BSC1010 Lab Final Exam
Telophase
Cell finishes dividing, chromosomes lengthen and become thinner, nuclear membrane reappears, cytoplasm gets divided up evenly
Denature
A change in the shape of a protein (such as an enzyme) that can be caused by changes in temperature or pH (among other things).
Codominance
A condition in which neither of two alleles of a gene is dominant or recessive.
Dihybrid Cross
A cross between individuals that have different alleles for the same gene
Monohybrid Cross
A cross between individuals that involves one pair of contrasting traits
Carbohydrate: Disaccharide
A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides -Sucrose (table sugar) -Lactose (milk sugar)
Meiosis
A type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores.
Inductive Reasoning
A type of logical process by which all observations are processed before producing a possible answer
Chlorophyll B
A type of yellow-green accessory photosynthetic pigment that transfers energy to chlorophyll a.
Adenosine Tri-Phosphate
ATP -Universal energy molecule
Colored substances can either ___________ particular wavelengths of light or ____________ them.
Absorb; reflect
Purpose of KOH pellets in aerobic respiration lab?
Absorbs the CO2 that will be given off during respiration
How does a competitive inhibitor affect an enzyme?
Additional substrate would overcome the competition -Increase the probability of the substrate to collide with the enzyme.
Carbohydrate: Monosaccharide
"Simplest sugar" Glucose (the sugar stored by the body for its cellular energy needs) Fructose (fruit sugar) Ribose (component of DNA) -They are easily used by the body for energy sources -Simple Benedict's test
Sea Urchins
"pin cushions of the sea" -invertebrates that belong to phylum echinodermata -marine benthic dwellers -internal skeleton (test) is a calcareous structure with ossicles, raised cancerous protrusions, fused together to form ambulacral plates -spines used for defense and movement -spines contain toxin -omnivores -play important part in maintaining balance within coral reef ecosystem by keeping algae from getting out of control
Bacillus
(Rod shaped bacteria)
Coccus
(circle shaped bacteria)
Spirillium
(spiral shaped bacteria)
Planaria
-A model species for experimental regeneration -They have a remarkable adult cell system that is amicable to the study of cellular differentiation and regeneration -"fragmentation" and "self-renew"
Cell Theory
-All living organisms are composed of cells -The cell is the basic unit of life -All cells arise from pre-existing cells
Sea Urchin Anatomy
-Anus on aboral -Mouth on oral (bottom) -Have feeding apparatus called Aristotle's Lantern -Have tube feet (podia)
Lipids
-Are oily or greasy compounds that are not soluble in water; however they do dissolve in nonpolar solvents such as ether or chloroform -Important for energy storage, insulation, membrane -Fatty acids= = hydrocarbon chain with carboxyl -COOH group -Fatty acid + glycerol = glycerides -3 fatty acids + glycerol = triglycerides -Test: Uncoated paper or Sudan IV
Purpose of DNA Forensics
-DNA holds genetic codes -Specific code for certain amino acids within proteins -Code is used during Transcription & Translation -Genome mapping, Forensic science
DNA
-Deoxyribonucleic acid: a nucleic acid containing instructions used in development and functioning of organisms. -One of the four macromolecules (nucleic acids) -Break down: cell-> nucleus-> chromosomes-> long chain of DNA (double helix)-> genes (DNA segments)
Source of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
-Derived from adult stem cells that have been genetically altered by manipulating gene expression or environmental conditions to revert/reprogram/un-differentiate the adult somatic cell back into a pluripotent cell
Potential Uses of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
-Drug screening -Researchers have developed functional organs and complex tissues using this technology in mice
Differences Between Sea Urchins and Mammals
-External in urchins and internal in mammals -Urchins produce thousands of eggs -Humans take care of children for the rest of their lives
DNA Isolation
-Extract and isolate genomic DNA from an Onion & estimate amount obtained -Spooling DNA -Determining amount of DNA in solution -DNA reacts with Diphenylamine-> blue color -Measure absorbance of standards and your unknown
Simple Benedict's Test
-For small carbohydrate molecules (all monosacharides), specifically reducing sugars -Positive for simple sugars. Initial color blue -> orange or red-brown
Complex Lugol's Reaction
-For starch,or larger carbohydrate molecules (polysaccharides) -Positive for complex sugars. Initial color maroon -> dark blue
Source of Adult Stem Cells
-Found in some organs and can be isolated in small quantities however usually via very invasive methods -Can be removed from the blood, bone marrow, retinas in which they have been identified and grown in culture
Scientific Method is used to...
-Gather knowledge -To test the predictions of possible answers to questions that we have about personal observations or natural phenomena
Eukaryote Characteristic
-Has a phospholipid bilayer -More than one molecule of DNA; enclosed by a membrane in the nucleus -Has ribosomes; membrane-bound organelles mitochondria and chloroplast to perform specific functions -Kingdoms: Protista; Fungi; Plantae; Animalia
Prokaryote Characteristic
-Has a phospholipid bilayer -Typically one single loop of DNA; enclosed by a membrane -Only cytoplasmic structures are ribosomes; some have short membrane segments to anchor photosynthetic pigments -Kingdoms: Bacteria; Archaea
Eukaryotes
-Highly organized -Contain membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondrion and chloroplasts -House their DNA within nucleus -EX: protists, fungi, plants and animals
Meiosis In Plants
-In angiosperms, meiosis takes place in flowers -Each flower contains both male and female structures -Sperm, pollen grains, are produced in the anther and ovules are produced in the ovary at the base of the flower
What happened in paper chromatography experiment?
-In the Spinach Extract, the most soluble pigment was Carotene. The least soluble pigment was the Xanthophyll
Heats affect on Enzymatic Reactions
-It causes faster molecular motion, and increases the probability that the enzyme molecules will come in contact with substrate molecules -Extreme temperatures can denature the enzyme
Source of Cord-Blood Derived Embryonic-Like Stem Cells
-Obtained from umbilical cord blood from newborns
Paper Chromatography
-Separates molecules based on several properties of the molecules that influence how easily they move through the paper -Smaller molecules typically will be able to move more easily through paper and migrate more quickly
Sea Urchin Reproduction
-Sexually distinct (dioecious) -Not sexually dimorphic -Have external fertilization -Gonoducts transfer gametes -Some species are brooders (retain in eggs on the peristome); do not have as many young
Prokaryotes
-Simpler cells -DNA is found within cytoplasm and not within nucleus -DO NOT have membrane-bound organelles -EX: bacteria, cyanobacteria, and archea
Sperm vs egg in Sea Urchins
-Sperm are a milky white color -Eggs are pale yellow to orange to dark maroon depending on species.
Similarities between Sea Urchins and Mammals
-Sperm cells are the smallest produced in the body, so they have a better chance of becoming fertilized -Both have chemical signals that sperm uses to locate them -Both have mechanic to allow one sperm to fertilize egg, and block other sperm from fertilizing
Carbon Fixation by Elodea Experiment
-The elodea tube covered in foil did not have any bubbles because it did not have enough light to produce any oxygen -The elodea that received light created bubbles because of oxygen being released -The tube without elodea (control group) remained constant throughout experiment and did not have bubbles
Metric System
-The ideal system of relative measure used by most of the world today -It is also preferred in the scientific world because of its universal acceptance and ease in making conversions from unit to the next -meter=length -liter=volume -gram=weight -degree Celsius=temperature
Interphase
-The majority of the cell's life is spent here -Subdivided into three periods: G1, S, and G2 -Cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division
Three Common Characteristics of All Cells
-The outer boundary of the cell is the plasma membrane -All cells store genetic information in the form of DNA -Everything inside the plasma membrane that is not DNA or nucleus is cytoplasm
Mitosis Plants vs. Animals
-The spindle fibers of animal cells are organized around centrioles. These organelles are to small to view with a light microscope, but you can see the "starburst" arrangement of the spindle fibers that indicates the location of the centrioles -Since animal cells do not have a cell wall, they do not build a new cell plate for cytokinesis. These blastula cells indicate cytokinesis by pinching in two at the equator of the cell, a process called furrowing.
Optimal Conditions of an Enzyme
-The temperature -pH where the enzyme functions best -the amount of substrate -concentration of enzyme
Source of Embryonic Stem Cells
-Therapeutic Cloning -IVF embryos
Problems with Adult Stem Cells
-They are sparse -Havent found many in organs -difficult to isolate -they can only be used to grow up some specific types of cells -cannot be maintained indefinitely in the lab
Potential Use of Embryonic Stem Cells
-To study the process of cellular differentiation -Treat various medical conditions (EX: tissue regeneration for burn victims, nerve regeneration) -A clinical trial in dish (drug screening) -Research with mice and rats to treat nervous system diseases (EX: vision loss)
Biuret
-To test for proteins -Positive: light blue -> purple
Sudan IV Solution
-To test lipids -Positive: Initially all red -> 2 layers
Potential Uses of Cord-Blood Derived Embryonic-Like Stem Cells
-Used to treat blood and immune system disorders such as leukemia, anemia, and autoimmune diseases -Drug screening
Potential Use of Adult Stem Cells
-Used to treat diseases, but due to their mulitpotent characteristics are not as versatile as pluripotent stem cells -Screen medically related chemical compounds -Treat blood cancer leukemia
milli
.001 or 10^-3
4 milliliters to liters
.004 liters -move the decimal 3 places to the left
centi
.01 or 10^-2
123 grams to kilograms
.123 kg -move the decimal 3 places to the left
Convert: 375 grams to _________ kg?
.375 kg
An observation is made that drinking soda causes weight gain. Set up an experiment to test this.
1. Ask a question: Why does drinking soda cause weight gain? 2. Construct a hypothesis: The sodas with a higher amount of sugar will cause more weight gain. 3. Formulate a Prediction: If the sodas with the higher amounts of sugar cause more weight gain, then the sodas with the less amounts of sugar will cause no weight gain 4. Experimental Group: Soda with sugar 5. Control Group: water 6. IV: sugar in soda 7. DV: weight gained 8. CV: amount of sugar 9. Draw a conclusion: The hypothesis was correct, when it said that the soda with more sugar caused weight gain.
Somatic Cell
All body cells, except for the sex/germ cells (egg/sperm)
What are the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
1. Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus and eukaryotes do 2. Prokaryote cells have no membrane bound organisms, while eukaryote cells do
Name FOUR Factors that affect the rate of diffusion
1. temperature 2. surface area 3. concentration gradient 4. size of particles diffusion medium
kilo
1000 or 10^3
How many days until and embryo develops a nervous system?
14 days
67 degrees Celsius to Fahrenheit
152.6 F -F=(9/5 X C) +32
Food Labels
A panel of nutrition information required on all processed foods regulated by the FDA (Federal Drug Administration)
What is the number of different kinds of chromosomes that humans need to reproduce?
23 (haploid; n)
100 degrees Fahrenheit to Celsius
37.77 C -C=5/9 X (F-32)
What is the TOTAL number of chromosomes needed in humans to reproduce?
46 (diploid; 2n)
6 liters to milliliters
6000 ml -multiply by 1,000
Photosynthesis Equation
6CO2 + 6H2O --> light energy --> C6H12O6 + 6O2
Convert: 86 liters to __________ milliters?
86000 mL
Anabaena
A Cyanobacterium that has heterocysts.
Chlorophyll
A green photosynthetic pigment found in the chloroplasts of plants, algae, and some bacteria.
Gamete
A haploid cell such as an egg or sperm. They unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.
Blastula
A hollow ball of cells that marks the end of the cleavage stage during early embryonic development in animals.
Solution
A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
Cytoplasm
A jellylike fluid inside the cell in which the organelles are suspended
Solvent
A liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances -EX: water is the universal solvent because organisms are roughly 75-85% water
Therapeutic Cloning
A medical procedure where single cells are taken from a person or embryo and 'reprogrammed' to create stem cells which can be used in medical treatment.
Xanthophyll
A photosynthetic antenna pigment common in algae that is a structural variant of a carotenoid
Phycoerythrin
A photosynthetic pigment in red algae, allowing them to absorb blue and green light.
Catechol Oxidase
A plant enzyme that oxidizes catechol and converts it to benzoquinone -Effect of temperature on enzyme activity can be investigated using this
Physarum polycephalum
A plasmodial slime mold part of Kingdom Protista -multinucleated -has cytoplasm that is streaming -outer edge has gel state -interior of cell is sol state
Cellular Respiration
A process by which cells use the energy stored in glucose to produce ATP, that is used immediately to power cellular processes. -Used by autotrophs and heterotrophs -Takes place in mitochondrion
Mitosis
A process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells conventionally divided into five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Mitosis conserves chromosome number by equally allocating replicated chromosomes to each of the daughter nuclei.
Selectively Permeable
A property of cell membranes that allows some substances to pass through, while others cannot
Hypothesis
A proposed, scientifically testable explanation for an observed phenomenon. -We use inductive reasoning to answer the question 1. Null: when there is no significant difference between specified populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error 2. Alternative: contrary to the null hypothesis. It is usually taken to be that the observations are the result of a real effect
Gene
A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait
Plasma Membrane
A selectively-permeable phospholipid bilayer forming the boundary of the cells
Glucose
A simple sugar that is an important source of energy.
Nucleolus
A specialized structure in the nucleus, formed from various chromosomes and active in the synthesis of ribosomes
What is a keystone species?
A species on which other species in an ecosystem largely depend, such that if it were removed the ecosystem would change drastically.
Prediction
A statement of what will happen next in a sequence of events. -We use deductive reasoning to convert a research hypothesis into a prediction -If-then statements
Starch
A storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose.
Blastocyst
A structure formed very early on in embryonic development, far before any progressive fetal development has been made -Hollow ball of about 100 cells that contains a very small cluster of cells inside (inner mass cell) -Develops within the first week of fertilization
Golgi Body
A structure in a cell that receives proteins and other newly formed materials from the endoplasmic reticulum, packages them, and distributes them to other parts of the cell.
Chloroplasts
A structure in the cells of plants and some other organisms that captures energy from sunlight and uses it to produce food.
Product
A substance produced in a chemical reaction
Enzyme-Substrate Complex
A temporary complex formed when an enzyme binds to its substrate molecule(s).
First Filial
Also known as F1 generation; when Mendel crossed purple flowered plants with white flowered plants, the F1 generation only included purple plants
Proteins: Amino Acid
Amino group + R group + Carboxyl group
Invertebrate
An animal without a backbone
Agglutination
An antibody-mediated immune response in which bacteria or viruses are clumped together, effectively neutralized, and opsonized.
Rh factor
An antigen occurring on the red blood cells of many humans (around 85 percent) and some other primates. It is particularly important as a cause of hemolytic disease of the newborn and of incompatibility in blood transfusions.
In Vitro Fertilization
An egg and sperm are allowed to fuse outside of the body and then the now fertilized egg is implanted in the woman's uterus to grow a baby
DNA Isolation
An enzyme breaks down the cell membrane and organic solvents are used to separate DNA from other cell organelles
Nondisjunction
An error in meiosis or mitosis in which members of a pair of homologous chromosomes or a pair of sister chromatids fail to separate properly from each other.
Glycogen
An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.
Heterozygous
An organism that has two different alleles for a trait
Homozygous
An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait
Genotype
An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.
Phenotype
An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.
DNA Fingerprinting
Analysis of sections of DNA that have little or no known function, but vary widely from one individual to another, in order to identify individuals.
Block to Polyspermy
Any of several responses to entry of a sperm into an egg that prevent more than one sperm from entering the egg.
Elodea
Aquatic plant with translucent (see-through) leaves that grows in fresh water ponds
Proteins
Are a diverse group of macromolecules which have a variety of functions in the human body -Chains of amino acids -Many serve as structual components for bone, muscle, skin, hair, nails, enzymes -The digestion of proteins begins in lining of the stomach and continues in the small intestine, where enzymes break down protein molecules into smaller fragments -Biuret reagent test
Macromolecules
Are the large organic molecules from which all cells are made and are utilized by the body as nutrients -Carbohydrates (the sugars, starches, and cellulose) -Lipids (fats and oils) -Proteins -Nucleic acids (responsible for the storage of genetic information within the cell)
Centromere
Area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached
Why did the germinating seeds consume more oxygen than the dormant sends?
As the seeds grow they respire more actively, thus consuming more oxygen. Dry peas are dormant so they respire more slowly.
SECOND Step of Scientific Method
Ask a question -For a question to be pursued by a scientist, the observation or phenomenon must be well defined and testable, and the elements measurable and controllable -They should be reasonable and consistent with existing bodies of knowledge, and the quality of a question will depend on how carefully the observations are made and analyzed -You must be able to perform an experiment to test your question
Transport Proteins
Assist substances to move across the membrane
Gregor Mendel
Augustinian monk and botanist whose experiments in breeding garden peas led to his eventual recognition as founder of the science of genetics (1822-1884)
Homologues or Homologous Pair
Chromosomes that are given the same number, but are of opposite parental origin -Needed for meiosis
BMR
Basal Metabolic Rate: amount of energy expended while at rest in a neutrally temperate enviroment; energy needed to keep awake while the body is resting
Restriction Enzymes
Cut DNA into fragments -Each fragment is unique to an individual -Use bases to determine the locations of their cuts
Meniscus
Boundary between fluid and air that curves rather than flat due to the surface tension of the liquid.
Totipotent
Can make all cell types needed to develop an entire fetus (including the placenta)
Equation for Cellular Respiration
C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 (oxygen) ---------> 6CO2 (carbon dioxide) + 6H2O (water) + 36 ATP (energy)
Equation for Alcoholic Fermentation
C6H12O6 (glucose) --------------> 2CH3CH2OH (ethanol) + 2CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) + 2ATP (energy)
Nuclear Envelope
Double membrane perforated with pores that control the flow of materials in and out of the nucleus.
Catechol Oxidase Equation
Catechol + 1/2 O2 ---------> catechol oxidase --------> (substrates) (enzyme in potato extract) benzoquinone +H2O (products)
What is the leading cause of death in the united states?
Cardiovascular disease
G1 Phase
Cell grows larger
Mitochondrion
Cell organelle that converts the chemical energy stored in food into compounds that are more convenient for the cell to use
Vacuole
Cell organelle that stores materials such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates
G2 Phase
Cell prepares to divide
S Phase
Cell replicates its DNA
HeLa Cells
Cells taken from the cervix of a women named Henrietta Lacks during her cancer treatment. These cells are the first known "Immortal" cells and have been used to cure diseases such as polio.
Multipotent
Cells that are not fully, or terminally differentiated and can only differentiate into a limited range of different cell types
Anaphase
Centromeres divide
Metaphase
Centromeres of duplicated chromosomes are aligned at plate. Fully formed spindle attach to the sister chromatids from opposite poles
Catalysts
Chemical agents that selectively speed up chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction.
All organisms have what chlorophyll?
Chlorophyll A
Accessory Pigments within Leaf
Chlorophyll B, Carotene, Xanthophylls, Phycoerythrin, Phycocyanin -They assist by transferring the light energy they absorb to chlorophyll A -Carotene and Xanthophyll may protect plants by absorbing excess energy and act as antioxidants
Prophase
Chromosomes become visable, nuclear envelop dissolves, spindle forms
Ribosomes
Cytoplasmic organelles at which proteins are synthesized.
Chromatin
Clusters of DNA, RNA, and proteins in the nucleus of a cell -This forms allow the DNA to be used for transcription
Mitochondrion Structures Outer Compartment
Compartment between the outer and inner membranes
Photosynthesis
Conversion of light energy from the sun into chemical energy. -Uses sunlight to produce glucose
Gel Electrophoresis
DNA fragments places in a gel-like substance -An electric current applied to the matrix -Fragments move through gel at different rates depending on their charge and size -DNA negative charge (- to + electrode)
Osmosis
Diffusion of water (solvent) through a selectively permeable membrane -The solute cannot cross the membrane, but water can -Water will always move from the hypotonic solution towards the hypertonic solution in an attempt to make both isotonic
Cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm during cell division -lasts much shorter
Lipids: Unsaturated Fats
Double bonds, fewer hydrogen atoms, and the fatty acid chains cannot pack closely together because of bends or kinks caused by double bonds
The final step of the scientific method is to....
Draw a conclusion -EX: A correlation is a relationship between the independent and the dependent variable -Reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis
Law of Independent Assortment
Each member of a pair of homologous chromosomes separates independently of the members of other pairs so the results are random
Oogenesis
Egg production -occurs in ovaries -the diploid cell (oogonium) does not undergo mitosis after the embryo period; girls have finite number of potential ova -oogenesis lasts until menopause -only one of daughter cells survives to form gamete
Apical Meristem
Embryonic plant tissue in the tips of roots and in the buds of shoots that supplies cells for the plant to grow in length.
What is the term used when molecules become evenly distributed, equal connections on either side of the membrane?
Equilibrium
True or False Adult stem cells divide infinitely
False
True or False All cells store genetic information in the form of RNA
False
True or False Diffusion is the simplest means by which substances cross the membrane
False
True or False In therapeutic cloning, the nucleus of an egg is removed and replaced with the nucleus of a germ cell
False
Zygote
Fertilized egg
Mitochondrion Structures Inner Compartment
Filled with the matrix; compartment inside the inner membrane -krebs cycle take place within MATRIX
Antigens
Foreign material that invades the body -Used to help determine different types of blood groups
Spermatogenesis
Formation of sperm -occurs within testes -takes laces along seminiferous tubules -have diploid cell called spermatongia that are destined to become sperm
Mitochondrion Structures Outer Membrane
Forms the outer boundary of the organelle
Anthocyanin
Give plants like coleus their reddish color and may serve to help pollinators identify certain plants
What was the control group for the Oxygen consumption during aerobic respiration experiment?
Glass beads
Materials and Methods
How and where the research has been done
Equation for Aerobic Respiration
Glucose + Oxygen --------------------> Carbon Dioxide + Water +36ATP
Results
Graphs, figures, and tables
Calories
How much potential energy available in that food
Stem Cells
Have the potential to differentiate into either all, many, or a small range of different types of cells depending on the type of cell
Hypertonic
Having a higher concentration of solute than another solution.
Hypotonic
Having a lower concentration of solute than another solution
Isotonic
Having the same solute concentration as another solution.
Sister Chromatids
Identical copies of a chromosome; full sets of these are created during the S subphase of interphase.
Purpose of Mitosis
Increase # of cells
How does a noncompetitive inhibitor affect an enzyme?
Increasing the concentration of substrate would do nothing b/c it does not compete for the active site. Also, inhibitors change the enzyme shape therefore not allowing the substrate to the active site.
Mitochondrion Structures Cristae
Inner membrane is highly folded and forms fingerlike projections; each projection is a crust -ETC is in here
Discussion/Conclusion
Interpret results
Nutrition
Is the study of the foods we eat and their associated nutrients -Food nutrients include vitamins, which are necessary organic molecules that our bodies cannot construct from other molecules, and minerals, the necessary inorganic (non-carbon) compounds, as well as the large macromolecules known as carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
Carbohydrate: Polysaccharides
Large and more complex carbohydrates like: -Starch (an important energy storing carbohydrate in plants) -Glycogen (the storage molecule for glucose in animals) -Complex Lugol's Reaction
Proteins: Peptide bonds
Link amino groups together to form polypeptide chains
Plasma membrane is composed of ________, making it __________.
Lipids; hydrophobic -It holds the plasma membrane together and allows the membrane to be a selectively permeable barrier
Law of Segregation
Mendel's law that states that the pairs of homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis so that only one chromosome from each pair is present in each gamete
Diffusion
Movement of molecules (solutes) from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. -The SIMPLEST means by which a substance can cross the membrane -It is a passive process and does not require any input of energy
Potency of Adult Stem Cells
Multipotent
Lipids: Saturated Fats
No double bonds, a maximum number of hydrogen atoms, and the straight fatty acid chains packed closely together - EX: (lard, butter, bacon fat)
Cofactor
Non-protein molecules needed for activity -Inorganic (i.e. metal ions) -Organic-coenzymes (i.e. flavin and heme)
Controversy with Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
Not ethically controversial because no blastocyst is created in order to generate it, thus "no potential life" occurs during the isolation/generation/reprogramming process
Hybrid
Offspring of crosses between parents with different traits
Purpose of Fertilization Membrane
Once fertilization has occurred, it is formed as a physical barrier to other sperm.
Monounsaturated Fats
One double bond (olive oil)
Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer
Or therapeutic cloning involves removing the nucleus of an unfertilized egg cell, replacing it with the material from the nucleus of a "somatic cell" (a skin, heart, or nerve cell, for example), and stimulating this cell to begin dividing.
Pyruvate
Organic compound with a backbone of three carbon atoms. Two molecules form as end products of glycolysis
Synapsis
Pairing of homologous chromosomes -Occurs in prophase I
Drug Screening
Performed on a group of employees or athletes to detect any individual who is using illegal, addictive, or performance-enhancing drugs -ESC's can differentiate into any type of cell, we can perform these on cells to see the negative and positive effects these treatments may have on the cells
PTU
Phenylthiourea-strongly binds to copper to remove copper ions. -non-competitive inhibitor
Cyanobacteria
Photosynthetic, oxygen-producing bacteria (formerly known as blue-green algae).
Potency of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
Pluripotent that are capable of differentiating into any type of cell just as ESC would be capable of
Intertidal
Portion of the shoreline that lies between the high and low tide lines
Crossing Over
Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis.
Aerobic Respiration
Process requires oxygen and is the most efficient method for producing energy (produces greatest amount of net energy per molecule of glucose)
Alcoholic Fermentation
Process that produces ethanol as a by-product of cellular respiration and is utilized by some bacteria.
Autotrophs
Produce their own energy/glucose for their own cellular respiration
Enzymes
Proteins that accelerate metabolic reactions to biologically useful rates by lowering the activation energy needed for the reaction to occur
Light-Dependent Reactions
Reactions of photosynthesis that use energy from light to produce ATP and NADPH -occur in grana
Deductive Reasoning
Reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.) -If the hypothesis is true, then this will happen when an experimental variable is changed
Specificity
Results from the enzyme's unique structure and shape. This determines the type of substrate that will be connected to it.
Krebs Cycle
Second stage of cellular respiration, in which pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of energy-extracting reactions
Electrophoresis
Separates these fragments by length -Allows comparison across DNA samples
Purpose of Meiosis
Sexual Reproduction
Embryogenesis
Shortly after gastrulation, the body and organs of the embryo begin to form. This process is called
Carbohydrates
Simple sugars or larger molecules composed of multiple sugar units -Function: energy source, storage molecule
Controversy with Adult Stem Cells
Since they derive from adult tissue, and do not have the potential to create life, they are not considered ethically controversial
Active Site
Site of attachment and the surrounding parts of the enzyme that stress the substrate's bonds
Chloroplasts Structure
Stroma: semi-fluid internal substance -Within the stroma is thylakoid discs stacked into columns called granum -The pigments are anchored to the surface of the thylakoid discs
Tetrad
Structure containing 4 chromatids that forms during meiosis
Antibodies
Specialized proteins that aid in destroying infectious agents -Found in the serum or plasma, the liquid portion of the blood
Solute
Substance being dissolved
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
System of internal membranes within the cytoplasm. Membranes are rough due to the presence of ribosomes. functions in transport of substances such as proteins within the cytoplasm
Which part of the cell cycle lasts the shortest amount of time?
Telophase; about 24 hours
True-Breeding
Term used to describe organisms that produce offspring identical to themselves if allowed to self-pollinate
Spooling
The DNA precipitate will wrap around the stirring rod in this technique
Tonicity
The ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water; depends partly on concentration of nonpenetrating solutes relative to inside of cell.
What happens to absorbed wavelengths?
We cannot see them
Thermic Effect of Food
The body's speeded-up metabolism in response to having eaten a meal
Glycolysis
The break down of glucose into pyruvate -Occurs in cytoplasm of cell
Potency of Embryonic Stem Cells
The cells that comprise the inner cell mass of the blastocyst are PLURIPOTENT, the blastocyst also contains cells that are totipotent
What was observed in the Oxygen consumption during aerobic respiration lab?
The closed gas system with three different types of seeds and its changes in volume will naturally occur due to minute changes in atmospheric pressure and room temperature.
Visible Light
The continuum of colors that we perceive
Alleles
The different forms of a gene
Independent Variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
Gel state
The gel-like state of a lipid bilayer at temperatures below the transition temperature. (B1)
Experimental Group
The group that is treated with or possesses the independent variable
What happened in the leaf covering experiment?
The hot water kills the leaf and the alcohol breaks down the chlorophyll, taking the green color out of the leaf. When you put iodine on the leaves, one of them will turn blue-black and the other will be a reddish-brown. Iodine is an indicator that turns blue-black in the presence of starch. The leaf that was in the light turns blue-black, which demonstrates that the leaf has been performing photosynthesis and producing starch.
Controlled Variables
The many characteristics of the experimental group and control group which are held constant.
Activation Energy
The minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction
Cytoplasmic Streaming
The motion of cytoplasm in a cell that results in a coordinated movement of the cell's contents.
Therapeutic Cloning
The nucleus of an egg is removed and replaced with the nucleus of a somatic cell (SCNT)
Dependent Variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
Cleavage
The process of cytokinesis in animal cells, characterized by pinching of the plasma membrane; specifically. -Results in blastula
Differentiation
The process whereby a less specialized cell type changes into a cell type with a more specialized function
Independent Assortment
The random distribution of the pairs of genes on different chromosomes to the gametes.
Substrate
The reactant on which an enzyme works.
Serving Size
The recommended amount of food in one serving as set forth by the USDA
Cell Cycle
The regular sequence of growth and division that cells undergo
Light-Independent Reactions
The second stage of photosynthesis, taking place in photosystem I (700), in which ATP and hydrogen are used as form of chemical energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into useful organic molecules. -Calvin cycle or "dark reactions" -Occur in stroma
Pluripotent
These cells can become any/all cell types except for those in tissues that are needed to support the growth of a fetus (ex: placenta)
Controversy with Embryonic Stem Cells
They are derived from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst, and since the blastocyst in its whole form has the potential to create life -George W. Bush stopped funding of these and Obama repealed this in 2009 for fear we would be technologically/scientifically behind other countries
Controversy with Cord-Blood Derived Embryonic-Like Stem Cells
They are not ethically controversial because they are isolated from the umbilical cord after birth
How do planaria grow back normally?
They contain adult somatic cells known as neoblasts that are pluripotent, and capable of differentiating into any cell type of the planarian body plan
What happens to reflected wavelengths?
They enter our eyes and strike the retina
Why do some people have ethical problems with paying egg donors in stem cell research?
They feel as if the money cannot compensate for the psychological damage of selling eggs
Potency of Cord-Blood Derived Embryonic-Like Stem Cells
They primarily have multipotent activity, but recent research suggests they have pluripotent-like abilities in vitro (in the lab, in a predefined setting)
Why do plants appear green?
They reflect green light. They absorb every color but green.
FIRST Step of Scientific Method
To make an observation
What are the three types of waste containers in the lab?
Trash, biohazard bin, broken glass bin
True or False Cord blood stem cells have limited division, but can be stored
True
True or False Each enzyme has a precise structure and function and each enzyme catalyzes a specific reaction
True
True or False Plants store glucose as starch while animals store it as glycogen
True
What happened to the volume of CO2 generated in the yeast suspensions?
Tube 1 with corn syrup: remained at a constant fluid level Tube 2 with corn syrup and yeast: stayed relatively the same Tube 3 with corn syrup, yeast, and amylase: Moved a lot -Test tube 3 had the highest rate of fermentation because it contained both of the substrates and amylase
Polyunsaturated Fats
Two or more double bonds -Also results in lower melting point (corn oil)
Lipids: Trans Fat
Unsaturated fats are made solid through a heating process
Robert Hook
Used a microscope and was the first person to observe and name the cells in the 17th century
Why did the germinated pea seeds turn the solution yellow?
When CO2 is bubbled through water it forms H2CO2 (carbonic acid) and will turn a solution acidic. -Phenol red is an indicator of CO2
Anti-sera
anti-A, anti-B, and anti-AB used to test sample of red blood cells for the presence of antigens
Phycocyanin
blue pigment
Benthic
bottom of an aquatic ecosystem; consists of sand and sediment and supports its own community of organisms
Heterotrophs
consume to obtain energy -Herbivores eat autotrophs to get energy (direct) -Carnivores eat herbivores to get energy (indirect)
True or False The dark phase of photosynthesis must take place with no light
false
True or False The sperm and egg are diploid
false
Sol state
fluid interior of cytoplasm -cytoplasmic streaming occurs here
Nuclear Pores
holes in the nuclear envelope that allow materials to pass in and out of the nucleus
0.45kg = ____g?
kg = 103, therefore 1kg = 1000g. 0.45kg/1 X 1000g/1kg = 450g
Hybrids
offspring of crosses between parents with different traits
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
part of the endoplasmic reticulum that contains enzymes used for all sorts of processes
The plasma membrane is made up of a ____________ bilayer.
phospholipid
Carotene
pigment found in fruits and veggies that give a yellow-orange tint
By lowering the activation energy.....
the enzyme affects the rate at which the reaction occurs
What was the machine that measured changes in gas volume used in experiment #2?
volumeter
