CDIS FINAL EXAM

Release burst

A brief transient noise generated upon the release of the occlusion and the impounded air of the stop. It results from the sudden meeting of the 2 pressures. (small black line between stop gap and aspiration) Release burst usually 10-50 ms for voiced stops, slightly longer for voiceless.

Copula vs. Auxiliary "to be"

A copula is a linking word - links a subject with a predicate of a sentence. It is the main verb of the sentence: • I am a teacher • You are students An auxiliary is a helping verb - it precedes the main verb: • I am teaching • You are learning • The material was learned by the students There can be two auxiliaries preceding the main verb, as in: • I have been teaching at Redlands for 9 years • She has been learning basic language science

monophthongs and diphthongs

A monophthong is a simple vowel sound that a person does not have to move his mouth to make, like the "oo" sound in "book." In a diphthong, the person combines two different monophthongs, as with the "oi" sound in the word "oil." Mono - one sound Dip - two sounds

Pragmatics

An individual may say words clearly and use long, complex sentences with correct grammar, but still have a communication problem - if he or she has not mastered the *rules for social language* known as pragmatics. An individual with pragmatic problems may: say inappropriate or unrelated things during conversations tell stories in a disorganized way have little variety in language use

inflectional and derivational morphemes

An inflectional morpheme never changes the grammatical category of a word has 8 morphemes: -s noun plural -'s noun possessive -s verb present tense third person singular -ing verb present participle/gerund -ed verb simple past tense -en verb past perfect participle -er adjective comparative -est adjective superlative derivational morpheme can change the grammatical category of a word. For example, [ize] turns a noun into a verb (as in criticize). [ly] turns an adjective into an adverb (as in quickly). http://www.ntid.rit.edu/sea/processes/wordknowledge/grammatical/whatare

Communication

Communication is the broadest category of them all. Communication includes spoken language but also includes many other non-verbal cues which are essential for interacting and communicating with others. It is common that if a child or adult has proper speech and language, that they still struggle with communication. This could take the form of not understanding sarcasm, gestures, or facial expressions which are also cues as to the meaning of what someone is trying to communicate to them. Children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) often exhibit these characteristics.

periodic and aperiodic sounds

Complex periodic sounds: have waveforms that regularly repeat themselves -The repeating pattern will sound harmonic (and have a musical tone) because all of its components are nicely synchronized Complex aperiodic sounds: have waveforms that do not repeat. Long-lasting; They do not repeat because they are random. These sounds are also called noises

Dialect vs. Language

Foremost, linguists define the term "dialect" as a diversity of a language that is being used by a certain group of people in a particular geographical location. So how does it differ from a language? Well, language is said to be the more generally accepted tongue of a country. This means that the dialect is just the homely version of the language. Language is the sum of the parts (individual dialects). the term "dialect" is a more local form of the bigger language. Being described as local, dialects share the same characteristics of grammar.

Pragmatics: Implicature

Implicature (P. Grice) • an utterance that implies a proposition that is not part of the utterance and does not follow as a necessary consequence of the utterance • an utterance may raise more than one implicature, depending on the context in which it occurs • e.g., "Aren't you cold?" might be an actual yes/no question in one situation, but if it is directed to someone sitting next to an open window, it might be meant as a request for that person to close the window, and if it is said by a parent to a child, it might be meant as a suggestion to put on a sweater

Language

Language refers to the ability to communicate through speech by delivering and receiving meaningful messages. Correct language may include delivering or deciphering the message through reading, or hearing. A child with language challenges may not use proper sentence construction and grammar (eg "I goed to the park) or may have trouble deciphering complex sentences or thoughts.

Lexicon

Lexicons are really dictionaries, though a lexicon usually covers an ancient language or the special vocabulary of a particular author or field of study. In linguistics, the lexicon is the total stock of words and word elements that carry meaning. For example, The lexicon of soccer (called "football" outside of the United States) includes terms such as linesman, friendly match, yellow card, penalty shootout, pitch, result, and draw.

Identify features of a line spectrum, such as the first frequency represented is the F0

Line spectrum is the power or more simply the energy of the signal at each frequency that it contains. It can also be considered as the range or spectra of energy or power of the given signal derived from the signals' range of frequencies. (x axis- frequency; y axis- amplitude). Each of the preferred resonanting frequencies of the vocal tract (each bump in the frequency response curve) is known as a formant . They are usually referred to as F1, F2, F3, etc. The frequency of the first formant is mostly determined by the height of the tongue body. By moving around your tongue body and your lips, you can change the position of the formants. high F1 = low vowel (i.e., high frequency F1 = low tongue body) low F1 = high vowel (i.e., low frequency F1 = high tongue body) The frequency of the second formant is mostly determined by the frontness/backness of the tongue body: high F2 = front vowel low F2 = back vowel

Pragmatics: Speech Acts

Locutionary act - the proposition expressed with an utterance (what is said) 2. Illocutionary act - the communicative goal expressed with the utterance (e.g., stating, requesting, apologizing, questioning, etc.) (what is done)

English Modals vs. Auxiliary Verbs

Modals are a type of auxiliary - not all auxiliaries are modals; both are differentiated from the "main verbs" in a clause Modals are a type of auxiliary - not all auxiliaries are modals; both are differentiated from the "main verbs" in a clause • Modal verbs (can/could, will/would, shall/should, may/might, must): cannot function as main verbs, although we can omit the main verb in some cases (e.g., "If only I could" - this is called "ellipsis"). In a sentence, the modal is always the first verb form and always followed by an uninflected verb. Modals never take the third person singular morpheme "s". Examples: • "I may eat some fish tacos today." • "I wouldn't eat the fish tacos here. You could get sick - I doubt that the fish is fresh." • "You're right, I shouldn't eat fish tacos here. I could get sick. I will eat something else. I might order the chile relleno instead. Yum!"

bandwidths

Narrow Bandwidth provides greater detail about frequency information ( a better frequency response) Takes a long time to filter all the speech frequencies Wide bandwidth resolves time resolution well because frequency is faster. It "sees" more harmonics at a time.

Pragmatics: Grice's Conversational Maxims

Quality - a participant's contribution should be true Quantity - a participant's contribution should be informative Relation - a participant's contribution should be relevant Manner - a participant's contribution should be clear Speakers sometimes "flout" these maxims for particular reasons, to raise particular implicatures

"agent", "patient", "beneficiary", "instrumental" thematic roles

Sam (agent) trimmed the shrubs (patient) for his mother (beneficiary) with the new clipper (instrument). agent: volitional performer of the action described by the verb. patient: the thing affected by the action of the verb. beneficiary: the entity that benefits from the action. instrument: the thing used to carry out the action.

Social Communication vs. Pragmatics

Social communication can occur with or without language - not synonymous with language "pragmatics". Both rely on similar social and cognitive abilities. Both rely on similar social and cognitive abilities, which are present across many species (other animals have social communication): • attention, memory, imitation, goal-directed behavior, etc. • cooperation, joint attention (the ability to pay attention to the same thing as another), perception of the goals of others • However, human social communication requires foundational skills that do not seem to be present in other species • shared intentionality (the understanding of the intentions/goals of others) • collaboration around shared goals - "common ground" Humans use linguistic thinking, which other animals do not seem to be capable of: • Shared symbols (reference) • Shared intentionality in our communication Language relies on an understanding of implicatures (what is implied by another person with a locutionary act), which relies on an understanding of the beliefs of others. Language relies on the "Cooperative Principle" - the assumption that participants in a conversation are cooperating to achieve communication.

English Main Verbs vs. Auxiliary Verbs

Some verbs can be either main verbs or auxiliaries, but most English verbs are only main verbs. • Main verbs: the right-most verb in a simple sentence or clause is the main verb. • Auxiliary verbs: can also function as main verbs, if there is no other verb immediately following it: • have + past participle: e.g., "I have not eaten yet today." • be + present participle: e.g., "I am eating now" • have + be + present participle: "I have been eating all day." • have + be + past participle: "Dinner has been served." • do + uninflected main verb: "I did eat" or "I did not eat" or "I didn't eat"

Speech

Speech generally refers to the action of producing speech or the act of speaking. So someone with a speech challenge may have trouble with specific sounds, patterns of words, or intelligibility.

Syntax

Syntax is the way in which words and punctuation are used and arranged to form phrases, clauses and sentences. For example, Incorrect - Before we go to the movies. Correct - I need to rest before we go to the movies.

lexical categories and phrasal categories

The parts of speech are the primary categories of words according to their function in a sentence. English has seven main parts of speech: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions. In phrase structure grammars, the phrasal categories (e.g. noun phrase, verb phrase, prepositional phrase, etc.) are also syntactic categories. a phrasal category should consist of two or more words, although conventions vary in this area. Left to right sequence.

Define the "source" and the "filter" in terms of "Source Filter theory," otherwise known as the "acoustic theory of speech production"

The source-filter theory describes speech production as a two stage process involving the generation of a sound source, with its own spectral shape and spectral fine structure, which is then shaped or filtered by the resonant properties of the vocal tract. 1) Specific articulatory postures produce specific sounds. 2) the source creates the sound rich in harmonic structure. The sound source provides input to the vocal tract. The filter selects a portion of the harmonic frequencies to be radiated out of the mouth. The resonator filters, the sound.

Semantics

The study of discussing the meaning/interpretation of words or groups of words within a certain context. Some words have more than one meaning. For example, A child could be called a child, kid, boy, girl, son, daughter. The word "run" has many meanings-physically running, depart or go (I have to run, spent (it has run its course), or even a snag in a pair of hose (a run in my hose).

Voice onset time

The time period from the release of the stop closure to the onset of voicing. It can be measured in ms on the spectrogram

The verticle striations represent

The verticle striations represent cycles of glottal opening and closing, which proceeds to a faster rate as the F0 is elevated.

Phonology

Try saying the word 'helps' out loud, paying close attention to the final sound of the word. After that, say the word 'crabs' out loud, again paying attention to the final sound. After getting over the embarrassment of talking to yourself (especially if you're in a crowded place!), what did you notice about the final sounds of these words? If you said that they are different, you're absolutely correct! In 'helps', the final sound is pronounced like you would expect the letter 's' to sound. However, in 'crabs', the ending should have sounded more like a 'z'. The reasoning for this change can be found through the use of phonology, which is *the study of speech sounds and how they change depending on certain situations or placements in syllables, words, and sentences.*

semantic overlap

Two words overlap in meaning if they have the same value for some (but not all) of the semantic features that constitute their meaning.

Describe, recognize, and provide examples of different types of transformations discussed in the readings and in class (i.e., "I-movement", "WH-movement", "NP-movement").

Wh-movement (11a) What has Tiny Abner concealed? (11b) Who has Tiny Abner concealed? (11c) *What has Tiny Abner concealed Mary? (11d) *Who has Tiny Abner concealed the document? Inflection movement (12a) Has Tiny Abner concealed the document? (12b) Has Tiny Abner concealed Mary? (12c) *Has Tiny Abner concealed? (12d) *Has Tiny Abner concealed the document Mary? Wh-Movement vs. I-Movement (l0a) Tiny Abner has concealed the document. (11a) What has Tiny Abner concealed? (12a) Has Tiny Abner concealed the document? NP-Movement Move any NP to any empty NP position. This rule moves the object of a passive verb into subject position to create a passive sentence DECLARATIVE: You are being a good boy. Yes-No INTERROGATIVE: Are you being a good boy? EXCLAMATION: What a good boy you are being! WH-INTERROGATIVE: What kind of boy are you being?

Orthography

a set of conventions for how to write a language. It includes rules of spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, word breaks, emphasis, and punctuation.

Explain how phrases such as "American history teacher" show "structural ambiguity", and describe the different constituent structures in the different possible interpretations of such phrases.

a situation where a sentence may be interpreted in more than one way due to ambiguous sentence structure. we might say that "american history" is a constitute - two or more words form a constitute if there is a node in their tree structure that dominates only those words. the other case "history teacher" could be a constitute (a teacher who is american)

Differentiate obstruent from sonorant consonants

a sonorant or resonant is a speech sound that is produced with continuous, non-turbulent airflow in the vocal tract; these are the manners of articulation that are most often voiced in the world's languages. Vowels are sonorants, as are consonants like /m/ and /l/: They can therefore form the nucleus of a syllable in languages that place that distinction at that level of sonority; Sonorants contrast with obstruents, which do stop or cause turbulence in the airflow. The latter group includes fricatives and stops (for example, /s/ and /t/).

suprasegmentals

a speech feature such as stress, tone, or word juncture that accompanies or is added over consonants and vowels; these features are not limited to single sounds but often extend over syllables, words, or phrases.

synonym

a word having the same or nearly the same meaning as another in the language, as happy, joyful, elated.

antonyms

a word opposite in meaning to another (e.g., bad and good).

Levels of representation in phonology

allophonic variation - specific properties of a phoneme vary according to the phoneme's position in a word allophones - systematic variations in the pronunciation of a phoneme within a language (e.g., aspirated vs. unaspirated /t/) Some examples of allophonic variation: • the vowels in the following words are slightly different, phonetically: • cab, cad, cap, cat the consonant /t/ is different in each of the following words: • top, stop, hit, Britain, Betty

anaphora

an expression that refers to another expression. For example, Mary wants to play whoever thinks himself capable of beating her. "himself" refers to "whoever." thus "himself" is being used anaphorically in this case.

Mean Length of Utterance (MLU)

can be measured in morphemes or in words Mean length of utterance (or MLU) is a measure of linguistic productivity in children. It is traditionally calculated by collecting 100 utterances spoken by a child and dividing the number of morphemes by the number of utterances.

subcategorization restrictions

constraints on the kinds of complements that lexical categories can take • transitive verbs take a direct object ("conceal") • intransitive verbs do not take a direct object ("sleep"), but can take a prepositional object ("sleep on the bed") • ditransitive verbs require two objects (direct and indirect): ("give")

Narrow band

displays the source characteristics (the harmonics) clearly (pg 256) represented by narrow parallel lines.

Wide band

displays the vocal tract filter function, the formants, represented by horozontal lines of dark gray. As the F0 is raised, the verticle striations move closer togther

referent

entity identified by the use of a referring expression. For example, "that bird looks sick." the referent is "that bird."

deixis

expression has one meaning but can refer to different entities depending on the speaker and his or her spatial and temporal orientation. Such as you and I, here and there, right and left.

hyponyms/subordinates

hyponym: A word whose meaning is included in the meaning of another more general word, known as superordinate; for example, bus is a hyponym of vehicle.

phonemic, phonetic, and morphophonemic levels of representation in orthography/spelling

morphophonemic spelling- each morpheme corresponds to a unique graphemic representation, called a "morphophoneme" (e.g., the English plural "s" phoneme is realized as two different phonemes, /s/ and /z/). English is mostly morphophonemic. phonemic spelling - each phoneme corresponds to a unique graphemic representation (e.g., the English words "wife" and "wives" are spelled with different letters - "f" and "v", to represent the different phonemes used in the singular and plural words) phonetic spelling - each allophone corresponds to a unique graphemic representation (e.g., the English words "caps" and "cabs" would be spelled "caps" and "caabz", because the final "s" phoneme is realized as two different phonemes, /s/ and /z/ AND the vowel is lengthened in "cabs". English spelling does not work that way.)

Stop gap, or silence

occurs in the production of the plosive prior to the release of the airflow. (the white band in the spectrogram)

language processing

passive sentences: more difficult to process than active sentences, garden path sentences (with reduced relative clauses): "The horse raced past the barn fell" is more difficult than "The horse that was raced past the barn fell" ambiguous sentences: "The man talked to a friend of the girl who was at the store": we assume that the girl was at the store, not the friend (late closure) heavy noun phrase: especially difficult if in sentence-initial or sentence- medial position • "That she got a perfect score on the exam is impressive" vs. "It's impressive that she got a perfect score on the exam" negative sentences: inherent negatives are more difficult than explicit negatives "reaction time" - the time it takes to react to some stimulus; measures processing time and the difficulty of the structure compared to other structures, or the difficulty of the structure for some people vs. other people • children are slower at processing language than adults • younger children are slower at processing

distinctive features of consonants

place Examples: Bilabial - constriction is at the lips (p, b) Labiodental - constriction between tongue and upper teeth (f, v) Interdental - constriction between tongue and upper teeth ("th") Alveolar - constriction between tongue and alveolar ridge (t, d, s, l, n, z) Palatal - constriction between tongue and palate (shoe is palatal, sue is not palatal) Velar - constriction between tongue and velum (k, g) Glottal - constriction at the glottis (h) manner (stop, fricative, nasal, etc.) Stops - two articulators brought together such that the flow of air is stopped/blocked (p,b,t,d,k,g) Fricatives - two articulators brought near together but flow of air not completely blocked; creates friction (f, v, th, s, h). Z is fricative. d is not fricative. Affricates - begin like stops end with fricatives. Chew is affricate. Shoe is not. Nasals - airflow thru the mouth is completely blocked but the velum is lowered, forcing air thru the nose (m, n). Doe is not nasal. Liquids and Glides - midway between true consonants (stops, fricatives, affricates, nasals) and vowels (l, r, w, y) voice (voiced or voiceless) see chart page 107 it's very helpful

selectional restrictions

semantic constraints on the arguments (noun phrases) that lexical categories can take • the verb "admire" requires a human subject • the verb "frighten" requires an animate direct object

distinctive features of vowels

smaller units that make up segments, such as: (pp. 102 -109) vowels high vs. low - A high vowel (such as i in "machine" and u in "rule") is pronounced with the tongue arched toward the roof of the mouth. A low vowel (such as a in "father" or "had") is produced with the tongue relatively flat and low in the mouth and with the mouth open a little wider than for high vowels. front vs. back - A front vowel is pronounced with the highest part of the tongue pushed forward in the mouth and somewhat arched. The a in "had," the e in "bed," and the i in "fit" are front vowels. A back vowel—e.g., the u in "rule" and the o in "pole"—is produced with the back part of the tongue raised toward the soft palate (velum). tense vs. lax - Lax vowels, remember, are short. Tense vowels are also called long vowels; round - vowel roundedness refers to the amount of rounding in the lips during the articulation of a vowel. It is labialization of a vowel. When a rounded vowel is pronounced, the lips form a circular opening, and unrounded vowels are pronounced with the lips relaxed.

Morphology

the arrangement and relationships of the smallest meaningful units in a language. When specific sounds are put together in a specific way, words, phrases, and finally sentences can be created. morpheme, which is the smallest unit of a word with meaning. Morphology studies how these units of meaning, or word parts, can be arranged in a language. morphemes through some examples: Firehouse Doghouse Bathroom Chairlift Two morphemes, or meaningful elements, are put together in order to form a totally new word. Think of morphemes as the pieces that come together to build a language, just like the pieces of a house. A bound morpheme is one that must be attached to another morpheme in order to form a word. On the other hand, a free morpheme can stand as an independent word. Remember, a suffix is a word part added to the end of a word. Prefixes, or word parts added to the beginning of words, are also morphemes. All prefixes and suffixes are bound morphemes.

fundamental frequency (F0)

the lowest frequency of a periodic waveform.

Post-stop Vowel formant transition

the moment of release of the stop constriction the resonances of the vocal tract change rapidly. These changes are traditionally called formant transitions.

recursion

the process of repeating items in a self-similar way. The fact that English permits more than one adjective in a sequence in this manner is an example of a more general feature of languages that linguists call recursion. "the cat in the hat on the table by the chair in the corner"

coreference

two expressions that refer to the same world entity. For example, Jay Leno is the host of the Tonight Show. The expressions Jay Leno and host of the tonight show are coreferential because they both refer to the same entity - the person Jay. But they do not "mean" the same thing.