and his lack of research. At times, however, it is employed in order to produce a special artistic effect in order to attract the attention of the readers by an appropriate use of anachronism.

Aphorism

Aphorism is a statement of truth or opinion expressed in a concise and witty manner. The term is often applied to philosophical, moral and literary principles. To qualify as an aphorism, it is necessary for a statement to contain a truth revealed in a terse manner. Aphoristic statements are quoted in writings as well as in our daily speech. The fact that they contain a truth gives them a universal acceptance. Scores of philosophers, politicians, writers, artists and sportsman and other individuals are remembered for their famous aphoristic statements. Aphorisms often come with a pinch of humor, which makes them more appealing to the masses. Proverbs, maxims, adages and clichés are different forms of aphoristic statements that gain prevalence from generation to generation and frequently appear in our day-to-day speech. Common Aphorism Examples Let us look at some aphorism examples: Youth is a blunder; Manhood a struggle; Old age regret. [Benjamin Disraeli] Pride hath fall. [Proverb] The man who removes a mountain begins by carrying away small stones. [William Faulkner] Life's Tragedy is that we get old too soon and wise too late. [Benjamin Franklin] Yesterday is but today's memory, and tomorrow is today's dream. [Khalil Gibran] The simplest questions are the hardest to answer. [Northrop Frye] A proverb is no proverb to you till life has illustrated it. [John Keats] Words are, of course, the most powerful drug used by mankind. [Rudyard Kipling] Examples of Aphorism in Literature Many pieces of literature are appreciated for the aphorisms they contain which are often cited by scholars as well as laymen. Below are some examples of aphorisms in literature: Example #1 Sir Francis Bacon excels in aphoristic style of writing. Possibly, his sayings are the most quoted of all. Read the following examples: "Studies serve for delight, for ornament and for ability." (Of Studies) "To use too many circumstances, ere one come to the matter, is wearisome, to use none at all, is Blunt."(Of Discourse) "Praise is the reflection of the virtue. But it is the reflection glass or body which giveth the reflection."(Of Praise) Function of Aphorism As already mentioned in the above discussion, making use of aphorisms allows a writer to teach a philosophical or moral truth. The revealed truths prove relevant to human experiences of real life. Therefore, the readers relate the piece of literature to real life and become more fascinated and vigilant in their reading. Moreover, as truths are universal, revealing general truths in literature, adds to their universal commendation. Motivational speeches quote aphorisms from such sources to inspire motivation among individuals.

Evidence

Evidence Evidence is a type of literary device that appears in different categories of essays and theses in the form of paraphrase and quotations. It is presented to persuade the readers and used with powerful arguments in the texts or essays. It is factual information that helps the reader reach a conclusion and form an opinion about something. Evidence is given in research work or is quoted in essays and thesis statements but is paraphrased by the writer. If it is given as it is, then it is quoted properly within quotation marks. In rhetoric, when a person makes a claim or presents an argument, he needs to present evidence in support of his claim and argument in order to establish the veracity and authenticity of his claim or argument. If there is no evidence, the claim stands quashed. The same is true with a case in law where a case or litigation is quashed, if there is no evidence to support the claim. However, literary evidence is only used in literature, essays and research papers for persuasion and convincing purposes. Evidence Examples in Literature Example #1 An extract from "The Bluest Eye" by Tony Morrison "I talk about how I did not plant the seeds too deeply, how it was the fault of the earth, our land, our town. I even think now that the land of the entire country was hostile to marigolds that year. This soil is bad for certain kinds of flowers. Certain seeds it will not nurture, certain fruit it will not bear, and when the land kills of its own volition, we acquiesce and say the victim had no right to live." (206) Morrison evidently analyzes the environment as it has powerful effects on the individuals. She provides strong evidence that that the Earth itself is not fertile for the marigold seeds. Likewise, people also cannot survive in an unfriendly environment. Example #2 An extract from "The Color of Water" by James McBride "While she weebled and wobbled and leaned, she did not fall. She responded with speed and motion. She would not stop moving" (163). As she biked, walked, rode the bus all over the city, "she kept moving as if her life depended on it, which in some ways it did. She ran, as she had done most of her life, but this time she was running for her own sanity" (164). McBride supports his arguments and understanding of a mother as an individual who keeps moving in her life and does not stop to think about what is happening and why something is happening. Since the movement offers a solution, which though temporary, preserves her sanity. Example #3 An effective use of evidence in a quotation "Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much anymore as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence. In fact, the evidence shows that most American families no longer eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment (Gleick 148). Sit-down meals are time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity." (Anonymous) This is a best example of evidence, since the evidence is effectively incorporated into the text, as the author makes the link between her claim (question) and the evidence (logic) which is powerful. Function of Evidence When writing something about literature or writing about a particular text, a writer needs to strengthen his discussion by providing powerful answers from the text as evidence of the questions he raises. It is not enough to just simply drop in quotations around the text and expect their relevance and importance of his arguments to be self-evident. The fact is that simply making a claim and throwing an argument does nothing to convince the readers and the listeners. The readers and the audience will only believe when the writer or the speaker have strong evidence to back up their arguments. Therefore, evidence not only help the writer convince his readers but also persuade them to feel sympathy or to support his argument. Mostly political speakers, research writers and editorial writers use evidence extensively to turn public opinion for or against some issue.

Assonance

Assonance takes place when two or more words close to one another repeat the same vowel sound but start with different consonant sounds. For instance, "Men sell the wedding bells." The same vowel sound of the short vowel "-e-" repeats itself in almost all the words excluding the definite article. The words do share the same vowel sounds but start with different consonant sounds unlike alliteration that involves repetition of the same consonant sounds. Below are a few assonance examples that are more common: Common Assonance Examples We light fire on the mountain. I feel depressed and restless. Go and mow the lawn. Johnny went here and there and everywhere. The engineer held the steering to steer the vehicle. Assonance is primarily used in poetry in order to add rhythm and music, by adding an internal rhyme to a poem. Let us look at some examples of assonance from literature. Example #1 Try to notice the use of assonance in Robert Frosts poem "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening": "He gives his harness bells a shake To ask if there is some mistake. The only other sound's the sweep Of easy wind and downy flake. The woods are lovely, dar and deep. But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep." The underlined bold letters in the above extract are vowels that are repeated to create assonance. Function of Assonance Similar to any other literary device, assonance also has a very important role to play in both poetry and prose. Writers use it as a tool to enhance a musical effect in the text by using it for creating internal rhyme, which consequently enhances the pleasure of reading a literary piece. In addition, it helps writers to develop a particular mood in the text that corresponds with its subject matter.

Cliché

Cliché Cliché refers to an expression that has been overused to the extent that it loses its original meaning or novelty. A cliché may also refer to actions and events which are predictable because of some previous events. All examples of Cliché are expressions that were once new and fresh. They won popularity in public and hence have been used so extensively that such expressions now sound boring and at times irritable due to the fact that they have lost their original color. For instance, the phrase "as red as a rose" must have been a fresh and innovative expression at some point in time but today it is considered universally as a cliché and does not sound good to be used in everyday formal writing. Expressions that are not Clichés It is important to keep in mind that constant reuse of expressions does not necessarily create a cliché. Typical expressions that are used almost at all times in formal ceremonies, festivals, courts etc. are not considered cliché examples; rather they befit such occasions and are regarded as more appropriate: "I second the motion" (Courts) "I now pronounce you man and wife" (Wedding Ceremony) "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States." (Oath taking ceremony) "Happy Birthday!" Similarly, certain epithets like "reverend" and "father" are attached to the names of church officials. Besides, people of the royal family are addressed with epithets "Your Grace", "Your Highness" or "Your Royal Highness". Such expressions are part of etiquette and do not fall under the category of clichés. Common Cliché Examples Example #1 In describing time, the following expressions have turned into cliché in the nick of time - to happen just in time only time will tell - to become clear over time a matter of time - to happen sooner or later at the speed of light - to do something very quickly lasted an eternity - to last for a very long time lost track of time - to stop paying attention to time Example #2 In describing people, these expressions have turned into cliché as brave as a lion - a cliché to describe a very brave person as clever as a fox - a cliché to describe a very clever person as old as the hills - a cliché to describe an old person a diamond in the rough - a cliché to describe someone with a brilliant future fit as a fiddle - a cliché to describe a person in a good shape as meek as a lamb - a cliché to describe a person who is too weak and humble Example #3 In describing various sentiments, a number of expressions have turned into cliché e.g. frightened to death - to be too frightened scared out of one's wits - to be too frightened all is fair in love and war - to go to any extent to claim somebody's love all is well that ends well - a happy ending reduces the severity of problems that come in the way every cloud has a silver lining - problems also have something good in them the writing on the wall - something clear and already understood time heals all wounds - pain and miseries get will with the passage of time haste makes waste - people make mistakes in a rush Example #4 Below is a list of some more common clichés: They all lived happily ever after. Read between the lines Fall head over heals Waking up on the wrong side of the bed The quiet before the storm Between the devil and the deep blue sea Function of Cliché Anton C. Zijderveld, a Dutch sociologist, throws light on the function of a cliché in the following extract taken from his treatise "On Clichés": A cliché is a traditional form of human expression (in words, thoughts, emotions, gestures, acts) which-due to repetitive use in social life-has lost its original, often ingenious heuristic power. Although it thus fails positively to contribute meaning to social interactions and communication, it does function socially, since it manages to stimulate behavior (cognition, emotion, volition, action), while it avoids reflection on meanings.

Climax

Climax Definition Climax, a Greek term meaning "ladder", is that particular point in a narrative at which the conflict or tension hits the highest point. Climax is a structural part of a plot and is at times referred to as a crisis. It is a decisive moment or a turning point in a storyline at which the rising action turns around into a falling action. Thus, a climax is the point at which a conflict or crisis reaches its peak that calls for a resolution or denouement (conclusion). In a five-act play, the climax is close to the conclusion of act 3. Later in the 19th century, the five-act plays were replaced by three-act plays and the climax was placed close to the conclusion or at the end of the play. Climax Examples in Literature Let us analyze a few climax examples in literature: Example #1 In William Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet", the story reaches its climax in Act 3. In the first scene of the act, Romeo challenges Tybalt to a duel after he (Tybalt) killed Mercutio: "And fire-eyed fury be my conduct now! Now, Tybalt, take the 'villain' back again That late thou gavest me; for Mercutio's soul Is but a little way above our heads," As soon as he killed Tybalt, Romeo says: "O! I am Fortune's Fool!" He realizes that he has killed his wife's cousin. This juncture in the play is a climax as the audience wonders how Romeo would get out of this terrible situation. Similarly, it qualifies as a climax because after this act all the prior conflicts start to be resolved and mysteries unfold themselves and thus the story moves toward its logical conclusion during the coming scenes. Climax as a Stylistic Device As a stylistic device, the term climax refers to a literary device in which words, phrases and clauses are arranged in an order to increase their importance within the sentence. The following are examples of climax as a stylistic device. Example #1 See how William Shakespeare achieves climax in the passage below, taken from his Sonnet "The Passionate Pilgrim": "Beauty is but a vain and doubtful good; A shining gloss that vadeth suddenly; A flower that dies when first it gins to bud; A brittle glass that's broken presently: A doubtful good, a gloss, a glass, a flower, Lost, vaded, broken, dead within an hour." The phrase "dead within an hour" is placed at the very end as it marks the climax of the fate of beauty which he introduces as "a vain and doubtful good". Function of Climax A climax, when used as a plot device, helps readers understand the significance of the rising action earlier to the point in the plot where the conflict reaches its peak. The Climax of the story makes readers mentally prepared for the resolution of the conflict. Hence, climax is important to the plot structure of a story. Moreover, climax is used as a stylistic device or a figure of speech to render balance and brevity to speech or writing. Being properly employed, it qualifies itself as a powerful tool that can instantly capture the undivided attention of listeners and readers alike. Hence, its importance cannot be underestimated.

Colloquialism

Colloquialism In literature, colloquialism is the use of informal words, phrases or even slang in a piece of writing. Colloquial expressions tend to sneak in as writers, being part of a society, are influenced by the way people speak in that society. Naturally, they are bound to add colloquial expressions in their vocabulary. However, writers use such expressions intentionally too as it gives their works a sense of realism. For instance, in a fiction story depicting American society, a greeting "what's up?" between friends will seem more real and appropriate than the formal "How are you?" and "How do you do?" Colloquialism Examples in Everyday Life Colloquial expressions vary from region to region. Below is a list of some colloquialism examples of American origin: a bunch of numpties - a group of idiots to bamboozle - to deceive go bananas - go insane or be very angry wanna - want to gonna - going to y'all - you all go nuts - go insane or be very angry look blue -look sad buzz off - go away Examples of Colloquialism in Literature Example #1 Mark Twain in "Adventure of Huckleberry Fin" used Black American Vernacular to realistically show how the "negroes" [Black Americans] talked: "I didn't want to go back no more. I had stopped cussing, because the widow didn't like it; but now I took to it again because pap hadn't no objections... But by-and-by pap got too handy with his hick'ry, and I could't stand it. I was all over with welts. He got to going away so much, too, and locking me in. Once he locked me in and was gone three days. It was dreadful lonesome." The use of double negatives is evident in the above passage that is a typical characteristic of Black American Vernacular. Example #2 John Donne uses colloquialisms in his poem "The Sun Rising": "Busy old fool, unruly Sun, Why dost thou thus, Through windows, and through curtains, call on us? Must to thy motions lovers' seasons run? Saucy pedantic wretch," The poet addresses the sun in an informal and colloquial way as if it were a real human being. He asks the sun in a rude manner why had he appeared and spoiled the good time he was having with his beloved. Not finishing there, he commands the "saucy pedantic sun" to go away. Example #3 We cite the use of colloquial expressions in a play "Burro Genius" by Victor Villasenor: ""I don't understand!" roared my father, putting his money back in his pocket. "Hell, I've forgotten more than you or most people will EVER UNDERSTAND!" "Salvador," said my mother as quietly as she could, "why don't you and Mundo go outside and let me talk to this woman alone." "Damn good idea!" said my father." "Salvador" uses colloquial words like "Hell" and "Damn" that gives insight into his aggressive and harsh nature. The idea of using Colloquialisms is to put in diversity into the characters. Example #4 Yet another instance of colloquialism can be seen in "Of Mice and Men' by John Steinbeck: "Sure I will, George. I won't say a word." "Don't let him pull you in—but—if the son-of-a-bitch socks you—let 'im have it." "Never mind, never mind. I'll tell you when. I hate that kind of guy. Look, Lennie, if you get in any kind of trouble, you remember what I told you to do?" Lennie raised up on his elbow. His face contorted with thought. Then his eyes moved sadly to George's face. "If I get in any trouble, you ain't gonna let me tend the rabbits." In the above example, the writer shows how vulgar colloquial expressions can be depending upon who uses them and when they use them. The above colloquial expressions are realistic enough as they are uttered by middle aged men of a working class who are not well educated and refined. Function of Colloquialism Colloquial expressions, in a piece of literature, may give us deep insights into the writer's society. They tell us about how people really talk in their real life. Therefore, they help a writer to form strong connections with readers. Colloquial expressions impart a sense of realism to a piece of literature which again attracts readers as they identify it with their real life. Moreover, they add variety to the characters which makes them more interesting and memorable.

Comparison

Comparison Definition Comparison is a rhetorical or literary device in which a writer compares or contrasts two people, places, things, or ideas. In our everyday life, we compare people and things to express ourselves vividly. So when we say, "as lazy as a snail," you compare two different entities to show similarity i.e. someone's laziness to the slow pace of a snail. Comparisons occur in literary works frequently. Writers and poets use comparison in order to link their feelings about a thing to something they compare it with. There are numerous devices in literature that compare two different things to show the similarity between them e.g. simile, metaphor, analogy etc. Comparison Examples in Literature In the following comparison examples, we will try to analyze literary devices used to show comparisons: Metaphor A metaphor makes a hidden comparison between two things or objects that are dissimilar to each other but have some characteristics common between them. Unlike simile, we do not use "like" or "as" to develop a comparison in a metaphor. Consider the following examples: Example #1 These lines are from "When I Have Fears" by John Keats. "Before high-pil'd books, in charact'ry Hold like rich garners the full-ripened grain," John Keats compares writing poetry with reaping and sowing, and both these acts stand for the insignificance of a life and dissatisfied creativity. Example #2 This line is from "As You Like It" by Shakespeare. "All the world's a stage and men and women merely players," Shakespeare uses a metaphor of a stage to describe the world and compares men and women living in the world with players. Simile A simile is an open comparison between two things or objects to show similarities between them. Unlike a metaphor, a simile draws resemblance with the help of words "like" or "as". Read the following example: Example #3 This line is from short story Lolita by Vladimir Nabokov. "Elderly American ladies leaning on their canes listed toward me like towers of Pisa." In this line, Vladimir Nabokov compares old women leaning on their sticks to the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Here the comparison made between two contrasting things creates a hilarious effect. Analogy An analogy aims at explaining an unfamiliar idea or a thing by comparing it to something that is familiar. Analyze the following examples: Example #4 These lines are from Walt Whitman's poem, "The Noiseless Patient Spider". "And you O my soul where you stand, Surrounded, detached, in measureless oceans of space, Ceaselessly musing, venturing, throwing, seeking the spheres to connect them, Till the bridge you will need be form'd, till the ductile anchor hold, Till the gossamer thread you fling catch somewhere, O my soul" Walt Whitman uses an analogy to show similarity between a spider spinning a web and his soul. Example #5 These lines are from "Night Clouds" written by Amy Lowell. "The white mares of the moon rush along the sky Beating their golden hoofs upon the glass Heavens." Amy constructs an analogy between clouds and mares. She compares the movement of the white clouds in the sky at night with the movement of white mares on the ground. Allegory An allegory uses symbols to compare persons or things to represent abstract ideas or events. The comparison in allegory is implicit. Examples are: Example #6 "Animal Farm", written by George Orwell, is an allegory that compares animals on a farm to the Communist Revolution in Russia before WW II. The actions of the animals on the farm can be compared with the greed and corruption after the revolution. The animals on the farm represent different sections of Russian society after the revolution. For instance, "Pigs" can be compared to those who became the authority after the revolution, "Mr. Jones" the owner of the farm is likened to the overthrown Tsar Nicholas II, while "Boxer" the horse, stands for the laborer class. Example #7 "Faerie Queen", is an allegory by Edmund Spenser in which the good characters of book can be compared to the various virtues, while the bad characters can be compared to vices. For example, "The Red-Cross Knight" represents Holiness and "Lady Una" Truth, Wisdom and Goodness. Her parents symbolize the Human Race, and the "Dragon", which has imprisoned them, stands for Evil. Function of Comparison The above examples of comparison help us realize that in general, writers utilize different kinds of comparisons to link an unfamiliar or a new idea to common and familiar objects. It facilitates readers to comprehend a new idea, which may have been difficult for them to understand otherwise. The understanding of a new idea turns out to be simpler when viewed with a comparison to something that is familiar to them. In addition, by making use of various literary tools for comparison, writers increase their chance of catching the attention and interest of their readers, as comparisons help them identify what they are reading to their lives.

Antagonist

In literature, an antagonist is a character or a group of characters which stand in opposition to the protagonist or the main character. The term antagonist comes from Greek word "antagonistēs" that means opponent, competitor or rival. It is common to refer to an antagonist as a villain (the bad guy) against whom a hero (the good guy) fights in order to relieve himself or others. In some cases, an antagonist may exist within the protagonist that causes an inner conflict or a moral conflict inside his mind. This inner conflict is a major theme of many literary works e.g. Doctor Faustus by Christopher Marlowe, Hamlet by William Shakespeare, and A Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man by James Joyce etc. Generally, an antagonist appears as a foil to the main character embodying qualities that are in contrast with the qualities of the main character. Example #1 A classical example of an antagonist is that of King Creon in Sophocles' tragedy "Antigone". Here, the function of the antagonist is to obstruct the main character's progress through evil plots and actions. Antigone, the protagonist, struggles against King Creon, the antagonist, in her effort to give her brother a respectable burial. Through his evil designs, Creon tries to hamper her in this attempt by announcing that her brother is a traitor and decreeing that "he must be left to the elements." This protagonist-antagonist conflict becomes the theme of this tragedy. Function of Antagonist Conflict is a basic element of any plot. The presence of an antagonist alongside a protagonist is vital for the typical formula of a plot. The antagonist opposes the protagonist in his endeavors and thus the conflict ensues. The protagonist struggles against the antagonist who takes the plot to a climax and later the conflict is resolved with the defeat of the antagonist or, as in tragedies, with the downfall of the protagonist.

Motif

Motif Motif is an object or idea that repeats itself throughout a literary work. Motif and Theme In a literary work, a motif can be seen as an image, sound, action or other figures that have a symbolic significance and contributes toward the development of theme. Motif and theme are linked in a literary work but there is a difference between them. In a literary piece, a motif is a recurrent image, idea or a symbol that develops or explains a theme while a theme is a central idea or message. Motif and Symbol Sometimes, examples of motif are mistakenly identified as examples of symbols. Symbols are images, ideas, sounds or words that represent something else and help to understand an idea or a thing. Motifs, on the other hand, are images, ideas, sounds or words that help to explain the central idea of a literary work i.e. theme. Moreover, a symbol may appear once or twice in a literary work, whereas a motif is a recurring element. Themes, Motifs and Symbols in Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities Let us try to understand the difference between theme, motif and symbol by analyzing a literary work. In Charles Dickens' "A Tale of Two Cities", the main plot revolves around a few basic themes: the ever-present possibility of resurrection and the necessity of sacrifice to bring about a revolution. One of the motif examples in the novel that develops the above mentioned themes is the presence of Doubles: the action takes place in two cities; we find two opposed doubles in the form of female characters i.e. Lucie and Madame Defarge. We also see recurrent images of darkness in the narrative adding to the gloomy atmosphere. Another motif is of imprisonment as each and every character struggles against some kind of imprisonment. Finally, there are plenty of symbols in the narrative as well, like the broken wine cask is a symbol of people's hunger; Madame Defarge knitting is a symbol of revenge and Marquis is a character that stands for social disorder. Motif Examples in Literature Let us search for motifs in various well known literary works: Example #1 In Shakespeare's Hamlet, we find a recurring motif of incest accompanied by incestuous desires of some characters. Laertes speaks to his sister Ophelia in a way that is sexually explicit. Hamlet shows obsession for Gertrude's sexual life with Claudius has an underlying tone of an incestuous desire. Besides, there is a motif of hatred for women that Hamlet experiences in his relationship with Gertrude and Ophelia. Hamlet expresses his disgust for women in Scene 2 of Act I: "Frailty, thy name is woman" Example #2 In Mark Twain's "The Adventure of Huckleberry Finn", we see several motifs that support the central idea of the narrative. The motif of childhood gives the novel a lighter tone and makes it enjoyable to read despite its grave central idea i.e. slavery and racism. Both Huck and Tom are young and flexible enough to undergo a moral education and thus are more open-minded than adults. Another obvious motif in the narrative is superstitions. Jim appears silly to believe in all sorts of signs and omens but interestingly predicts the coming event. Example #3 Joseph Conrad's "Heart of Darkness" has a motif of observation and eavesdropping. Marlow, the protagonist, gets information about the world either by observing his surroundings or listening to the conversation of others. Similarly, there is another evident motif of a comparison between the exterior and the interior. Initially, Marlow is a person who keenly observes things and people from the surface but as he continues his journey into the heart of darkness, he gains an insight into his deeper nature as well as that of others. Example #4 The central idea of the co-existence of good and evil in Harper Lee's "To Kill the Mocking Bird" is supported by several motifs. Lee strengthens the atmosphere by a motif of Gothic details i.e. recurrent images of gloomy and haunted settings, supernatural events, full moon etc. Another motif in the narrative is the small town life of Maycom, which depicts goodness and pleasantness in life. Function of Motif Along with presenting a prevailing theme, writers include several motifs in their literary works as reinforcements. Motifs contribute in developing the major theme of a literary work and help readers to comprehend the underlying messages that writers intend to communicate to them.