Causes of the War

_____ won independence from Mexico in the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, 1836.

Texas. The Southwest, still a Republic of Mexico, was quickly being settled by Americans and by 1836 the American population of Texas was 50,000 while Mexicans numbered only 3,500. The American colony tried to negotiate for a degree of autonomy but was denied. 187 Texans made a stand at the Alamo and held off 5,000 Mexican troops for 10 days until their bitter defeat. This spurred Texans to unite and, under Sam Houston's leadership they defeated Santa Anna and Texas was free. Texas immediately asked to be annexed to the US. This was met with reluctance, however, because it would mean adding another slave state; upsetting the delicate balance of compromise and surely starting war with Mexico.

__________________ was a novel written by Harriet Beecher Stowe which turned many northerners toward active opposition of slavery.

Uncle Tom\'s Cabin. While Harriet Beecher Stowe was living in Ohio, she was able to observe first hand the slave trade which occurred just across the river. It caused her to write a novel against slavery, which was published in book form in 1852; it became very popular in the north and led to wide-spread anti-slavery sentiment. Many Southerners claimed that the novel painted an inaccurate and misleading picture of slavery, but Stowe tried to be accurate and fair to the South. Some of the slave owners are kind and sympathetic characters, while the book's villain was not even from the South—he was from New England

Immigration died down by 1861 because of a lessening of the crises in Ireland and Germany and the beginning of the _________.

Civil War. Even more than they had in the 1850s, German and Irish immigrants participated in the nation's struggle for survival. Prominent Germans put together all-German ethnic regiments within the Union army, while both Germans and Irish served in large numbers in regular regiments. Approximately 150,000 Irish and nearly 200,000 Germans served the Union fighting cause. Although few immigrants lived in the South, those who did often enlisted in the Confederate army as well. Not all immigrant participation in the North aided the Union war effort, however. Despite this, the immigrant Irish and German contribution helped win the war for the Union and in turn moved both groups closer to being considered full-fledged Americans.

The ____________ gave individual states all powers and authority not specifically reserved to the federal government.

Constitution. Southerners argued, those states that did not want slavery could outlaw it and those states that wished to preserve the practice within their borders could do that as well. Abolitionists felt the Northwest Ordinance established a non-slavery precedent for all territories, pro slavery factions though felt that since the Constitution only banned the slave-trade, the practice of slavery itself was admissible. It cited the Three-Fifths Compromise and the Fourth Amendment which guaranteed the security of property as arguments for its case.

The sectional differences that developed between the North and the South had origins in the Constitutional __________.

Convention. By the time the founders of the United States gathered to write a constitution to replace the Articles of Confederation, the North and South had already developed into distinctly different places. The North had begun to develop a commercial economy based on trade and industrial production and the South, of course, had a slave-based economy that had a profound impact on other aspects of Southern life—social structure, culture, value system, and so forth.

The invention of the __________ by Northerner Eli Whitney in 1793 contributed to the dramatic growth of cotton exports.

Cotton gin. In 1792 the United States exported 140,000 pounds of cotton. By 1811, however, that number soared to 64 million pounds. The cotton gin, a relatively simple machine, allowed field hands to separate the fiber of short-staple cotton from its seeds quickly and easily. The cotton gin immediately increased output fifty times, and later models further improved on this. Short-staple cotton could be profitably grown throughout the South and growers could meet the British demand for cotton. By 1840 the South produced 60 percent of the world's cotton. By the time the Civil War broke out, cotton comprised half of all American exports.

From the ashes of the Whig Party rose the Republicans who brought together all of the groups who opposed the _________.

Democrats. In order to compete with the Democrats, who were still the majority party, the abolitionists, free-soilers, former Whigs, antiforeigners, and so forth joined together to form the Republican party. They staked out a fairly narrow agenda, focusing on the importance of free soil—limiting slavery to those states where it existed and preserving the territories exclusively for free labor. They also supported government assistance in this area, through grants of land and the construction of a transcontinental railroad.

Alliances with Native Americans led some slaves to settle or intermingle with tribes in _______ before the Revolutionary War.

Florida. Subjugated but never defeated, African Americans resisted slavery any way they could. Escapes, while difficult, were common from the earliest years of slavery. In the nineteenth century, the Underground Railroad provided freedom for thousands of slaves even as thousands of others who were unsuccessful perished or were returned into bondage. More organized slave revolts began as early as 1690, but the Nat Turner Rebellion of 1831 was particularly disturbing because it was organized and led by a literate, religiously inspired slave.

By the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, the US acquired territory from ______.

France. Under the leadership of President Thomas Jefferson, the US bought the territory for the bargain price of $15 million and it extended from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains between the Gulf of Mexico and the Canadian border. Jefferson saw the purchase as a means of avoiding war, protecting trade, staking a claim on the continent, and providing a relocation solution for the American Indians. The South saw it as access to a virtually unlimited cotton field.

In 1793 Congress passed the ________ Slave Act, which empowered federal marshals and magistrates to return runaway slaves to their owners.

Fugitive. Less than six years after the adoption of the Constitution, Congress was compelled to address Southern complaints that escaped slaves were able to move freely throughout the North without fear of capture. After much debate the Fugitive Slave Act was passed and many Northern states passed laws almost immediately trying to block enforcement of the act. Less than a decade had elapsed since the adoption of the Constitution, and already Congress was having difficulty addressing sectional issues in a way that was satisfactory to both sides.

Although ordinary _______ frequently voted Democratic, like their Irish counterparts, they gained a reputation for opposition to slavery.

Germans. German immigrants, many Catholic like the Irish, were attacked by nativist organizations as well. The largest of these nativist organizations was the so-called Know-Nothing Party, which between 1854 and 1856 threatened to become the nation's second largest political party and campaigned to take away citizenship rights from all immigrants, especially Catholics.

Another larger group of immigrants, better off than the Irish and with a greater percentage of skilled laborers, the _______ moved in large numbers to western states and cities like Cincinnati, Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Louis.

Germans. The largest group of immigrants other than the Irish came from the German states of central Europe. Fleeing from crop failures and economic dislocation, as well as the failed revolutions of 1848, more than 1.3 million Germans emigrated to the United States between 1846 and 1859., commonly settling together in chains of migration from German towns. Unlike the Irish, German communities were often led by former revolutionaries like Carl Schurz who spoke out against slavery.

In the North, early Industrialization resulted in improved communications systems and the spread of mass culture and popular publications influenced almost every aspect of social life.

In the 1820s, America was undergoing tremendous transformation. As people strove to make sense of these momentous transformations, several morally committed individuals dedicated themselves to showing Americans the contradictions of the society in which they lived and called for a variety of social reforms. Especially in New England, where change brought by early industrialization was more pronounced, organized movements for reform, such as temperance, affected a large part of the population.

__________ participated in the Pottawatomie Massacre and led the raid on Harper's Ferry.

John Brown. A white abolitionist, John Brown participated in the mutilation of five unarmed men and boys at a pro-slavery settlement on Pottawatomie Creek in Kansas, called the Pottawatomie Massacre. This was in retaliation to the Sack of Lawrence, which was an attack on the free soil town of Lawrence, that killed two and destroyed homes and businesses. He would eventually lead some men down to Harper's Ferry to raid the federal arsenal in a failed attempt to create a violent uprising of slaves against their masters.

The _______________ Act enraged Northern antislavery forces and it led to eleven years of armed conflict from 1854 to 1865; the so called Kansas Wars or Bleeding Kansas.

Kansas-Nebraska. After the Act was passed a rush of antislavery and proslavery settlers arrived in Kansas. The conflict was bloody and dirty; mostly characterized by guerilla warfare between the proponents of slavery and the so-called "Free Starters." Although Kansas was ultimately admitted as a free state in 1861, guerilla violence was repeated there throughout the civil war.

The Irish generally settled in Northern cities, taking what jobs they could.

Men often ended up in coal mines or accepting the most dangerous work on railroad or canal projects, while women took employment as servants or labored in textile mills. Relatively few settled in the South, where the slave economy offered little paid labor. Cities like New York, Boston, and Philadelphia saw their immigrant populations explode seemingly overnight. The social pressures from this ethnic demographic change brought a quick response from native-born Americans who quickly put up "no Irish need apply" signs.

Early abolitionists included the _______ who, throughout the eighteenth century, engaged in an uncompromising battle against slavery, which they saw as a moral abomination in opposition to God's plans for human progress.

Quakers. Eighteenth-century abolitionism gained momentum during the revolutionary period and reached its peak between 1784 and 1804, when slavery was abolished in the Northern states and many slaves were manumitted in the South. After 1804, the new economic opportunities brought by the cotton boom and increasing fears of slave rebellion made Southern slaveholders tighten their control over their slaves.

What ended as the Civil War began in many respects as abolitionism, the first serious ______ movement in American history.

Reform. The abolitionist movement, or abolitionism, flourished in the United States between 1830 and 1865. Its aim was the immediate emancipation of the slaves in the American South. For most of its history, abolitionism was a movement at the margins of American politics, and abolitionists were a dissenting minority. Abolitionism had its historical roots in the Enlightenment's doctrine of human rights and in the evangelical attack on the morality of slavery that characterized the Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1740s.

Any criticism of slavery became highly offensive to Southern leaders and John Calhoun argued that the Senate should refuse to receive ____________ petitions.

Abolitionist. Until his death in 1850, John Calhoun devoted his life to the protection of Southern interests, and this included the "peculiar institution" of slavery. His contention was that its preservation depended on the recognition of the rights guaranteed to the states by the Constitution.

Beginning in the 1830's a loose network of white _____________ and free blacks created an Underground Railroad to smuggle slaves out of the South.

Abolitionists. The conductors of the railroad were secret operatives that transferred fugitives from one safe house to the next. 50-100,000 slaves were transported to freedom in the North but the railroad system never reached the deep southern states of Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi.

The largest group of immigrants, 1.5 million between 1845 and 1855, came from Ireland.

Beginning in 1845, the potato blight devastated the Irish potato crop and those immigrants who could pay their way to the United States were still the poorest ever to enter the country, and many lacked the skills to compete for anything but manual labor.

In the decade and a half preceding the Civil War, the United States experienced its largest influx of Immigrants to that point in history.

Between 1845 and 1860, more than 3 million men, women, and children arrived in America, primarily from Ireland and Germany. Escaping famine, war, and political and economic upheaval, these immigrants dramatically changed the nation's ethnic makeup and provided a catalyst for political upheaval.

The Compromise of 1850 admitted __________ to the Union as a free state but the other territories acquired by the Mexican War would be subject to popular sovereignty.

California. The Compromise of 1850 was proposed by Henry Clay, who recognized a need for a great compromise to save the Union. This provision would allow popular sovereignty to decide slavery in the former Louisiana Territory, thus canceling out the Missouri Compromise, which had been the law of the land for thirty-four years. Northerners for the most part were staunchly against it, but Massachusetts senator Daniel Webster, who was usually a voice for anti-slavery, spoke in favor of this compromise, which he saw as necessary for the preservation of the Union. Northern opponents to the compromise, such as William Seward, considered Webster a traitor to the cause of freedom for supporting the Compromise of 1850. Another important part of this compromise was to discontinue the slave trade in the District of Columbia. A strong Fugitive Slave Law was passed explicitly forbidding Northerners to grant refuge to escaped slaves.

The Republican presidential candidate for the 1860 election was _______________.

Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln's declarations on slavery during the Lincoln-Douglas debates in 1858 struck such a sympathetic chord among Northerners that he emerged from the contest a national figure. Stating a moderate antislavery position, Lincoln insisted that slavery could not be stopped where it existed, but that it must not be allowed to spread to areas where it did not. As much as he condemned slavery, he refused to denounce slaveholders and prominent Republicans began to consider Lincoln as a possible presidential candidate for 1860.

At the time of the American Revolution, every colony had slaves. Opponents tried to have the practice declaimed or banned in the Declaration of Independence and Constitution but were defeated, and the Northwest Ordinance of ____ provided for the return of fugitive slaves as it prohibited slavery in states carved out of the Northwest Territory.

1787. Pennsylvania was the first state to emancipate its slaves in 1780, and it was joined by New York, New Jersey, and other Northern states, some grudgingly. Still, the United States became the first nation in the New World to have a self-reproducing slave population by the early nineteenth century. In the Deep South, plantation owners viewed slaves as an economic necessity. Many planters earned a return on their investment in slaves equal to the returns on money Northerners invested in manufacturing or railroads. By the time of the Civil War, the capital investment in slaves exceeded in value all other capital worth in the South, including land.

On May 13, ____ the US declared war on Mexico.

1846. US forces enjoyed victory after victory and on September 17, 1847 Santa Anna surrendered. By the Treaty of Hidalgo Mexico ceded to the US New Mexico (now parts of Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and Colorado) and California and withdrew claims to Texas above the Rio Grande. The addition of these Western territories was potentially explosive as to whether a state would join the Union as free state or slave state.

For the election of ____, the Democrats found themselves divided over both a candidate and a platform.

1860. The Democratic party had been a strong force in the North, but after the ominous events of Harper's Ferry the party started to split. Two Democratic Party candidates emerged: Stephen A. Douglas and John C. Breckenridge, the latter bearing the onus of being the "Southern" candidate.

In the case of __________ vs Sanford, the Supreme Court ruled that Congress had no authority to prohibit slavery in the territories, even if territorial inhabitants desired such a prohibition.

Dred Scott. Democrat James Buchanan won the 1856 election, but he had been in office only two days when the Supreme Court made a ruling in the Dred Scott case on March 6, 1857. Scott was a slave who sued for his freedom on the basis that his owner had taken him to live for five years in the free state of Illinois and the free Wisconsin Territory. Chief Justice Roger Taney's denied Scott's freedom and his ruling seriously eroded the power of popular sovereignty to exclude slavery from any territories in the Union. Republicans decried the decision and condemned the Court and the Southerners charges that the North would not respect any measures—even Supreme Court decisions that did not ban slavery.

Related to the reformist ferment, a new Evangelical revival swept across America in the 1820s; preachers like Charles G. Finney and Lyman Beecher urged individuals to abandon their sinful lives and look for God's salvation through contribution to the moral improvement of society.

Evangelical ministers and evangelical converts touched by the new revivalist wave effectively constituted the most important influence on the abolitionist movement; several abolitionist leaders were educated in New England by evangelical preachers, who gave them a strong sense of moral and religious commitment and a will to fight moral degradation and the evil represented by sin, such as the one of owning slaves.

Slavery was so entrenched in the American experience and culture that as late as the 1830s abolitionists were considered raving ________ whose provocative tirades threatened the well-being of the entire nation, North and South.

Fanatics. Almost from the beginning, rather than being "conceived in liberty," as many historians have maintained, the United States was heavily dependent on coerced labor and, from the early eighteenth century until as late as 1865, slavery. Eight of the country's first twelve presidents, including George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Andrew Jackson, were slave owners, constituting 49 of the nation's first 61 years.

The _______________ Act introduced to the Senate by Stephen A. Douglas in 1854 hastened the disintegration of the Whig party and the creation of the new Republican Party.

Kansas-Nebraska. The Kansas-Nebraska Act repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820 which had banned slavery in that area. Instead, it introduced the idea of popular sovereignty which allowed the people living in the state to decide whether they would be a free state or a slave state. This resulted in a flood of pro-slavery and abolitionist settlers entering the Kansas territory, eventually leading to its being declared as a free state in 1861. An important side-effect of the Kansas-Nebraska Act was the creation of the Republican Party. This Act resulted in the splitting apart of the Democratic Party along North-South lines and the disintegration of the Whig party. These Whigs, Democrats and Know-Nothings created the new Republican Party.

In January 1854, Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois introduced into the Senate a report that recommended the creation of two new territories in the former Louisiana Purchase Territory, ______ and Nebraska.

Kansas. Douglas was interested in the opening of western lands which he believed would add to the vigorous growth of the new nation. The Missouri Compromise of 1820 had specifically outlawed the institution of slavery in the former Louisiana Territory north of the line of 36º 30', except for Missouri.

As secession grew near, the concept of "___________" diplomacy gave Southerners confidence that they would gain England's economic and military support if civil war erupted.

King Cotton. European nations imported a great deal of Southern cotton, but Great Britain was the South's top consumer, purchasing half of all it produced to sustain its booming textile industry. In fact, 80 percent of England's supply of cotton came from the American South. As it became apparent that secession from the Union lay on the South's horizon, Southerners believed that if the cotton trade were interrupted, textile manufacturers and indeed, Great Britain itself, would face economic hardship. In 1858 Senator James Hammond of South Carolina speculated that if Britain's supply of cotton were cut off, "Old England would topple headlong and carry the whole civilized world with her." Others held similar ideas and speculated that if sectional tensions led to civil war, England would intervene on the South's behalf rather than risk suffering the catastrophic economic loss that could result from the interruption of trade.

The American Party (or the _____________, as members were commonly known), played a key role in the transformation of the second American political party system during the mid-1850s.

Know-Nothings. The Know-Nothings grew out of a nativist organization in New York City called the Order of the Star Spangled Banner. It was a secret society devoted to denying political participation to Catholics and the foreign born, and to defeating the old, corrupt Whig and Democratic Parties, which the society accused of catering to the immigrant vote. Energized by unrest over the waves of primarily Irish and German immigrants pouring into the United States (2.9 million immigrants entered the country between 1845 and 1854), the Know-Nothings spread throughout much of the eastern and border states in 1853 and 1854, gradually moving into politics in support of their anti-Catholic, antiforeign, and antiparty agenda. Still unknown by much of the population, the Know-Nothing Party most amazing victories came in Massachusetts, where the party managed to capture all but three seats in the state legislature and the entire congressional delegation, and to elect the governor and a United States senator. Know-Nothings earned less spectacular, but still significant, victories in New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Ohio and thus stood on the verge of national power. The Know-Nothings lost the 1856 election, but this political struggle, combined with the role both the Irish and Germans played in the sectional confrontation over slavery, placed the nation's newest population in the middle of the political crisis of the 1850s.

In March 1820, the ________ Compromise was reached that allowed Missouri to enter the Union as a slave state.

Missouri. In 1818-1819 there were 44 Senators; 22 from the South and 22 from the North. Missouri petitioned to become part of Union as a slave holding state and this threatened the precarious balance. Northern Senators held that Congress had the right to ban slavery in new states and the South argued that new states should have the same rights as the original 13 to determine for themselves whether or not they would allow slavery. At last, in March 1820, the Missouri Compromise was reached that allowed Missouri to enter as a slave state while simultaneously holding that Maine would be admitted as a slave-free state. This maintained slaveholding/slave free balance. Essentially this meant a line would be drawn across the Louisiana Territory at a latitude of 36°30, north of which slavery would be banned, except in the case of Missouri.

One of the serious consequences of Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) was that the ________ Compromise was ruled unconstitutional.

Missouri. The Supreme Court ruled the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional because it deprived property owners of taking their property (slaves) anywhere in the United States, thereby depriving them of their 5th Amendment rights of life, liberty and property.

In the 1830's and 1840's, the Whig Party believed in the importance of individual initiative and ___________; favoring an energetic government in the pursuit of progress and the promotion of economic growth.

Opportunity. The Whig party was a factor on the national level for only about two decades, but in that time its membership included a diverse and distinguished group of political leaders, including Henry Clay, Alexander Stevens, and Abraham Lincoln. There was wide variance in the individual political philosophies of the men who made up the Whig Party. Henry Clay's American System was the ultimate expression of the Whig agenda to use federal money for internal state improvements. It was a plan for government-sponsored construction of roads and canals. The party's lack of unity ended up being their downfall. For most of their existence, the Whigs endeavored to minimize the slavery issue. They kept it off the agenda as much as possible, and when that was not possible, they compromised. By the 1850s the slavery issue could be ignored no longer; Northern Whigs, who were in the numerical majority, focused on the party's central theme of opportunity, and insisted that the very survival of the republic depended on the spread of free labor across the continent. This was unacceptable to Southern Whigs and the Whig Party disappeared by the mid-1850s.

A year before the Constitution was ratified, Congress enacted the Northwest _________ of 1787.

Ordinance. At the time of the American Revolution, every colony had slaves. Opponents tried to have the practice declaimed or banned in the Declaration of Independence and Constitution but were defeated. Congress took a stand, however, and passed the Northwest Ordinance, which spelled out the basis for the government of the Northwest Territory. Under this ordinance, they outlawed slavery in the Territory but it also provided for the return of fugitive slaves as slavery was prohibited in the Northwest Territory. Pennsylvania was the first state to emancipate its slaves in 1780, and it was joined by New York, New Jersey, and other Northern states.

Politically, the Democratic Party offered the Irish a means of __________ their persecution.

Overcoming. Needing the immigrant vote, especially at the local level, party machines like Tammany Hall in New York City helped settle newcomers and find them work. In the Irish the Democrats discovered a willing partner in the protection of slavery as an institution. Fearful of competition for jobs and association with the nation's most persecuted population, the Irish actively and violently opposed abolition and the free-soil politics of Northern Republicans.

The South became increasingly paranoid toward and protective of its "________ institution" in the wake of the abolitionist movement.

Peculiar. Slaves were prohibited by law from becoming literate, gatherings (even religious) of African Americans were viewed with apprehension, and white abolitionists and their propaganda were driven or prohibited from the South. Although slavery was supported as an institution by most of the South before the Civil War, it cut a limited socioeconomic line. Only one quarter of all Southern whites owned slaves in 1860, and of that number, only ten thousand families owned at least 50 slaves, according to the federal census.

In an election where there are at least three parties, it's possible that none of the parties will get the majority of the votes. The party with the greatest number of votes is said to have the _________ of the vote.

Plurality. To get the majority of the votes, you would have to get at least 50% of the votes. When there's a 3-way election, it's possible that one candidate would have the most votes, but still have less than 50%. For instance, Abraham Lincoln won 39% of the popular vote, which was more than the other two parties. He had the plurality, but not the majority, of the popular vote.

The first meeting of the __________ party occurred in 1854, and by 1856 they fielded their first presidential candidate; John C. Fremont.

Republican. Fremont ran against Democrat James Buchanan, a Northerner well known for his record of public service and his tendency to sympathize with the Southern position on slavery. The Republican platform quoted both the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, emphasizing the importance of free soil and outlining what Republicans viewed as Southern transgressions against the American people, including the events in "Bleeding Kansas," and the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. Fremont was defeated fairly soundly, capturing only 33 percent of the vote compared to Buchanan's 45 percent but Republican leaders were heartened by their many victories in local contests, and by their realization that the party would be much better organized by the time of the next presidential election in 1860.

Beginning on July 11, 1863, in reaction to emancipation and a new military draft that seemed to target the poor, Irish in New York City ______.

Rioted. They burned and looted for four days, killing at least 105 people, mostly black, in the worst riot in U.S. history.

The Wilmot Proviso, signed by the House of Representatives during the Mexican War, attempted to ban _______ in any new territories that would be gained from the war.

Slavery. This bill never passed through the senate from lack of Southern support. Southerners felt like they were being treated unfairly by this attempt to ban slavery in the future southwest territories, which would have made them a minority in the Senate. This matter was unresolved until the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, which relied on popular sovereignty to decide the slavery issue in each new state.

The first African ______ arrived in North America as indentured servants for the Spanish in what would become Georgia in 1526.

Slaves. In 1619, 20 survivors of an original shipment of 100 Africans landed at Jamestown, Virginia, and began providing the stable labor force that was the backbone of large-scale agricultural production. Africans were prized as slaves because of their color and the fact that they knew little about North America, making it more difficult for them to escape. A black man or woman was presumed to be a slave unless he or she could show otherwise. Literally bound to a life of racism, servitude, and enforced illiteracy, African slaves and their descendants had little choice but to submit to their situation at least temporarily or face death. Estimates vary, but at least ten million Africans were transported to the New World between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries to become slaves.

The three-fifths compromise stipulates that ______ may be counted as 3/5 of a person for the purpose of levying taxes and apportioning representation in Congress.

Slaves. While slavery was not constitutionally banned, the slave-trade would cease as of 1808. The issue that remained was how to hammer out equitable representation in the government. The south, which usually held slaves as property, suddenly preferred to count them as humans thus increasing their representation numbers; the North argued that slaves should be excluded for the calculation. The Three-Fifths Compromise was eventually reached, it diverted immediate conflict but settled nothing and the slavery issue continued to smolder.

John Calhoun, John Quincy Adams' vice president (and later vice president under Andrew Jackson), anonymously published ______________ Exposition and Protest in 1828.

South Carolina. John Calhoun, in opposition to what was known as the "Tariff of Abominations," anonymously published South Carolina Exposition and Protest, stating his theory that states could ignore laws they considered unconstitutional. This was called Calhoun's Nullification Doctrine.

Nullification is the concept that a _____ may nullify or refuse to obey or enforce any federal law it considers unconstitutional.

State. In 1832, South Carolina called a convention and passed an Ordinance of Nullification forbidding collection of tariff duties in the State. Ultimately this ended as a showdown between the will of the States and the will of the Nation. Advocates of nullification were really fighting for protection of slavery which they feared would be abolished by a Northern majority government. Slavery was an intensely economic issue and the South could not afford to abandon it.

In the decades before the Civil War, the development of the cotton industry fueled the economic growth and ________ expansion of the American South and played a major role in the rapid growth of the American economy overall.

Westward. Until the 1790s, the South grew and exported a relatively small amount of cotton. Rice, tobacco, and sugar cane were the most lucrative crops raised in the American South. The growth of the British textile industry, however, fueled the demand for cotton. Southern planters grew high-quality Sea Islands cotton which could easily be separated from the seeds but this variety of cotton could only be grown within forty miles of the coast. Although inferior in quality to the long-staple Sea Islands cotton, Uplands cotton could be grown successfully in the South's warm interior. Until the nineteenth century, however, planters raised very little short-staple cotton as the task of separating the fiber from the seeds was time consuming and the amount of labor required to process Uplands cotton did not make its cultivation a profitable venture.

______________________ galvanized the abolitionist movement by publishing The Liberator.

William Lloyd Garrison. The Liberator was a periodical that declared slavery no less than an abomination in the sight of God and called for the immediate emancipation of all slaves. Garrison embarked on a national campaign of "moral suasion" to end slavery.

In the election of 1860, an Illinois state politician by the name of Abraham Lincoln became the Republican presidential candidate after replacing ______________, the Republican frontrunner, at the Chicago convention.

William Seward. Lincoln wasn't always the favored candidate in the election of 1860. It wasn't until the Chicago convention that Illinois' "Favorite Son" became the candidate of choice after a showdown with the current frontrunner, William Seward, who many considered to be too radical. On the first ballot, Seward won with over seventy more votes than Lincoln, but after it was proven to be a battle between Lincoln and Seward, many votes for lesser known candidates were switched to Lincoln. After becoming the Republican candidate, he made Seward his Secretary of State.