ch. 1-7

These quotations reflect the different outcomes that can result from job design. As you can see from this definition, job design focuses on motivating employees by considering the situation factors within the organizing framework.

Approaches to job design that have developed over time: - top down. Managers changed employees tasks with the intent of increasing motivation and productivity. In other words, job design was management lead. - - In top down approaches, management creates efficient and meaningful combinations of work tasks for employees. If it is done correctly, in theory, employees will display higher performance, job satisfaction, and engagement, and lower absenteeism and turnover. The five principle top down approaches are: - - - scientific management (Scientific management draws from research in industrial engineering and is most heavily influenced by the work of Frederick Taylor, who is a mechanical engineer and developed the principles of the scientific management based on research and experimentation to determine the most efficient way to perform jobs.) and (Designing jobs according to the principles of scientific management has both positive and negative consequences. Positively, employee efficiency and productivity are increased. On the other hand, research reveals that simplified, repetitive jobs also lead to job dissatisfaction, poor mental health, higher levels of stress, and a low sense of accomplishment and personal growth.) - - - job enlargement= - - - - Companies first used job enlargement in the late 1940s in response to complaints about tedious and over specialized jobs created from the principles of scientific management. Some call this strategy horizontally loading the job. Researchers recommend using job enlargement as part of a broader approach that uses multiple motivational methods, because by itself job enlargement does not have a significant and lasting positive effect on job performance. - - - job rotation= - - - - like job enlargement, job rotation gives employees greater variety in their work. Rather than performing only one job, workers are trained and given the opportunity to perform two or more separate jobs on a rotating basis. Proposed benefits of job rotation include the following: (increased engagement and motivation because employees have a broader perspective on the organization, increased worker flexibility and easier scheduling because employees are cross trained to perform different jobs, and increased employee knowledge and abilities which improves employees promote ability and builds a pipeline of internal talent) - - - - more companies are now hiring new college graduates into rotational programs which allow them to work in different functional areas for short periods and learn many different parts of the business along the way. finally the technique of job rotation has evolved into job swapping , with increased opportunities both here and abroad. - - - job enrichment= - - - - job enrichment is the practical application of Frederick Hertzberg's motivator hygiene theory of job satisfaction. The characteristics of job in Richmond are incorporated into a job through vertical loading. Rather than giving employees additional tasks of similar difficulty which is horizontal loading, vertical loading gives them more autonomy and responsibility. - - - job characteristics model= - - - - Two OB researchers, J. Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham, played a central role in developing the job characteristics approach. They proposed that intrinsic motivation was determined by three psychological states. In turn, these psychological states were fostered by the presence of five core job characteristics. - - - - The goal of the job characteristics model is to promote high intrinsic motivation by designing jobs that possess the five core job characteristics: (skill variety. The extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a variety of tasks that require him or her to use different skills and abilities), (Task identity. The extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a whole or completely identifiable piece of work period task identity is high when a person works on a product or project from beginning to end and sees a tangible result), (Task significance. The extent to which the job affects the lives of other people within or outside the organization), (Autonomy. The extent to which the job enables an individual to experience freedom, independence, and discretion in both scheduling and determining the procedures used in completing the job), and (Feedback. The extent to which an individual receives direct and clear information about how effectively he or she is performing the job) - - - - a moderate are is a variable that changes the relationship between two other variables. Hackman and Oldham proposed that there are moderators that affect the success of job design, and they are shown below: (knowledge and skill is representing whether or not the person has the knowledge and skills to perform the enriched job), (Growth and strength represent the desire to grow and develop as an individual), and (Context satisfactions represent the extent to which employees are satisfied with various aspects of their job such as pay, coworkers, and supervision) - - - - Job design is more likely to work when people have the required knowledge and skills, when they want to develop, and when they are satisfied with their jobs. Job design is not for everyone - - - - research identifies three practical implications of applying the job characteristics model: (managers can increase employee job satisfaction, managers can enhance employees intrinsic motivation and performance while reducing absenteeism and stress, andmanagers can find noticeable increases in the quality of performance after a job redesign program. Results from 21 experimental studies revealed that job design resulted in a median increase of 28% and the quality of performance) - Bottom up. In the last 10 years, the top down perspective gave way to bottom up processes, Based on the idea that employees can change or redesign their own jobs and boost their own motivation and engagement. Job design is then driven by employees rather than managers. - - bottom up job design is driven by employees rather than managers; It is also referred to as job crafting. The concept is largely based on the theories of empowerment and intrinsic motivation and its goal is to help employees experience a sense of meaning in their jobs. A recent survey of more than 2200 professionals revealed that 90% of them would be willing to earn less money or roughly 23% of future earnings for more meaningful work - - employees are viewed as job crafters according to the bottom up model because they are expected to define and create their own job boundaries. Three forms of job crafting: - - - the first change is the jobs task boundaries. You can do this by taking on more or fewer tasks or by altering their scope or nature. - - - The second form changes the relational nature of the job. Specifically you can alter the quantity or quality of interactions you have with others at work or you can establish new relationships. - - - The third method is cognitive crafting. In this strategy you perceive or think differently about the existing tasks and relationships associated with your job. - - Job crafting is expected to change the way employees perceive their jobs. It should also result in more positive attitudes about the job which is expected to increase employee motivation, engagement, and performance. Preliminary research supports this proposition. - - Given that job crafting can lead to higher levels of engagement and satisfaction, you may be interested in understanding how you can apply the technique to a former, current, or future job. - I-deals. The latest approach to job design, idiosyncratic deals, attempts to merge the two historical perspectives. It envisions job design as a process in which employees and individual managers jointly negotiate the types of tasks employees complete at work. - - The last approach to job design, idiosyncratic deals, represent a middle ground between top down and bottom up methods and attempts to overcome their limitations. For example, top down approaches are constrained by the fact that managers cannot always create changes in task characteristics that are optimal for everyone. Similarly, job crafting is limited by the amount of latitude people have to change their own jobs. Although star performers have long negotiated special employment contracts or deals, demographic trends and the changing nature of work have created increased opportunities for more employees to negotiate i-deals. - - I-deals tend to affect task and work responsibilities, schedule flexibility, location flexibility, and compensation. The goal of such deals is to increase employee intrinsic motivation and productivity by allowing employees the flexibility to negotiate employment relationships that meet their own specific needs and values. - - This relatively new approach to job design has begun to generate much research. Results confirm that i-deals are associated with higher perceived organizational support, job satisfaction, and perceived voice. Employees are less likely to quit when they negotiate i-deals. future study is needed to determine the generalizability of these encouraging results

Positive organizations empower, support, and develop employees not just because leaders believe doing so is valuable in and of itself, but because it helps meet shareholder expectations. Doing good can enhance well-being, even in the absence of a monetary reward, and it can happen at all levels in the organizing framework:

Individual level Team/unit level Organizational level

the key managerial challenge is to reduce the extent to which stereotypes influence decision making and interpersonal processes through the organization. We suggest three ways that this can be achieved:

Managers should educate people about stereotypes and how they can influence our behavior and decision making. Many people may not understand how stereotypes unconsciously affect their perception. For example, in a recent LinkedIn report on gender insights, data revealed that when recruiters are searching for job candidates and they see a list of men and women, they tend to open the men's LinkedIn profiles more frequently than the woman's profiles period to combat the initial selection bias, more companies are implementing anonymous hiring and removing key identifiers for example names and photos from candidates applications managers should create opportunities for diverse employees to meet and work together in corporate groups of equal status. Social scientists believe positive interpersonal contact among mixed groups is the best way to reduce stereotypes because it provides people with more accurate data about the characteristics of others.

The strengths movement represents a dramatic departure from conventional management research and practice. As noted earlier, the vast majority of writing, research, and managing focuses on how to fix what is wrong and who is underperforming or otherwise not meeting expectations. Many large and successful organizations have used a strengths approach. The primary focus is now on employee successes and potential, rather than on missteps and deficiencies. Research by Gallup organization on employee strengths shows some impressive findings. Employees who report using their strengths every day at work are:

Three times more likely to feel as though they have an excellent quality of life six times more likely to be engaged at work 8% more productive 15% less likely to quit

Statistics further showed that woman had made strides along several measures:

educational attainment: women earned the majority of bachelors and Masters degrees in 2018 seats on boards of directors of Fortune 500 firms: women held 9.6% of seats in 1995 and 21.2% in 2018 leadership positions in educational institutions in Congress: in 2017 women represented 30% of college presidents, and in 2019, 131 women served in Congress, the largest number ever federal court appointments: in 2019, more than 36% of federal courts of appeals judges were female

most performance management systems have six primary outputs and functions:

performance ratings. High, low, better, or worse than before or others. Feedback. Generating the content and delivering it. Development and performance improvement plans. Underperformers need to improve or be moved out. Career planning period linking expectation and performance to increased responsibilities. Recommendations for employee related decisions. Rewards, promotions, training, or termination. Documentation for legal purposes. Sound decisions need appropriate supporting data.

Research has long showed people may excel based on hard skills but they often fail because of soft skills.

Maybe that's why firms tend to weigh soft skills so heavily when hiring.

The goals of OB are to give you more than common sense, enhance your understanding of situations at work, and guide your behaviors.

This in turn will make you more attractive to potential employers and more effective once hired.

Thousands of studies have examined the relationship between job satisfaction and other organizational variables. May consider a subset of the most important variables from the standpoint of managerial relevance. 10 key outcomes correlate to job satisfaction (for attitudinal and for behavioral and two organizational level outcomes).

attitudes - motivation= employee motivation represents a psychological process that arouses our interest in doing something, and it directs and guides our behavior. As you might expect, employee motivation positively correlate's to job satisfaction. Managers can enhance employees motivation with a host of techniques and recommendations. - job involvement= many years of research have demonstrated that job involvement is moderately related to job satisfaction. Managers can foster satisfying work environments to fuel employees job involvement - withdrawal cognitions= although some people quit their jobs impulsively or in a fit of anger, most first go through a process of thinking about whether they should quit. Low job satisfaction is believed to be one of the most significant contributors to thoughts of quitting. - perceived stress= Stress has negative effects on many different OB-related outcomes. For instance, it is positively related to absenteeism, turnover, coronary heart disease, and viral infections. As you would expect, it also has a strong negative relationship to job satisfaction and employee engagement. Managers should attempt to reduce the negative effects of stress by improving job satisfaction and by encouraging employees to detach from work during off job time such as stop thinking about work and don't take it home with you. behavior - job satisfaction has a positive Association with two constructive individual level - job performance and organizational citizenship behavior or OCB. It also has a negative relationship with two potentially negative behaviors - counterproductive work behavior (CWB) and turnover. - job performance= - - one of the biggest controversies within OB research centers on the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance. This is more complicated than it might first appear; OB experts have identified at least eight ways in which these variables are related. - - A team of researchers analyzed data involving nearly 7000 individuals over a three year period. They made two key findings: - - - job satisfaction and performance are moderately related. This supports they believe that employee job satisfaction is a key workplace attitude managers should consider when attempting to increase employees job performance. - - - The relationship between them is complex. Researchers now believe both variables indirectly influence each other through a host of person factors and environmental characteristics contained in the organizing framework - organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) - - organizational citizenship behavior highlights 2 key points: - - - OCB's are voluntary - - - OCB's help work groups and the organization to effectively achieve goals - - - examples of organizational citizenship behavior include such gestures as: constructive statements about the Department, expression of personal interest in the work of others, suggestions for improvement, the training of new people, respect for the spirit as well as the letter of housekeeping rules, care for organizational property, punctuality and attendance well beyond standard or enforceable levels. - - - Manager certainly would like employees to exhibit these behaviors, and research clearly supports their value. OCB's Have a moderately positive correlation with job satisfaction. Moreover, they are significantly related to both individual level consequences such as performance appraisal ratings, intentions to quit, absenteeism, and negative job attitudes, and organizational level outcomes such as productivity, efficiency, lower costs, customer satisfaction, and unit level satisfaction and turnover. - - - These results are important for two reasons. First, exhibiting OCB's is likely to create positive impressions about you among your colleagues and manager. Intern, these impressions affect your ability to work with others, your managers evaluation of your performance, and ultimately your promotability. Second, the aggregate amount of employees OCB's affects important organizational outcomes. It is thus important for managers to foster an environment that promotes organizational citizenship behaviors. - counterproductive work behavior (CWB) - - You already know from personal experience and OB research that the absence of satisfaction may be associated with some types of undesirable behavior, such as low employee engagement and performance. - - In contrast to the helping nature of OCB's, Counterproductive work behavior happens. - - CWB's represent a particularly negative work related outcome. Examples include bullying, theft, gossiping, backstabbing, drug and alcohol abuse, destruction of organizational property, violence, deliberately poor or incorrect work, Internet surfing for personal reasons, excessive socializing, tardiness, sabotage, and sexual harassment. - - CWB has a strong negative relationship with job satisfaction, so managers should find ways to reduce it. Here are three key ways: - - - Higher individuals who are less prone to engage in counterproductive behavior. Cognitive ability is associated with many measures of success, so it is a logical quality to screen for in hiring decisions. Personality tests may also be relevant. - - - Design jobs that promote satisfaction, and root out and eliminate managers who treat others in an abusive manner. - - - Respond quickly and appropriately if an employee does engage in CWB's, defining the specific behaviors that are unacceptable and the requirements for acceptable behavior. - turnover - - turnover can be a good thing when a low performing person quits or is fired. This result enables managers to replace those people with better or more diverse individuals or to realign the budget period and losing a good employee, however, the organization loses valuable knowledge and experience and it can be costly. Experts estimate that the cost of turnover for an hourly employee is roughly 20% of his or her annual salary, higher for professional employees with specialized skills. - - Job satisfaction has a moderately strong negative relationship with turnover. Managers are well served by enhancing employees job satisfaction, especially in today's competitive labor market. For example, global HR consulting firm Mercer surveyed more than 160 large employers recently and found that voluntary turnover was at more than a 15%. organizational level - Job satisfaction is positively associated with the organizational level outcomes listed below - accounting/financial performance and customer service/satisfaction. - Accounting/financial performance - - earlier we noted that job satisfaction was moderately associated with an individual's performance. It thus makes sense to hypothesize that the aggregate level of employee job satisfaction should be positively associated with a company's accounting/financial performance. A study of 448 small to medium sized business units supported this prediction. However, the Association between job satisfaction and this outcome is lower than between job satisfaction and productivity. This makes sense because many other factors besides job satisfaction impact accounting/financial performance. - customer service/satisfaction - - why do we expect satisfied employees to provide higher quality service to customers? - - - The answer is the spillover effect. Do you spell over occurs when attitudes in one part of our lives spill over to another. Employees positive work attitudes might spill over to improve their behaviors towards customers. In support of this idea research supports a positive Association between job satisfaction and customer satisfaction.

Effective project management has four components:

defining performance monitoring and evaluating performance reviewing performance providing consequences

step B: promote goal commitment

Goal commitment boosts motivation to achieve any particular goal, and commitment can be increased by ensuring goals are personally relevant, obtainable, and fair.

Am I smarter than my parents?

If you answer yes, then research may support your claim. A steady and significant rise in average intelligence among those in developed countries has been observed over the last 70 years. Why? Experts at an American psychological association conference concluded, "some combination of better schooling, improved socioeconomic status, healthier nutrition, and a more technologically complex society might account for the gains in IQ scores".

Content theories include:

McGregor's theory X and theory Y: - Douglas McGregor outlined his theory in his book "the human side of enterprise". Drawing on his experience as a management consultant, McGregor formulated two sharply contrasting sets of assumptions about human nature. - theory X - - Is a pessimistic view of employees: they dislike work, must be monitored, and can be motivated only with rewards and punishments ("carrots and sticks"). - - McGregor felt this was the typical perspective held by managers. - - To help them break with this negative tradition, McGregor formulated his own theory, theory Y. - theory Y - - Is a modern and positive set of assumptions about people at work: they are self-engaged, committed, responsible, and creative - - Consider the value of adopting a theory Y approval towards people. - - One recent study demonstrated that employees and teams had higher performance when their managers displayed theory Y behaviors. - - A second study uncovered higher levels of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship when manager engaged in theory Y behaviors. Maslow's need hierarchy theory: - In 1942, psychologist Abraham Maslow published his now famous need hierarchy theory of motivation. Although the theory was based on his clinical observation of a few neurotic individuals, it has subsequently been used to explain the entire spectrum of human behavior. - the five levels= Maslow proposed that the five needs are met sequentially and relate to each other in a "present" hierarchy. Prepotent means the current most-pressing need will be met before the next need becomes the most powerful or potent. In other words, Maslow believed human needs generally emerge in a predictable stair-step fashion. Thus when physiological needs have been met, safety needs emerge, and so on up the need hierarchy, one step at a time. Once a need has been satisfied, it activates the next higher need in the hierarchy. This process continues until the need for self-actualization has been activated. - Using Maslow's theory to motivate employees= - - Although research does not clearly support its details, Maslow's theory does offer practical lessons. Its reminds us, for instance, that employees have needs beyond a paycheck. - - The theory tells us that a "one style fits all" approach to motivation is unlikely to work. Studies show that different motivators are needed for employees working at small firms, whose owners may not have the money to spend on extensive benefits and perks. There are several strategies that will help keep employees motivated at start-up or small businesses: (Offer flexibility when it comes to work hours, Recognize and reward good performance, Involve employees in decision making) - - A final lesson of Maslow's theory is that satisfied needs lose their motivational potential. Therefore, managers are advised to motivate employees by devising programs or practices aimed at satisfying emerging or unmet needs. Acquired needs theory: - David McClelland, a well-known psychologist, began studying the relationship between needs and behavior in the late 1940s. He proposed the acquired needs theory. McClelland used the term "acquired needs" because he believes we are not born with our needs; rather we learn or acquire them as we go about living our lives. - Three acquired needs: - - Need for achievement - - Need for affiliation - - Need for power - People vary in the extent to which they possess these needs, and often one need dominates the other two - McClelland identified a positive and negative form of the power need. The positive side is called the need for institutional power. It manifests in the desire to organize people in the pursuit of organizational goals and help people obtain the feeling of competence. The negative face of power is called the need for personal power. People with this need want to control others, and they often manipulate people for their own gratification. - You can use this theory to motivate yourself, assuming you are aware of your need states. - Using acquired needs theory to motivate others: You can apply acquired needs theory by appealing to the preferences associated with each need when you (1) set goals (2) provide feedback (3) assign tasks (4) design the job. Self-determination theory: - self determination theory was developed by psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan. In contrast to McClelland's belief that needs are learned overtime, this theory identifies innate needs that must be satisfied for us to flourish. - Self determination theory focuses on the needs that drive intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is longer lasting and has a more positive impact on task performance than extrinsic motivation. The theory proposes that our needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness produce intrinsic motivation, which in turn enhances our task performance. Research supports this proposition. - Three innate needs where an innate need is a need we are born with: - - Competence "I need to feel efficacious"= this is the desire to feel qualified, knowledgeable, and capable to complete an act, task, or goal. - - Autonomy "I need to feel independent to influence my environment"= this is the desire to have freedom and discretion in determining what you want to do and how you want to do it. - - Relatedness "I want to be connected with others"= this is the desire to feel part of a group, to belong, and to be connected with others. - - Although the above needs are assumed to be innate, according to Deci and Ryan their relative value can change over our lives and vary across cultures. - Managers can apply self determination theory by trying to create work environments that support and encourage the opportunity to experience competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Here are some specific suggestions: - - Competence= managers can provide tangible resources, time, Contacts, and coaching to improve employee competence. They can make sure employees have the knowledge and information they need to perform their jobs. - - Autonomy= Managers can empower employees and delegate meaningful assignments and tasks to enhance feelings of autonomy. This in turn suggests that they should support decisions their employees make. A recent study confirmed this conclusion. Employees intrinsic motivation was higher when they perceived that their manager supported them. - - Relatedness= Many companies use fun and camaraderie to foster relatedness. In addition, a positive and inspiring corporate vision can create a feeling of commitment to a common purpose. Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory: - Frederick Hertzberg theory is based on a landmark study in which he interviewed 203 accountants and engineers. These interviews, meant to determine the factors responsible for job satisfaction and dissatisfaction, uncovered a separate and distinct clusters of factors associated with each. This pattern lead to the motivator hygiene theory. - - Hygiene factors - what makes employees dissatisfied= Job dissatisfaction was associated primarily with factors in the work context or environment. Hertzberg hypothesized that such hygiene factors cause a person to move from a state of no dissatisfaction to dissatisfaction. He did not believe their removal created an immediate impact on satisfaction or motivation. At best, Hertzberg proposed that individuals will experience the absence of job dissatisfaction when they have no grievances about hygiene factors. - - Motivating factors - what makes employees satisfied= Job satisfaction was more frequently associated with factors in the work content of the task being performed. Hertzberg labeled these motivating factors for motivators because each was associated with strong effort and good performance. He hypothesized that such motivating factors or motivators cause a person to move from a state of no satisfaction to satisfaction. Therefore, Hertzberg theory predicts managers can motivate individuals by incorporating motivators into an individual's job. - For Hertzberg, the groups of hygiene and motivating factors did not interact. "The opposite of job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction, but rather no job satisfaction; and similarly, the opposite of job dissatisfaction is not job satisfaction, but no dissatisfaction". Hertzberg conceptualizes dissatisfaction and satisfaction as two parallel continuum's. The starting point is a null state in which both dissatisfaction and satisfaction are absent. Theoretically an organization member could have good supervision, pay, and working conditions but a tedious and unchallenging task with little chance of advancement. - Insights from Hertzberg theory allow managers to consider the dimensions of both job content and job context so that they can manage for greater overall job satisfaction. There is one aspect of this theory we think is wrong, however. We believe you can satisfy and motivate people by providing good hygiene factors. - Other companies seem to agree with our conclusion, because they have been offering a host of hygiene factors in an attempt to attract and retain millennials. A recent survey of 5000 millennials revealed that they are looking for better workplace benefits, including flexible work arrangements, generous matches to their 401K plans, pet insurance, and help with paying down their student loan debt. In this tight labor market, many companies are taking a closer look at their benefits packages to attract and maintain a competitive workforce. - Other research does not support the two factor aspect of Hertzberg theory or the proposition that hygiene factors are unrelated to job satisfaction, three practical applications of the theory hope explain why it remains important in this study of OB. - - Hygiene first period there are practical reasons to eliminate dissatisfaction before trying to use motivators to increase motivation and performance. You will have a harder time motivating someone who is experiencing pay dissatisfaction or otherwise struggling with Hertzberg's hygiene factors. - - Motivation next. Once you remove dissatisfaction, you can hardly go wrong by building motivators into someone's job. This suggestion represents the core idea behind the technique of job design that is discussed in the final section of this chapter. - - A few well chosen words. Finally, don't underestimate the power of verbal recognition to reinforce good performance. Savvy managers supplement Hertzberg's motivators with communication. Positive recognition can fuel intrinsic motivation, particularly for people who are engaged in their work.

To achieve the goal of understanding and managing people at work, OB draws on research and practice from many disciplines, including:

- Anthropology - Economics - Ethics - Management - Organizational theory - Political science - Psychology - Sociology - Neuroscience - Vocational counseling

Personal attributes (with which you build goodwill and trust and demonstrate integrity):

- Attitudes - Personality - Teamwork - Leadership

To choose among alternatives, three common elements that will help you qualify the best solution:

1. Selection criteria= identify the criteria for the decision you must make, such as its effect on: - Bottom-line profits - You and your classmates or coworkers - Your organization's reputation with customers or the community - Your values - Ethical implications 2. Consequences= consider the consequences of each alternative, especially trade-offs between the pros and the cons, such as: - Who wins and who loses - Ideal vs. practical options - Perfections vs. excellence - Superior vs. satisfactory results 3. Choice process= decide who will participate in choosing the solution. (if more than one person, agree on the method. Will you vote? Will the vote be public or secret? Unanimous or simple majority?): - You - Third party - Team

Positive psychological capital (PsyCaps)

H(ope)= Preserving towards goals and when necessary redirecting paths in order to succeed E(fficacy)= having the confidence to take on challenging tasks and put in the effort necessary to succeed R(esilience)= when Hanford by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and even beyond to attain success O(ptimism)= making a positive Attribution about succeeding now and in the future.

Positive businesses do well, and they do good. They do well by being profitable and performing at a high level, but they also do good by making the well being of their employees and other stakeholders such as suppliers, customers, and communities, a priority. This positive approach to business is now mainstream. For example, fortune magazine has published a list of companies that are not altruistic or doing good for goodness sake, but that are nevertheless solving major problems profitably. These meet three criteria:

Measurable social impact. Fortune assessed the magnitude and lasting nature of the company's impact on a notable societal problem. Business results. How does the company benefit? Shareholder return factors heavily. It isn't enough to receive good PR and reputational benefits. Degree of innovation. It isn't enough to do good and do so profitable, it also is important to do so creatively, differently from others.

You can interpret the above statistics in one of two ways:

No change: - On the one hand, you might see proof that women remain underpaid an under represented in leadership positions, victims of discriminatory organizational practices Positive change: - Eagly and Carli's conclusion that men still have more authority and higher wages, but women have been catching up. Because some women have moved into the most elite leadership roles, absolute barriers are a thing of the past

Harvard's Clayton Christensen put it this way: "many of the widely accepted principles of good management are only situationally appropriate".

Put differently, don't use a hammer unless the job involves nails.

leadership

Research demonstrates that employees evaluations of leader effectiveness are influenced strongly by their categorical knowledge of what constitutes good and poor leaders. For example, a team of researchers found that the following behaviors are representative of effective leadership: - assigning specific tasks to group members - telling others they have done well - setting specific goals for the group - letting other group members make decisions - trying to get the group to work as a team - maintaining definite standards of performance

Three levels of OB:

Some people quit because their job doesn't fulfill what they value at work. Others quit because of conflict with their boss or because they have nothing in common with their coworkers (a group/team -level process). A common reason people quit is a faulty reward system which unfairly distributes raises, bonuses, recognition, and promotion opportunities (an organizational-level process).

Using the organizing framework for problem solving:

Step 1: define the problem. Problems can be defined in terms of gaps in outcomes at three levels in the organizing framework. Step 2: identify causes. Causes are often best thought of in terms of inputs (person or situation) or processes at various levels (individual, group/team, organizational). Step 3: generate recommendations. Consider the most appropriate recommendations using your OB knowledge and tools, then map these onto the causes (inputs or processes).

Our overall attitudes towards someone or something or a function of the combined influence of three components of attitudes:

The affective component ("I feel") - the affective component of an attitude contains our feelings or emotions about a given object or situation the cognitive component ("I believe") - the cognitive component of an attitude reflects our beliefs or ideas about an object or situation the behavioral component ("I intend") - the behavioral component refers to the way we intend or expect to act towards someone or something all three components influence behavior. You are unlikely to say anything to someone using a cell phone in a restaurant if you are not irritated by his behavior (affective), if you believe cell phone use helps people manage their lives (cognitive), and if you have no intention of confronting the individual (behavioral).

Characteristics of the situation

Two key situational characteristics that affect perception: - Contacts of interaction: perceptions are affected by the social contexts in which the interaction occurs. For example, your parent will likely perceive you're eating food from the kitchen when you visit home differently than will a coworker whose food you take from the office refrigerator. Texting someone while eating dinner with friends is perceived differently man texting during a business meeting. Context matters! - Culture and race consistency: we more accurately recognize emotions displayed by people from our own culture or from other familiar cultures. We also better understand and remember facial expressions displayed by people from our own race. For instance, both authors do consulting around the world, and we find it harder to accurately perceive group dynamics in foreign than in US companies. Angelo recalls telling a joke to a group of Finnish managers. No one laughed or made any facial expressions and he thought the joke had bombed until someone told him at a break that he was really funny. What is perceptual surprise!

Multiple intelligences.

While many people think of intelligence in general terms, such as IQ, it is more common and more practical to think in terms of multiple intelligences, or an intelligence for something specific. Howard Gardner, a professor at Harvard's Graduate school of education, investigated the nature of intelligence for years and summarized his findings in his 1983 book. The eight intelligences he identified include not only mental abilities but social and physical abilities and skills as well.

telecommuting

about half of the US workforce telecommutes for at least part of the time spent working. the number of people telecommuting has grown 140% between 2005 and 2016. Experts estimate that 50% of the US workforce has a job compatible with teleworking. The need for flexibility is a key reason people like telecommuting. Studies confirm telecommuting enhances productivity and retention and decreases absenteeism. these positive statistics imply that the opportunity to telecommute could improve job satisfaction.

These resources support your efforts and effectiveness in all arenas of life such as school, work, and family. Positive emotions are processes influencing many outcomes in the organizing framework, and they have desirable effects on:

organizational commitment creativity decision making intentions to quit performance stress

Refer to by some as EI am by others as EQ, emotional intelligence is a mixture of personality and emotions and has four key components:

self awareness self management social awareness relationship management

An interesting study of 1st year University students found the following experiences contributed most to their flourishing:

socializing with new and old friends enjoying their academic subjects - having more free time understanding and performing well in class

Like performance management more generally, feedback is becoming more informal, continual, and inclusive. It also is increasingly taking place between other employees and not just between managers and subordinates. These new developments hold the promise of making feedback truly more developmental and effective. It is also worth noting that another trend is for direct if not also critical feedback. Coaching can occur at any component in the performance management process, but at most often follows the review and consequences of performance. One way to look at coaching is that it is an individualized and customized form of performance management. It is different from training which typically consists only of skill building with the same content deliver to a group of people. It differs from mentoring, which typically has a career rather than a performance focus and most often flows from more senior to more junior employees. All these processes differ from counseling, which usually aims to overcome a problem, conflict, or dysfunctional behavior. With these differences in mind, effective coaching is developmental, has specific performance goals, and typically includes considerable self reflection, self assessment, and feedback. Research also shows that employees who received continual development conversations with their managers were nearly three times more likely to be engaged at work period this reinforces volume to studies which show goal setting to be more effective when it is accompanied by continue coaching related to progress monitoring and feedback. Rewards are a critical component of performance management and just as particular motivational approaches affect people differently, so do rewards. Some employees see their job as the source of a paycheck and little else. Others derive great pleasure from their job and Association with coworkers. Even volunteers who donate their time to charitable organizations walk away with rewards in the form of social recognition and having done something meaningful for themselves and impactful to others. Hence the subject of organizational rewards includes but goes far beyond monetary compensation. Despite the fact that reward systems vary widely, they do share some common components:

types of rewards - if you work primarily to obtain rewards such as money or status, you are extrinsically motivated. If you derive your primary reward from the task itself or the feeling that your work is meaningful and gives you a sense of responsibility then you are motivated by intrinsic rewards. - The relative importance of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards is a matter of culture and personal preferences, so it is critically important to know what types of rewards you and others value most. This knowledge can make the difference in your getting what you want personally, as well as in your ability to effectively manage others. They can also assist you in identifying employers with whom you fit. distribution criteria - Organizations use three general criteria for distributing rewards: - - results. Tangible results include quantity produced, quality, and individual, group, or organizational performance. These are often accounting type measures such as sales, profit, or error rate. Employers increasingly include customer satisfaction. - - Behavior and actions. Examples are teamwork, cooperation, risk taking, and creativity. - - Non performance considerations. Examples are abundant such as rewards linked to seniority or job title. - Industries, companies, and jobs all differ in so two should their performance and reward distribution criteria. Many Internet companies for example track number of pageviews, registered users, and app downloads as performance criteria. these may or may not be relevant to individual employee, team, or organizational performance. - Digital and social media companies therefore have struggled to develop and utilized effective performance management metrics which are necessary to gauge performance and allocating rewards. Some examples from marketing via digital and social media are: - - reach and impressions. Reaches the number of different people who view your post while impressions are the number of times a given person views it. - - Platform engagement. This can be likes, retweets, shares, comments, etc. - - Conversions. Of those that click or view how many actually take action, such as buy your product. This is an obvious way for many to measure return on investment for investments in online advertising. - - Relevancy score. This is used to compare or test the relative interest of 1 potential customer to others. You essentially present the same ad content to multiple customer groups perhaps via different channels and then focus your future resources on the one that showed the greatest interest. - In some effective performance management includes measures, rewards, and distribution criteria that are linked.

Savvy managers full track for key workplace attitudes:

organizational commitment - It reflects the extent to which an individual identifies with an organization and commits to its goals - Committed individuals tend to display two outcomes: - - likely continuation of their employment with the organization. - - Greater motivation towards pursuing organizational goals and decisions. - OB researchers define commitment as "a force that binds an individual to a course of action of relevance to one or more targets". this definition highlights the way OB researchers link commitment to behavior and the way workers can commit to multiple targets or entities. - Many factors inspire organizational commitment. - organizational commitment exists to the degree that your personal values match the values that pervade your company's organizational culture. - For example, if you value achievement and your employer rewards people for accomplishing goals, you are more likely to be committed to the company. Dis consistency between personal and company values is called a person culture fit - commitment depends on the quality of an employee's psychological contracts. - In a work environment, the psychological contract represents an employees beliefs about what he or she is entitled to receive in return for what he or she provides to the organization. Research shows that an employer breach of the psychological contract is associated with lower organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and performance and with greater intentions to quit. - To highlight how managers can increase employees commitment, we review three general best practices: - - hire people whose personal values align with the organizations. - - Make sure that management does not breach its psychological contracts. - - Treat employees fairly and foster trust between managers and employees. employee engagement - observing workers at a summer camp and an architecture firm in 19 90, William Khan define employee engagement. - The essence of employee engagement is the idea that engaged employees give their all at work. - Further study identified its components as four feelings: - - urgency - - focus - - intensity - - Enthusiasm - The US workforce appears to be achieving close to the global average. Consulting firm, Aon, has traced data on employee engagement around the globe for more than 15 years, studying millions of employees. Recent figures for North America, of which the United States is the largest component, and other global regions is listed below - although the US workforce leads Europe, it is outpaced by Latin America, Africa Middle East, and Asia Pacific - What contributes to employee engagement: - - person factors= (personality, positive psychological capital, and human and social capital) - - situation factors= - - - job characteristics= people are engaged when their work contains variety and when they receive timely feedback about performance. - - - Leadership= people are more engaged when their manager is supportive and maintains a positive, trusting relationship with them - - - organizational climate can range from positive and inspiring to negative and depleting. Positive climates obviously foster engagement. - - - Stressors= engagement is higher when employees are not confronted with a lot of stressors - engagement is correlated with performance at work - as a manager you will have many opportunities to improve employee engagement, even if you can't offer the lavish perks of the richest corporations. One way is to make sure inputs in the organizing framework are positively oriented. Organizations can do this by measuring, tracking, and responding to surveys of employee engagement - other ideas include creating career and development opportunities for employees, recognizing people for good work, effectively communicating and listening, allowing people to exercise during the work day, creating a physically attractive and stimulating work environment, giving employees meaningful work to do, and empowering them perceived organizational support - your perceived organizational support would be negative if you worked for a bad boss or a company that did not provide good health benefits or career opportunities. - People are willing to work hard and commit to their organizations when they believe the company truly cares about their best interests. Quite simply, we are motivated by the norm of reciprocity to return the favor when someone treats us well. This is why we are more likely to reciprocate with hard work and dedication when our employer treats us favorably. But the favorable treatment it must be voluntary, not imposed by external constraints such as government or union rules. Voluntary actions demonstrate that the giver genuinely values and respects us - Managers cannot go wrong in providing organizational support. Research shows that it is positively associated with employee engagement, organizational commitment, job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, greater trust, innovation, and lower tendency to quit. - How can managers foster positive POS? - - they can treat employees fairly, avoid political behavior, provide job security, empower employees, reduce stressors in the work environment, eliminate abusive supervision, and fulfill the psychological contract. job satisfaction= - Job satisfaction essentially reflects the extent to which an individual likes his or her job. Notice that job satisfaction is not a monolithic concept. Rather, a person can be relatively satisfied with one aspect of her or his job and dissatisfied with one or more others. - managers and organizations measure job satisfaction in one of two ways: - - The simplest is to use a single overall rating, such as how satisfied are you with your job and people respond on a rating scale that might run from 1 (which is very dissatisfied) to 5 (which is very satisfied). - - The second method assesses satisfaction along a series of facets. This type of assessment provides more detailed and actionable information about job satisfaction. If desired, managers or researchers can add the ratings across facets to arrive at a total score. - We use a facet measure of job satisfaction in the self assessment and completing it will inform you about your level of satisfaction for a current or past job. - do you think job satisfaction across the United States has been going up or down over the past few years? - - a national survey conducted by the Conference Board attempted to answer this question by asking 1500 employed individuals to rank their job satisfaction based on 23 components. Results revealed 51% were satisfied with their jobs in 2018, the seventh straight year that overall job satisfaction had increased among US workers. - Need fulfillment models proposed that satisfaction is determined by the extent to which the characteristics of a job allow an individual to fulfill his or her needs. All of us have different needs, which means that managers need to learn about employees needs if they want to increase employees job satisfaction. Research generally supports the conclusion that need fulfillment is correlated with job satisfaction. - met expectations are when expectations are greater than what is received, a person will be dissatisfied. On the other hand, he or she will be satisfied when outcomes are above and beyond expectations. Research strongly supports the conclusion that met expectations are significantly related to job satisfaction - For value attainment, research consistently supports this perspective. Managers can enhance employee satisfaction by providing work assignments and rewards that reinforce employees values. - Equity theory builds on the notion that satisfaction rests on how fairly an individual is treated at work. If we perceive that our work outcomes, relative to our inputs, compare favorably with someone else's outcomes and inputs, we will be satisfied. Research has strongly supported the theory behind this model. Managers thus are encouraged to monitor employees fairness perceptions and to interact with employees in such a way that they feel equitably retreated - Ever notice that some coworkers or friends remain satisfied and situations where others always seem dissatisfied? The dispositional or genetic model posits that job satisfaction is a function of both personal traits and genetic factors. Indeed, the model implies that stable individual differences are at least as powerful as characteristics of the work environment in their impact on satisfaction. - Few studies have tested these propositions in depth, but they do show that dispositional factors are significantly associated with only selected aspects of job satisfaction. Dispositions had stronger relationships quit intrinsic aspects of a job such as having autonomy, then with extrinsic aspects such as the receipt of rewards. Genetic factors also were found to significantly predict life satisfaction, well being, and general job satisfaction. Overall, researchers estimate that 30% of an individual's job satisfaction is associated with dispositional and genetic components.

Here's what Alex Gorsky, current chairman and CEO of Johnson and Johnson said:

our people are one of a kind, the way they think, feel, speak, and work; What they've experienced, and where they're from. Harnessing these unique perspectives and experiences gives us great problem solving potential, the ideas, solutions, and strategies that, when immobilized, brings health to billions of people.

Festinger was fascinated by the way people are motivated to maintain consistency and avoid dissonance among their attitudes and beliefs, and the way they resolve inconsistencies that drive cognitive dissonance. From observation, he theorized that we can reduce cognitive dissonance in three ways:

- change your attitude or behavior or both. - Belittle the importance of the inconsistent behavior. - Find consonant elements that outweigh dissonant ones.

Researchers that proposed two general categories of motivation theories: content theories and process theories

Content theories identify internal factors such as needs and satisfaction that energize employee motivation. Process theories explain the process by which internal factors and situational factors influence employee motivation. It's important to understand both motivational perspectives because they offer different solutions for handling motivational problems.

Efficacy

Efficacy is also a component of your core self evaluations and represents your confidence in your ability to achieve. It therefore influences the way you perceive the world around you and your ability to deal with challenges and opportunities. Applying your knowledge of self efficacy will help you realize its important role in positive psychological capital, greater efficacy makes you more confident, more positive, and more effective.

Eagly and Carli proposed that a woman's career follows a pattern more characteristic of a path through a labyrinth. They believe a woman's path to success is neither direct nor simple but rather contains twists, turns, and obstructions, particularly for married woman with children.

The US workforce is becoming increasingly diverse. Between 2016 and 2060, the Census Bureau predicts the following changes in ethnic representation: - growth: the Asian population will grow from 5.7% to 9.1% of the total - growth: the Hispanic population will grow from 17.8% to 27.5% - mild growth: the African American population will rise from 13.3% to 15% - decline: non Hispanic whites will drop from 61.3% to 44.3%

Schwartz's value theory proposed that broad values motivate our behavior across any context. He categorized these values into two opposing or bipolar dimensions.

The first dimension ranges from concern for the welfare of others which Schwartz calls self transcendence, to pursuit of 1's own interests or self enhancement. The second dimension ranges from self directed independence, which Schwartz calls openness to change, to conformity or conservation.

step C: provide a support and feedback

This step is about helping employees achieve their goals. Practical suggestions include: - make sure each employee has the necessary skills and information to reach his or her goals. Provide training if necessary, because it can boost people's expectancy - similarly, pay attention to employees expectations about their perceived relationship between effort and performance, their perceived self efficacy, and their reward preferences, and adjust accordingly. - Give employees timely and task specific feedback or knowledge of results from job characteristics, about what they are doing right and wrong. - Provide monetary and non monetary incentives and be sure to reward meaningful progress, not just goal accomplishment.

Step A: Set goals

Whether your manager sets your goals for you or you set them together, the goals should be smart or specific, measurable, attainable, results oriented, and time bound. Goals with these qualities are clearer and more actionable than those that are not. And when smart goals are set from the top to the bottom of an organization, it is easier to link employee goals to those at higher levels what is the Department and organization. This could help you and your colleagues understand how your work and performance affects others including the strategy of the company.

Beginning in the later 1970s, researchers began to expand the role of equity theory in explaining employee attitudes and behavior. This led to a domain of research called organizational justice. Organizational justice reflects the extent to which people perceive they are treated fairly at work. This, in turn, led to the identification of three different components of organizational justice:

Distributive justice Procedural justice Interactional justice

Reasons for ethics:

Employees are confronted with ethical challenges at all levels of organizations and throughout their careers. Unethical behavior damages relationships, erodes trust, and this makes it difficult to influence others and conduct business. Unethical behavior reduces cooperation, loyalty, and contribution, which hurts the performance of individuals, teams, and organizations.

What it takes to get promoted:

Performance in your current position is often a primary consideration but if all the candidates are top performers, then performance isn't the only factor and instead it may be your perceived ability to directly or indirectly manage others.

Four skills most desired by employers for workforce 2020:

Problem solving - Identifying complex problems and reviewing Related information to develop and evaluate options then implement solutions. Critical thinking - Using logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternate solutions, conclusions, or approaches to problems. Creativity - Applying new ideas, processes, and technology to improve products, services, and other outcomes. People management - Motivating, developing, and influencing others to meet individual, group, and organizational goals.

we build stereotypes through a four step process:

categorization: we categorize people into groups according to criteria such as gender, age, race, and occupation inferences: next, we infer that all people within a particular category possess the same traits or characteristics= women are nurturing, older people have more job related accidents, African Americans are good athletes expectations: we form expectations of others and interpret their behavior according to our stereotypes maintenance: we maintain stereotypes by - overestimating the frequency of stereotypic behaviors exhibited by others - incorrectly explaining expected and unexpected behaviors - differentiating minority individuals from ourselves research shows that it takes accurate information and motivation to reduce the use of stereotypes

Many if not most students and employees alike appreciate feedback. Both want to know how they are doing and how their performance compares to that of their peers. Feedback is an important, but not always present, cousin of goal setting. It enables you to learn how your performance compares to the goal, which you can then use to modify your behaviors and efforts. Effective feedback is only information, it is not an evaluation. Subjective assessments such as you're lazy or you have a bad attitude do not qualify as effective feedback. They are simply opinions and often have little value. But hard data such as unit sold, days absent, dollar saved, projects completed, customer satisfied, and quality rejects are all examples of effective feedback. If feedback is so helpful, why don't we get and give more? The obvious question is worth answering. After surveying thousands of students and employees, researchers offer the most common responses:

potential strain on relationships. It is easy for most people to deliver good news. However, very few people like to deliver negative feedback or bad news in general. We worry about making the person feel bad and wonder how that person will act in the future because of it. After all, we often make friends at work, we genuinely like many of her coworkers, and we do not want to make them feel bad, make ourselves and others uncomfortable, or harm our relationships. Too little time. We are all busy period even true believers in the value of feedback often let us slide. Lack of confidence. Very few people are trained to give effective feedback and so lack confidence in their abilities. This problem is compounded if the feedback is going to include negative content and/or it will be tide to a performance evaluation. No consequences. As you will learn or may already be aware, the trend is towards giving more frequent and considerably different forms of feedback than in the past period however, if managers are not evaluated on whether they provide feedback, effective or not, they are less likely to give it.

Hope = willpower + way power

the two components of hope are willpower and way power. Hope requires both a goal and a means for achieving that goal. In a practical sense, hope supports adaptability and change period a series of studies showed hope led to increased adaptability for police officers and insurance sales agents and in the case of the agents it also led to increased sales commissions. You can build hope in yourself and others via effective goal setting. The problem solving approach can help too because it can assist you in identifying potential obstacles, sources of support, infeasible alternative paths by which to reach your goal

The first 2 dimensions constitute personal competence in the second to feed into social competence. You can gain considerable insights regarding EI by observing those who seem to possess and lack this valuable ID. Those who developed the concept of EI argue that traditional models of IQ are too narrow, failing to consider interpersonal competence. They also argue from a practical perspective that EI is more flexible than IQ and can be developed throughout your working life. EI husband linked to better social relationships, well being, an satisfaction across all ages Ann Contacts, including work period for instance, store managers' EI was shown to foster greater team cohesiveness among sales associates and this in turn boosted sales. EI has also been linked with creativity, helping employees manage their emotions amid the challenges of the creative process to stay on task and remain in the creative space. EI further enables individuals to apply positive emotions to their work, improving their creative outcomes. EI also seems to have a dark side. In a study with undergraduates, researchers found that those with higher EI were more effective at faking preemployment personality tests. Participants were better able to change their answers to align with the characteristics listed in the job description. And sadly, some people use their EI skills to manipulate others, faking empathy or supporting another only to make yourself look good, rather than authentically caring and helping. EI does not contain any strong relationships with other inputs or outcomes contained in the organizing framework. In fact, there are an equal number of we can moderate relationships. Most importantly, EI was not found to be the big driver of performance as suggested by some consultants and academics. Dan Goleman, the person whose book helped take EI mainstream, highlights the importance of self awareness, both how you see yourself and how other see you.

He recommends, along with his colleague Michelle Nevarez, using the following three questions to build your EI: - What are the differences between how you see yourself and how others see you? This means you need to do a self assessment on the competences as well as get feedback on how others see you in terms of the same competencies. Feedback can come from friends, coworkers, customers, classmates, your boss, or a personal coach. - What matters to you? Once the information from number one is in hand, sift through and decide what is important to you. Put differently, ascertain your goals and use the information to help determine which aspects of your EI need development. - What changes will you make to achieve these goals? This is the planning part, you have a goal, information to help, now you need a plan. Make a plan, implement, review, and revise.

start by trying these two steps for about 10 to 20 breaths. Once you're comfortable with this form of a diaphragm breathing, you can take your practice to the next level with these additional instructions:

sit comfortably in a chair, feet firmly on the ground and your back relatively erect. Feel like you are a proud mountain of stability. Close your eyes and take a deep breath and inhale that fills your belly and lungs period now exhale noticing how your building contracts. Do this twice. Add counting to four or five as you both inhale and exhale, to ensure you are taking deep breaths. Try doing this for five minutes twice a day. You can extend the length of time you practice breathing meditations as you become more comfortable with the technique.

Virtuous leadership

the focus of virtuous leadership is to help individuals, group, and organizations to elevate, enrich, and flourish. OB scholars have proposed a variety of traits and individual differences that underline virtuous leadership. Virtuous leaders are more focused on the greater good than on self-interest. Virtuous leaders tend to promote trust by making sure their words match their actions and by treating people with respect and dignity. Integrity which comes from being guided by morals and honesty, fosters positive OB. The final component of virtuous leadership is forgiveness. In addition to promoting positive outcomes, forgiveness can affect your health. Research shows that unforgiveness is associated with bitterness, anger, health problems, and premature death.

Many possible reasons for unethical behavior at work exist beyond those listed in the table above, including:

Personal motivation to perform ("I must be number 1") Pressure from a supervisor to reach unrealistic performance goals along with threats for underperforming. Reward systems that honor unethical behavior. Employees perception of little or no consequences for crossing an ethical line.

The key elements of equity theory are outputs, inputs, and a comparison of the ratio of outputs to inputs

Outputs - "what do I perceive that I'm getting out of my job"? - Organizations provide a variety of outcomes for out work, including pay/bonuses, medical benefits, challenging assignments, job security, promotions, status symbols, recognition, and participation in important decisions. Outcomes vary widely, depending on the organization and our rank in it. Inputs - "what do I perceive that I'm putting into my job"? - An employee's inputs, for which he or she expects a just return, include education/training, skills, creativity, seniority, age, personality traits, effort expended, experience, and personal appearance. Comparison - "how does my ratio of outputs to inputs compare with those of relevant others"? - Your feelings of equity come from your evaluation of whether you are receiving adequate rewards to compensate for your collective inputs. In practice people perform these evaluations by comparing the perceived fairness of their out-to-input ratio to that of relevant others. They divide outputs by inputs, and the larger the ratio, the greater the expected benefit. This comparative process was found to generalize across personalities and countries.

Resilience

resilience helps you when things go your way and when they don't, it is your built in shield and recovery characteristic. Fred Luthans, the father of psychological capital, and his colleagues stated that resilience is arguably the most important positive resource to navigating a turbulent and stressful workplace. Resilient people are open to new experiences, flexible to changing demands, and emotionally stable when confronted with adversity. It is no wonder that resilience is a component of psychological capital and positive OB. resilience can be improved with support such as coaching or help from others during trying times for experiences. The work climate can make employees feel safe enough to take risks and to make mistakes, thus enhancing their resilience.

Stage one: selective attention/comprehension

People are constantly bombarded by physical and social stimuli period to avoid being overwhelmed, they selectively perceive subsets of environmental stimuli. This is where attention plays a role. Research has shown that people attempt to pay attention to salient stimuli, that is something that stands out from its context. For example, a 250 pound man would certainly be salient in a woman's aerobics class but not at a meeting of NFL players. One's needs and goals often dictate which stimuli are salient. In our personal finance example, you would begin your search for the right professor by asking friends who have taken classes from the three available professors. You might also interview the professors who teach the course to gather additional information.

Affirmative action and diversity management are driven by very different values and goals.

Affirmative action is not a law in and of itself. It is an outgrowth of Equal Employment Opportunity legislation. The goal of this legislation is to outlaw discrimination and to encourage organizations to proactively prevent discrimination. For example, organizations cannot legally discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age, physical and mental disabilities, and pregnancy. Affirmative action: - can refer to both voluntary and mandatory programs - does not legitimize quotas. Quotas are illegal and can be imposed only by judges who conclude that a company has engaged in discriminatory practices - does not require companies to hire unqualified people - has created tremendous opportunities for women and minorities - does not foster the type of thinking needed to manage diversity effectively research has uncovered the following tendencies of affirmative action plans: - they are perceived more negatively by white males than by women and minorities, because white males see the plants as working against their interests - they are viewed more positively by people who are liberals and Democrats than by Conservatives and Republicans - they are not supported by people who hold racist or sexist attitudes - they are found to negatively affect the woman and minorities expected to benefit from them. Supposedly hired on the basis of affirmative action, these groups feel negatively stigmatized as unqualified or incompetent Recently California became the first state in the nation to legally require woman on boards for companies based in the state. Although seen as a conscious effort to even out the gender inequality in corporate boardrooms, some female leaders say they worry the new regulation could result in women being named to boards comply with the regulation rather than to bring new skills and business experience to company boards.

There are three potential education work mismatches:

College graduates may be in jobs for which they are overqualified. The US Census Bureau estimates that 22% of the US workforce has at least a college degree. Unfortunately, even with a strong economy, nearly 300,000 college graduates are working minimum wage jobs - 148 thousand with bachelors degrees and 146 thousand with associates degrees. These graduates are underemployed and are working at jobs such as waiting tables, tending bars, painting, and other work that someone with less education could perform. Underemployment is associated with poor work attitudes, job performance, job satisfaction, motivation, and psychological well being. College graduates may not have the skills desired by employers. Recent studies show that college graduates, while technically and functionally competent, lack teamwork skills, critical thinking ability, oral communication skills, and analytic reasoning. There is also a shortage of college graduates in technical fields related to science, math, technology, and engineering. High school dropouts and others may not have the literacy skills needed for many jobs. A recent study revealed that six point 1% of all US students between 16 and 24 dropped out of high school in 2016. the dropout rate is higher from males period this statistic comma along with the fact that 30 2,000,000 US adults read below a basic level comma is a real problem for employers comma because about 50 percent of on the job reading materials are written at or above a ninth grade level

There are two types of motivation: extrinsic and intrinsic

Extrinsic motivation results from the potential or actual receipt of external rewards. Extrinsic rewards such as recognition, money, or a promotion represent a payoff we receive from others for performing a particular task. Intrinsic motivation occurs when an individual is inspired by the positive internal feelings that are generated by doing well, rather than being dependent on external factors (such as incentive pay or compliments from the boss) for the motivation to work effectively. We create our own intrinsic motivation by giving ourselves intrinsic rewards such as positive emotions, satisfaction, and self-praise.

Many companies now sponsor mindfulness training for employees such as Google, Nike, and Fidelity, and others have cashed in by providing apps and other forms of mindfulness training. Like many other things at work, it helps if senior leaders by in hand are believers in mindfulness. Although mindfulness was originally used as a means for guarding against negative work related outcomes, such as stress and burnout, now it is promoted for improving a wide range of cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and physical outcomes. The American Psychological Association has compiled several scientifically supported mindfulness benefits:

Less rumination. if you dwell on past or current challenges, you are likely ruminating. Mindfulness can help reduce this often destructive emotional vicious circle. Reduced stress. Stress can have many undesirable effects, which will be exploited later. But there are clear benefits for mindfulness. Improved memory. Many forms of meditation have been shown to improve retention and working memory, beyond the benefits of reducing stress. Better focus. Training has been shown to improve focus and decision making. Self awareness. Mindfulness fosters self observation and introspection. Greater interpersonal effectiveness and satisfaction. It is likely the other benefits noted contribute to better relationships, but mindfulness helps reduce conflict and lessen the negative effects when it occurs.

People change, situations change, and the two change each other. To illustrate:

People bring their abilities, goals, and experiences to each and every situation, which often changes the situation. Conversely, because situations have unique characteristics, such as opportunities, rewards, and coworkers, they change people. What you value in a job will likely differ between now and the time you are trying to make a move to senior management. It is also true that the current job market and employer expectations differ from those at the height of the technology bubble in the late 1990s or those in of the Great Recession of 2007-2009. in the first scenario employees changed, and in the second the situation changed. Finally, your manager - a situation factor - can change what you do, how you do it, and your effectiveness. You too can exert influence on your manager.

In the context of organizational climate, organizational values represent ideals endorsed, shared, and supported by the organization as a whole. Three global values essential for promoting positive organizational behavior are:

Restorative justice= organizations subscribing to restorative justice tend to resolve conflict by giving all parties a chance to express their thoughts and feelings. This in turn leads to healing when there has been hurt or offense, thereby producing solutions focusing on the greater good. Compassion= it is associated with behaviors related to sympathy, kindness, tenderness, warmth, and love. Temperance= temperance promotes self control, humility, and prudence. It helps people avoid egocentric and heated emotional responses and practice patience and restraint.

There are four general steps to follow when implementing a goal setting program both for yourself and others. Deficiencies in one step cannot be made up for with strength in the others, which means you need to diligently execute all four steps.

Step A: Set goals step B: promote goal commitment step C: provide a support and feedback step D: create action plans

IDs are a big part of what gives each of us our unique identities, and are fundamental to the understanding and application of OB. So, what is it that makes us different? Is it out genetics or our environment?

The answer is both. And while the way you are raised, along with your experiences and opportunities, helps shape who you are, a large volume of research on twins suggests genetics matters more.

step D: create action plans

The first three steps, A, B, and C, all help tremendously in formulating your actions plans. We also encourage you to look to your experience such as what has worked in the past when pursuing a similar goal? If you cannot rely on your own experience, then learn what others have done and follow their plan. No need to reinvent the wheel. Next, visualize what achieving the goal looks like and work backwards. This is another instance when the characteristics of smart goals are extremely valuable. Being specific, results oriented, and time bound are fundamental characteristics of solid action plans. Finally, if you run into difficulties we have already provided you with an excellent tool, the three step problem solving approach. This can help you identify and remedy roadblocks in your goal setting and action plans.

Perception is key to resolving the above questions. Recognition of objects is one of this process is major functions. But because organizational behaviors principle focus is on people, or discussion will emphasize social perception rather than object perception. Perception is important to OB because it affects our actions and decisions. It is based on our perception of reality, not on reality itself. Our exploration of this important process begins with a discussion of social perception and the four stages of processing information. We then consider a model of person perception, which provides a practical framework for understanding how we form perceptions of others. Finally we consider the managerial implications of person perception.

You can learn to avoid making perceptual errors by understanding the process that guides perception. There are four stages of social perception: - stage one: selective attention/comprehension - stage 2: encoding and simplification - stage 3: storage and retention - stage 4: retrieval and response

The future of jobs report by the world economic forum found that the most sought-after skills for graduates in 2020 are problem solving, critical thinking, creativity, and people management.

You notice that all four skills are soft skills, which are the skills you need to interact with, influence, and perform effectively when working with others. - This is a good news/bad news story: - - The good news= all of these skills are key topics and can be developed. - - The bad news= 33% of recruiting professionals feel candidates' skills in these areas have declined in the past 5 years. "Many claim that college grads are lacking in people skills and have trouble solving problems and thinking creatively...Having a college degree and technical skills isn't enough to land their first job".

Three key general motives predict or at least influence intention and behavior:

attitude towards the behavior: the degree to which a person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of the behavior in question. Subjective norm: a social factor representing the perceived social pressure for or against the behavior. Perceived behavioral control: the perceived ease or difficulty of performing the behavior, assumed to reflect past experience and anticipated obstacles.

The following is a list of the most common barriers to implementing successful diversity programs:

inaccurate stereotypes and prejudice. Mistaken perceptions manifest themselves in the belief that differences or weaknesses and that diversity hiring means sacrificing competence and quality. As a Reporter for the Wall Street Journal noted, studies show that negative stereotypes about aging, for example that older people inevitably grow less productive and more depressed, or as pervasive as they are inaccurate. Inaccurate stereotypes like this limit the promotability and job satisfaction of Older workers. ethnocentrism. The ethnocentrism barrier is based on the feeling that our cultural rules and norms are superior to or more appropriate than the rules and norms of another culture. Poor career planning period lack of opportunities for diverse employees to get work assignments that qualify them for senior management positions can stunt careers a negative diversity climate. We define organizational climate as employee perceptions about an organization's formal and informal policies, practices, and procedures. Diversity climate is positive when employees view the organization as being fair to all types of employees, which promotes employee loyalty and overall firm performance. It also enhances psychological safety. As you might expect, psychological safety is positively associated with outcomes in the organizing framework like innovation. A hostile working environment for diverse employees. Hostile work environments are characterized by sexual, racial, and age harassment and can be in violation of Equal Employment Opportunity law, such as title seven of the Civil Rights Act. Whether perpetrated against women, men, older individuals, or LGBTQ people, hostile environments are demeaning, unethical, and appropriately called work environment pollution. You certainly won't get employees best work if they believe the work environment is hostile toward them. Diverse employees lack of political savvy. Diverse employees may not get promoted because they do not know how to play the game of getting along and getting ahead in an organization. Research reveals that women and people of color are excluded from organizational networks that could help them rise. Some organizations attempt to overcome this barrier by creating employee resource groups that encourage individuals with similar backgrounds to share common experiences and success strategies. American Express has 16 network groups and Cisco has 13. Difficulty balancing career and family issues. Women still assume most of the responsibilities associated with raising children. This makes it harder for them to work evenings and weekends or to travel period even without children in the picture, household chores take more of a woman's time than a man's. fear of reverse discrimination. Some employees believe diversity management is a smokescreen for reverse discrimination. This belief leads to very strong resistance because it makes people feel one person's gain is another's loss. Lack of organizational priority for diversity. Low priority for diversity leads to subtle resistance in the form of complaints and negative attitudes. Employees may complain about the time, energy, and resources devoted to diversity that could have been spent doing real work. How poor performance appraisal and reward system. Performance appraisals and reward systems must reinforce the need to effectively manage diversity. Success must thus be based on a new set of criteria. For example, AT&T evaluates the extent to which its managers are inclusive of employees with different backgrounds. These evaluations are used in salary and promotion decisions. Resistance to change. Effectively managing diversity entails significant organizational and personal change period sometimes this resistance is a function of cross cultural values. In Japan for example women have a difficult time being promoted to senior management positions because of the practice of lifetime employment in age based promotions. This tradition still holds at both large and small companies

Interpersonal skills (with which you foster respectful interactions):

- Active listening - Positive attitudes - Effective communication

Like many other elements of our lives, technology is revolutionizing performance management. Employers can and often do track computer and phone usage, install cameras in most places, and review social media activity period now, however, employers are capturing employee facial expressions, tone of voice, emotions, location, interactions, and bio or health data, and the list is growing. Companies have considerable legal discretion to monitor employees, including for performance, but along with the benefits come challenges. Here are some helpful tips to consider when utilizing monitoring for performance at work.:

Be transparent. Explain the what, where, how, and why. Tell employees what is monitored, where, how, and especially why. Justify! The primary motive should be performance improvement. But if guarding against theft is another goal, say so. Employees may raise potential pitfalls you didn't consider. Many negative reactions happen because employees are unaware of the motives and practices. Monitor only work period make work and non work boundaries clear and ensure both parties abide by them. For instance, do not track employees locations during non work hours. Focus on development, not punishment or deterrence. Avoid blocking everything and instead collect, analyze, share, and act on information that contributes to performance. If you are simply monitoring to catch employees doing the wrong things, then you are undermining employee Trust and will spur an internal game of cat and mouse. Make it fit and fair. Be sure monitoring fits particular jobs and situations to the extent necessary and feasible. If some employees and their jobs require more flexibility and access, then consider this. However, be sure that all employees across levels are expected to comply with policy.

Following Heider's work, Harold Kelley attempted to pinpoint some specific antecedents of internal and external attributions. Kelley hypothesize that people make casual attributions by observing 3 dimensions of behavior and these dimensions vary in dependently, forming various combinations and leading to differing attributions:

Consensus: compares an individual's behavior with that of his or her peers - there is high consensus when someone acts like the rest of the group and low consensus when he or she acts differently distinctiveness: compares a person's behavior on one task with his or her behavior on other tasks - high distinctiveness means the individual has performed the task in a significantly different manner than he or she has performed other tasks consistency: judges whether the individual's performance on a given task is consistent overtime - low consistency is undesirable for obvious reasons and implies that a person is unable to perform a certain task at some standard level. High consistency implies that a person performs a certain task the same way, with little or no variation overtime

The following activities can help increase positive experiences and decrease your negative ones:

Create high quality connections. Any social interaction, whether with family, coworkers, classmates, or the person ahead of you in line, is a chance to create a high quality connection. These connections are energizing and enhance your positivity period to transform ordinary interactions into high quality connections, try the following tips: - Make somebody the only person in the room period engage the other person by being present, attentive, and affirming. Act as though he or she is the only person in the room. - Support. Encourage the person and help him or her achieve a goal or attain success. - Give trust. Believe you can depend on this person to meet your expectations, and let it show. - Goof off, play, have fun! Have no goals or intentions other than to goof off with others. Cultivate kindness. Set a goal of performing 5 new acts of kindness in a single day. Aim for actions that make a difference and come at no cost to you. Assess what those around you might need most and make a plan, but execute your plans so acts of kindness occur on the same day to further enhance the impact. Develop distractions period one of the best ways to break from negativity is to distract yourself. Brainstorm and think of ways old and new, to distract yourself from negative thoughts. Be sure to think of things you can do at school, at home, or at work period make two lists: healthy distractions and unhealthy distractions. - Healthy distractions can be going for a run, taking a bike ride, or playing your favorite sport. - Unhealthy distractions might be drinking, eating junk food, watching TV, or playing video games. - For each unhealthy distraction, challenge yourself to add another healthy distraction to your list. Negativity can creep in anywhere and at anytime, so keep your lists of distractions handy and practical. Dispute negative self talk and thoughts. Write on a 3x5 in card your most frequent negative thoughts or emotions about yourself, a relationship, or a situation at school, work, or home. Then in a private place where no one can hear you, read the cards allowed one at a time period after reading each, immediately dispute or counter. Do not stop to think but beat it down and disprove it with something positive about yourself, the situation, or the facts. Be sure to do this with enthusiasm, to build your conviction. Practice. Your goal is to learn to dispute negative thoughts as quickly as they enter your mind.

Unfortunately, stereotypes can lead to poor decisions. Consider people diagnosed with cancer, about 38% of men and women living in the United States. A recent study showed that managers continue to make discriminatory decisions about employees who are cancer patients. All told, stereotypes can treat barriers for women, older individuals, people of color, and people with disabilities. All while undermining loyalty and job satisfaction.

Gender: a summary of research revealed that: - men were preferred for male dominated jobs such as firefighters, but there was no preference for either gender in female dominated jobs such as a nurse. - Female entrepreneurs looking for funding for their startups have a more difficult time than their male counterparts in obtaining venture capital due to gender bias on the part of the investors - women are more likely than men to hire other women - women of color are more negatively affected by sex role stereotypes than white woman or men in general race: studies of race based stereotypes demonstrated that people of color experienced more perceived discrimination and less psychological support than whites. Perceived racial discrimination was also associated with more negative work attitudes, physical health, psychological health, and organizational citizenship behavior. Age: another example of an inaccurate stereotype is the belief that older workers are less motivated, more resistant to change, less trusting, less healthy, and more likely to have problems with work life balance. A recent study refuted all these negative beliefs about age

Like other more conventional forms of capital such as cash, facilities, patents, and equipment, PsyCap is a resource you invest in or develop with the expectation of future returns or benefits. It can help you flourish in your professional and personal life. Its components are mutually reinforcing, developing one often helps develop the others. Try putting the following recommendations into practice and develop your PsyCap:

Hope development. Generate a work related goal important to you and attainable yet challenging. Then create multiple plans for achieving this goal, share them with others such as coworkers or classmates, and get their feedback and recommendations. Efficacy development. Break your logical into smaller sub goals. Create plans for achieving the sub goals and share them with others to gain feedback and recommendations. Resilience development. Make a list of your personal talents, skills, and social connections. Specify how these can help you achieve your goal, identify potential obstacles, and decide how to avoid them or reduce their impact. Optimism development. Hope development bolsters your optimism, but it may be helpful to identify obstacles and negative expectations. On your own check to see whether the obstacles you identify are valid and have others challenge your assumptions.

Some researchers have argued for specific optimal ratios of positive to negative which others have disputed. Yet all agree that positive and negative experiences are not equivalent. You cannot remedy a negative experience by simply adding a positive 1, it's not one for one. Instead to flourish and experience the benefits of positive OB you must have 3, 5, or more positive experiences for every negative. You do not need to focus on which positive emotions you feel at a particular time but be sure you have multiple positives for each negative one. Why? Because it has been well established that our brains respond differently to positive and negative experiences:

Negative experiences activate a survival orientation and lead us to be more responsive to negative information. Our brains actually look harder for negative than for positive information during daily activities. This might help explain why managers tend to give more negative than positive feedback to employees. Positive experiences activate a supportive orientation and lead us to be more responsive to positive information. This is part of the reason managers, and people more generally, seem receptive to new ideas when in a good mood.

one especially relevant framework was developed by caught R. Roosevelt Thomas junior., hey diversity expert. Thomas identified 8 generic action options that organizations can use to address any type of diversity this year.

Option 1: include/exclude - Include/exclude is an outgrowth of affirmative action programs. Its primary goal is to either increase or decrease the number of diverse people at all levels of the organization. Option 2: deny - people may deny differences exist, saying that all decisions are color, gender, and age blind and that success is determined solely by merit and performance. Option 3: assimilate - the idea behind assimilation is that given time an reinforcement, all diverse people will learn to fit in or become like the dominant group. Organizations initially a similar employees through their recruitment practices and through orientation programs that describe their preferred values and standard operating procedures. Employees are then encouraged to refer to policies and procedures when confused about what to do in a specific situation. These practices create behavioral homogeneity among employees. option 4: suppress - Differences are squelched or discouraged when suppression is the diversity strategy. Managers and peers tell employees to quit whining and complaining about issues. Saying you've got to pay your dues is another way to suppress differences and promote the status quo option 5: isolate - isolation maintains the status quo by setting the diverse person off to the side. Then he or she is unable to influence the organizational change period managers can isolate people and entire teams and departments by putting them on special projects, creating functionally independent entities often referred to as silos. Option 6: tolerate - toleration entails acknowledging differences but not valuing or accepting them. This live and let live approach allows organizations to give lip service to the issue of managing diversity. It differs from isolation in that it allows for the inclusion of diverse people, but differences are still not truly valued or accepted. option 7: build relationships - relationship building is based on the premise that good relationships can overcome differences. It addresses diversity by fostering high quality relationships, categorized by acceptance and understanding, among diverse groups Option 8: foster mutual adaptation - mutual adaptation allows people to change their views for the sake of creating positive relationships with others. Employees and managers alike must be willing to accept differences and most important, agree that everyone and everything is open for change period diversity training is one way to kickstart mutual adaptation. Research shows that such training can positively enhance people's attitudes and feelings about working with diverse employees

desired outcomes

Rewards come in many forms both financial and non financial. But most fundamentally rewards our exchanges such as you are given this for doing that. At work you may be paid a cash bonus or your Commission rate may increase for performing above and beyond your sales quota. While you are at a school, a professor might give you extra credit for doing well in an assignment or course. There are three potential outcomes from rewards: - - desired outcome. You get more of what you intended and for which you are rewarding people. - - Nothing. The reward can have no effect. - - Undesired side effects. Rewards reinforce or motivate the wrong behaviors. - People should get paid for their expertise and work period but performance management is part of both the cause and the solution to this enormous challenge. - The takeaway: be sure your performance management system and associated rewards produce the desired outcomes and be mindful of undesirable side effects.

it almost goes without saying that you receive feedback from others such as peers, supervisors, lower level employees, and customers. Perhaps less obvious is the fact that the task itself is a common source of objective feedback. For instance, many tasks such as writing code, landing a plane, or driving a golf ball provide a steady stream of feedback about how well or poorly you are doing. A third source of feedback is you but self serving bias and other perceptual problems can't contaminate the source whoever conducts a performance review should ensure there are no surprises - good or bad. As a general rule, if you are surprised by something shared during your review, your manager is doing a poor job of managing your performance. It also is a sure sign that he or she is not giving you the appropriate quantity and quality of feedback. Most often such surprises occur in performance management systems structured around an annual review period this means that regardless of how frequently performance information is collected, it is communicated and discussed only once a year. To avoid surprises in your own reviews, check in with your manager periodically and informally ask is there anything I should be aware of ? I know we will have our review later this year and I want to be sure there are no surprises, even positive ones. If you punctuate your question with a smile it is likely your manager will clearly understand your intent. Another reason people do not give or get more feedback is that they do not want it. Many factors influence the way we perceive feedback. For instance, all managers and employees are susceptible to the fundamental Attribution bias or your manager attributes your poor performance entirely to you and things you control, and the self serving bias or you are likely to take credit for positive performance outcomes and attribute poor performance to extrinsic factors. The following can also influence your perceptions of feedback:

accuracy. A common criticism of project management systems is that they measure the wrong things or measure the right things the wrong way. Either way the feedback is an accurate. credibility of the sources. If a member of your project team points out shortcomings in your work, you're likely to put more weight on the feedback if he or she is an A student or a top performer. Trust is critical here too. If you do not trust the person delivering the feedback, you will likely be suspicious of his or her intentions and discount its value. Fairest of the system. If you perceive the process or outcomes as unfair then you are likely not only to discount the feedback but also to be outraged, withdraw, commit counterproductive work behaviors, and/or quit. Performance appraisals are one of the aspects of organizational life that most commonly reveal issues of fairness. Performance reward expectancies. Effective performance management, particularly on going and open feedback between you and your supervisors, is an important means of managing such expectancies. Reasonableness of the goals or standards. When it comes to goals, challenging is good, unattainable bad.

Do you have any preconceived notions about diversity that are worth considering? let's take a reality check:

assumption: gender diversity on boards of directors does not affect firm performance. Wrong, says a team of researchers who aggregated results from 140 research studies. Findings showed that firms were most profitable when women were members of the board of directors. As of 2018, there were only 12 Fortune 500 companies with zero women on their boards, and 11 of the 12 firms performed poorly over the past five years when compared to other Fortune 500 companies (the other firm is privately held) assumption: organizations are losing baby boomers to retirement, can millennials fill the gap? Yes, in terms of sheer numbers, but no, in terms of skills. According to Pew Research data, of these 75 million strong baby boom generation, 44 million are still working, with the youngest in the early 50s. Millennials contribute nearly 53 million workers to the labor force but because of their ages, they don't necessarily have the job experience or skills yet to fill the roles of the retiring boomers. Assumption: whites will constitute the majority among US racial groups through 2060. No, according to the US Census Bureau, today whites represent 61% of the population, but that will drop below 45% by 2060.

Five practical lessons to help you apply equity and justice theories:

employee perceptions count. No matter how fair management thinks the organization's policies, procedures, and reward systems are, each employee's perception of the equity of those factors is what counts. Employees want a voice in decisions that affect them. Employees perceptions of justice are enhanced when they have a voice in the decision-making process. Managers are encouraged to seek employee input on organizational issues that are important to employees, even though many employees are reluctant to use their voice. Managers can overcome issues such as these by treating a voice climate. Employees should have an appeals process. Employees should be given the opportunity to appeal decisions that affect their welfare. This opportunity fosters perceptions of distributive and procedural justice. Leader behavior matters. Employees perceptions of justice are strongly influenced by their managers leadership behavior and the justice related implications of their decisions, actions, and public communications. A climate for justice makes a difference. Team performance was found to be higher in companies that possess a climate for change.

Organizational practices

employees have greater commitment, satisfaction, citizenship behavior, and performance, and lower absenteeism and intentions to quit, when they believe organizational practices support them professionally or personally.

Pervasive poor views of performance management practices have led many notable companies including Accenture, Netflix, Microsoft, GE, and Eli Lily to scrap their old practices. there are still largely negative views of project management practices and outcomes the starting point and the fundamental problem to overcome is that most organizations and their managers treat project management as a bureaucratic chore, a box to be checked, rather than treating it as a critically important and continuing development process. For example, Gallup recommends re framing the entire system as progress improvement and highlights 3 qualities that make project management more effective:

establish expectations that are clear, collaborative, and aligned period of course clarity is important, but there are benefits to being involved in setting goals, including performance goals. And it is nothing new to say it is important to align employees goals with those of the organization, but research underscores the importance of doing so. Companies with effective project management ensure this alignment happens. Continually coach. Annual or quarterly reviews fall far short of continual. You accomplish tasks every day at work, encounter challenges regularly, which means you would likely benefit from more frequent feedback and coaching. Create accountability. Besides being critical to performance, accountability is what gives value to goals and coaching.

performance appraisal

faulty perceptions about performance can lead to inaccurate performance appraisals, which can erode morale and thwart some woman from seeking formal leadership roles in an organization. Consider the results of a recent study of how former CEOs influenced the success of their female successors. The research looked Add all of the CEO successions involving female successors over a 20 year. Across the largest companies in the United States. Findings suggest that women CEOs were successful when they are mostly male predecessors promoted gender neutral work environments and functioned as gatekeepers, meaning the male CEO's were closely involved in hiring, selecting, and socializing the woman within the company's organizational culture, and providing them with ongoing feedback about their performance, both formally and informally. Perceptual biases and performance appraisals can be reduced by the use of more objective measures of performance. While this is a good idea, it is hard to implement for jobs that require interdependence work, mental work, or work that does not produce objective outcomes. Companies can also reduce bias by providing managers a mechanism for accurately recalling employee behavior, such as a performance diary. Finally, it would be useful to train managers about perceptual biases and about how they can avoid them in performance evaluations.

These unfortunate perceptions raised the question: why do companies often do so poorly with performance management? The most common reasons employees feel performance management does not measure up are:

feedback is rare. You will learn more about feedback later, but the most fundamental problem is that feedback is infrequent. If your performance is reviewed only once a year, as is still common, there's little chance that feedback shared well in any way be linked to the behaviors that produced the performance. Moreover, unless the person providing the feedback has a photographic memory its accuracy maybe questionable. Lack of clarity on how to improve. The various scores and rankings provide little detail or guidance on how to actually improve. Manager bias. Biases are very real and can be especially problematic in the context of project management. Nothing undermines the effectiveness of a project management system faster than a lack of perceived fairness. Making matters worse, many managers do not really understand the responsibilities of the jobs they are reviewing, which makes the process difficult and the outcomes suspect. Negative reactions. Due to the above and other reasons, employees often react very negatively. This is no surprise. Such reactions can undermine motivation and if the review occurs only once a year, then it can take a long time for you to recover. Too much focus on pay and incentives. The performance evaluation component of project management is often linked to rewards or consequences, which means any issues you may have with the process are likely to impact these important individual level outcomes. Moreover, the hyper-focus on pay can blind you to the developmental aspects of an otherwise fair and constructive review.

Stage 4: retrieval and response

people retrieve information from memory when they make judgments and decisions, and these ultimately come about in one of two ways: - we draw on, interpret, and integrate categorial information stored in long-term memory - we retrieve a summary judgment that has already been made an example being on course registration day, you have to choose which professor to take for personal finance. After retrieving your schematic based impressions from memory, we select a good professor who uses the case method and gives essay tests. In contrast, you may choose your preferred professor by simply recalling the decision you made two weeks ago.

Characteristics of the target

five important characteristics of the target that affect our person perception: - direction of gaze: we form different perceptions of people based on whether they are looking at us while conversing. Direct eye contact suggests interest, whereas eyes starting across a room suggests the opposite. - Facial features and body shape: we often use faces as markers for gender, race, and age, but face and body characteristics can lead us to fall back on cultural stereotypes. For example, height has been associated with perceptions of prosperity which is high income, and occupational success. Excess weight can be stereotypically associated with negative traits such as laziness, incompetence, and a lack of discipline. - Non verbal cues: communication experts tell us that nonverbal actions are highly influential in perception. Gestures, touching, facial expressions, eye contact, and body movements like slouching all convey messages. You might perceive that someone is defensive if you observe folded arms, a facial scalp, or crossed legs. In many cultures appropriate touching conveys an impression of warmth and caring. - Appearance or dress: we are all susceptible to being influenced by appearance. We may conclude someone who shows up for work with tattoos or other body art may not be serious about doing a good job or may wonder how the person even got hired. However, research doesn't support this perception. In a recent survey of more than 2000 individuals, those with tattoos were no less likely to be employed than their uninked counterparts and average earnings were the same for both groups. - Physical attractiveness: while attractiveness is culturally determined, the beauty is good stereotype leads us to perceive attractive people positively. High attractiveness has been associated with better job opportunities, higher performance ratings, and the potential for increased earnings period one team of researchers concluded, the effects of facial attractiveness are robust and attractiveness is a significant advantage for both children and adults and almost every domain of judgment, treatment, and behavior.

Researchers have uncovered two attributional tendencies that distort our interpretation of observed behavior:

fundamental Attribution bias - this bias causes perceivers to ignore important environmental factors, which often significantly affect behavior. Such bias leads to inaccurate assessments of performance, which in turn fosters inappropriate responses to poor performance self serving bias - the self serving bias suggests individuals will attribute their success to controllable internal factors such as high ability or hard work and their failures to uncontrollable external factors such as bad luck her lack of sleep. For example, let's say you ace a test in your most difficult course. They self serving bias suggests that your success occurred because you studied hard for the exam (internal factor). on the other hand, let's say you failed the test period you might believe you did poorly on the exam because the teacher didn't explain the subject correctly or you had to work your shift at the local sub shop the night before the test.

In some, it takes more than setting specific, difficult goals to motivate yourself or others. You also want to fight the urge to set impossible goals. They typically lead to poor performance or unethical behavior, as they did at Volkswagen. Set challenging but attainable goals for yourself and others. Edwin Locke and Gary Latham, the same OB scholars who developed the motivational theory of goal setting just discussed, also identify the underlying mechanisms that explain how goals affect performance. The four are:

goals direct attention. Goals direct our attention and effort towards goal relevant activities and away from goal irrelevant activities. goals regulate effort. Goals have an energizing function and that they motivate us to act. As you might expect, harder goals foster greater effort than easy ones. Deadlines also factor into the motivational equation. We expend greater effort on projects and tasks one time is running out. Goals increase persistence. Within the context of goal setting, persistence represents the effort expended on a task over an extended period of time. Goals foster the development and application of task strategies and action plans. Goals prompt us to figure out how we can accomplish them. This begins a cognitive process in which we develop a plan outlining these steps, tasks, or activities we must undertake.

Regardless of the nature of their specific achievements, successful people tend to have one thing in common: their lives are goal oriented. After studying for decades of research on gold setting, 2O B experts, Edwin Locke and Gary Latham, proposed a straightforward theory of goal setting. Here's how it works:

goals that are specific and difficult lead to higher performance than general goals like do your best or improve performance. This is why it is essential to set specific, challenging goals. Certain conditions are necessary for goal setting to work period people must have the ability and resources needed to achieve the goal, and they need to be committed to the goal. If these conditions are not met, goal setting does not lead to higher performance. Be sure these conditions are in place as you pursue your goals. Performance feedback and Participation in deciding how to achieve goals when necessary but not sufficient for goal setting to work. Feedback and participation enhances performance only when they lead employees to set an commit to a specific, difficult goal, even when that goal is to delegate other activities to colleagues. Goals lead to higher performance when you use feedback and participation to stay focused and committed to a specific goal. Goal achievement leads to job satisfaction, which in turn motivates employees to set an commit to even higher levels of performance. Goal setting puts in motion a positive cycle of upward performance.

hiring

interviewers make hiring decisions based on their impression of how an applicant fits the perceived requirements of a job. Unfortunately, many of these decisions are made on the basis of implicit cognition. The existence of implicit cognition, or implicit bias, leads people to make biased decisions without realizing their doing so. A recent study of letters of recommendation for academic job positions, for instance, demonstrated that people recommend female versus male candidates in different ways, probably based on gender role stereotypes. The letters described female applicants as caring, friendly, and nice, while male applicants are strong, decisive, and outstanding. Experts recommend three solutions for reducing the biasing effect of implicit cognition. First, managers can be trained to understand and recognize this type of hidden bias. Second, they can use structured rather than unstructured interviews. Interviewers ask the same sequence of questions to all applicants in a structured interview, which leads to more reliable evaluations. Finally, managers can rely on evaluations from multiple interviewers rather than just one or two people. More companies now are using virtual interviews as a tool for reducing problems associated with implicit cognition.

Continuous reinforcement

just as you train your dog to do a new trick by providing a reward each time he or she does it successfully, continuous reinforcement (CRF) schedules are especially useful when employees learn a new task or skill. One way to help guard against the fading benefit of reinforcers is to use intermittent schedules.

Stage 3: storage and retention

long term memory is like an apartment complex consisting of separate units connected to common areas. Sometimes different people in each apartment will interact. Long term memory similarly consists of separate but related compartments or wings, one each for events, semantic materials, and people. - event memory: this compartment includes categories with information about both specific events such as relying on unique details and general events such as relying on schemata. These memories describe sequences of events in similar situations: going to a restaurant, going on a job interview, going to a movie, etc. - Semantic memory: this refers to general knowledge about the world, as a kind of mental Dictionary of concepts. Each concept includes a definition (a good leader) and associated traits (outgoing), emotional states (happy), physical characteristics (short), and behaviors (works hard). These concepts are stored as schemata and are often subject to cultural differences. - Person memory: categories within this compartment supply information about a single individual or groups of people. You are more likely to remember information about a person, event, or advertisement if it contains characteristics that are similar to something stored in the compartments of memory.

To help with this, we can provide the following guidance on how organizations can create environments that Foster and utilized employees strengths:

look in the mirror. Like most work endeavors, a strengths approach requires leader support to succeed. Begin with leaders learning their own strengths and being open about them. Leaders for instance who show vulnerability and admit to their own mistakes and limitations can serve as powerful role models for the larger organization. Build strength into performance management. Strengths need to be supported by expectations, measurement, review, and rewards. It is an uphill battle to talk about, encourage, and celebrate strengths if performance management practices do not support them. Know your purpose. Leaders need to be clear on why they and the organization are focusing on strengths, what is the intended benefit? Is it greater collaboration, increased customer satisfaction, innovation, or reduced turnover? Employees need to understand why and how strengths are important to the organization and its objectives. Coach and develop strengths oriented managers. Hey strengths approach is not common and implementing it effectively requires effort. Set your managers up to win by providing appropriate coaching and support.

stage 2: encoding and simplification

one memory does not store observed information in its original form; encoding is required. Our brains interpret or translate raw information into mental representations period to accomplish this, individuals assign pieces of information to cognitive categories. For example, categories are generally designated by names such as dog and animal. In social information processing theory, a particular category builds on a schema. For example, picture a sports car. Does the picture show a small vehicle with two doors? is it red? If you answered yes, you would tend to classify all small, 2 door, red vehicles as sports cars because this type of car possesses characteristics consistent with your sports car schema. We interpret and evaluate people, events, and objects by comparing their characteristics with information contained in schemata (which is the plural form of schema) relying on encoding helps us to simplify what might be a bewildering range of inputs. Encoding and schema to make the world more manageable. In our personal finance example, let's say you simplify by focusing on categories most salient to you: the method of instruction, testing procedures, and past grade distributions. Having collected relevant information about the three professors and their approaches, you compare this information with other details contained in schemata. This comparison leads you to form impression of what each professor's chorus might be like. Intern, the relevant information are passed along to the third stage of the process.

Optimism

optimists are both realistic and flexible. Think about it if you are not realistic you are setting yourself up to fail and if you fail too often, even the most optimistic of us loses or motivation and inspiration. True optimists are flexible and willing to revise their views as situations change. However, optimists do not see everything as positive; If so, they would be unrealistic or delusional. Scientists argue that humans actually have an optimism bias which in part alters our views of the likely outcomes in our lives and motivates us to act. One school thought claims it is self inspiration, our minds way of Motivating us to move forward even if the future is uncertain. the rationale is if humans do not think the future would be bright, an improvement over today, they might be crippled with fear and uncertainty, never take risks, and never try to better themselves or their situation. After all humans have the unique ability to think ahead and to realize they will die someday. If the mind did not have some way of combatting this, then many people would be preoccupied with gloom and would not save money or invest in their children. Therefore a belief that things can or will be better in the future not only helps keep our minds at ease but it also reduces stress and helps us color our decisions in a positive, appealing light and keeps us moving forward.

Experts say feedback serves two functions for those who receive it: one is instructional and the other motivational. Feedback instructs when it clarifies roles or teaches new behavior. Feedback motivates when it serves as a reward, such as recognition for a job well done or promises a reward. Have more generally, many employees appreciate the attention and interest expressed by the very act of providing feedback, regardless of content. Three common sources of feedback are:

others task self

You will notice the most used types of variable pay are targeted at individual performance, but as you climb in the organization and manage others variable pay increasingly becomes linked to teams and organizational level performance. 82% of executives variable pay is based on organizational performance versus 43% for non managers. It is also more common for certain types of roles. Sales and management roles are more likely to have outcomes appropriate for variable pay than our engineers or accountants. Hello a useful way to differentiate between types of pay for performance is whether they reward past or future performance. Bonuses are most often given for past performance and incentives are intended to motivate future performance. The most basic form of bonus pay is the traditional peace rate plan, where an employee is paid a specified amount of money for each unit of work. Many online jobs are paid this way, such as the amount of data entered, recordings transcribed, or customer service calls taken. Sales commissions for one of the most popular incentives, where a specified percentage or amount of money is paid for particular or groups of transactions. Effective incentives should do two things: motivate the right behaviors and reward successful outcomes. Too often leadership designs incentive plans to do a third thing: discourage bad behaviors. Sales incentives cannot take the place of sales management so do not try to use them as managers in absentia. Research shows mixed results for pay for performance, sometimes it increases performance as intended, other times not, and like other rewards sometimes it creates undesirable outcomes. For instance, executives and the organizations they lead are increasingly expected to deliver not only financial performance but also corporate social performance. The little research that exists shows that simply setting social goals for executives is not enough to improve the organization's social performance outcomes. However, if the targets are quantifiable such as target percentage, amount, or other clear measures, and they are linked to compensation, then social performance tends to improve. Companies with the best pay for performance results tend to:

pay top performers substantially more than their other employees reduce gaming of the system by increasing transparency utilized multiple measures of performance calibrate performance measures to ensure accuracy and consistency

Evidence is accumulating as to the many benefits of mindfulness at work especially in the areas of performance, interpersonal relationships, and overall well being. Mindfulness interventions have been shown to increase job performance, organizational citizenship behaviors, and safety behaviors. It has also been shown to improve communications, leadership, and teamwork, while reducing conflict. The goal of practicing mindfulness is to help you become more calm hand collected in all circumstances. When the mind is disturbed by anger, jealousy, hate, and patience, fear, lack of self confidence, or negative emotions about things that happened in the past, it is wasting valuable time that instead should be used for constructive thinking. Practicing mindfulness helps you focus your mind on productive activities while constraining counterproductive thinking and mind wandering. The good news is that you can learn mindfulness by practicing a variety of simple meditation techniques on a regular basis. Although there are many good books, articles, and helpful apps, we have two approaches that are easily learned: A breathing meditation and a walking meditation. Research shows practicing short meditative techniques reduces stress and negative emotions and increases emotional regulation, task performance, and memory. Breathing meditations are easy and can be done almost anywhere. Focusing on breath reminds us of the here and now because it brings us back to a fundamental and vital function of life. This technique requires nothing more than turning into the physical sensations associated with breathing in and out. 2 experts recommend the following simple approach for getting started:

place your hand on your stomach a couple of inches beneath the upside down V at the center of your rib cage. Look down, breathe normally, and watch your hand. You'll probably see it move only a little bit and more or less up and down. Your abdomen should expand when you inhale and contract on the exhale. Leaving your hand in place, now breathe in such a way that your hand moves out and back, perpendicular to your chest. Try to breathe into your hand with real oomph, so that it travels back and forth half an inch or more with each breath.

Martin Seligman, A Ronaldo psychologist from the University of Pennsylvania, has studied happiness and well being for over 30 years period he is credited as the driver of today's positive psychology movement which is the for better of POB. He originally believed happiness was the most important outcome in our lives but has changed his mind over the years period he now believes people equate happiness with being cheerful, and you don't have to be cheerful to be physically or psychologically healthy. He proposed the concept of well being. Well being comes from freely pursuing one or more of these five elements: PERMA

positive emotions - Positive emotions broaden your perspective as to how to overcome challenges in life. Positive emotions also build on themselves, resulting in a spreading of positive emotions within yourself and to those around you. - Some companies understand the power of positive emotions in the significant damage possible from negative emotions. engagement - Employee engagement reflex the extent to which you are physically, cognitively, and emotionally engaged in an activity, task, or project. This state is sometimes called being in the zone or in a state of flow. Flow is a positive state because our well being benefits from our deep attention to and engagement with an activity - engagement and positive emotions are not one and the same. When we are in flow, we are not necessarily thinking about anything; We're just doing. Our concentration is so high during flow that we use all the cognitive and emotional resources normally needed for thoughts and feelings. - How do you create engagement or flow for yourself= Seligman And others suggest this is a two part sequence consisting of: (identifying your signature strengths and learning to use them in daily personal and work activities) relationships - Biologist explain that humans are creatures of the hive. After studying insects like Wasps, termites, and ants, researchers concluded the group is a national unit of selection. In other words both insects and people prefer to be in groups and to work collaboratively with others to get things done. - While others may on occasion annoy us, positive relationships are a strong contributor to our well being. They buffer us from stressors and provide resources enabling us to more effectively accomplish tasks. - Positive relationships fueled the giving and receiving a social support. - The four types of social support is: - - Esteem support= Reassurance a person is accepted and respected despite any problems or inadequacies. - - Informational support= Help defining, understanding, and coping with problems. - - Social companionship= Time spent with others in leisure and recreational activities. - - Instrumental support= Financial aid, material resources, or needed services. - You can enhance your level of flourishing by seeking social support, but you will also flourish by providing support others, particularly in the form of kindness. Research shows us the exhibition of kindness produces significant increases and well being. Conduct a kindness exercise by doing a completely unexpected thing for someone else. It can be as simple as holding a door open for another to pass through or helping someone with directions. meaning - Viktor Frankl, An Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist who survived the Holocaust, was a strong proponent of using meaningfulness to promote well being. His book chronicled his experiences in concentration camps and summarized what he learned from these events. His conclusion was striving to find a meaning in one's life is the primary motivational force for people. In other words, it is the drive to find meaning in our lives that instills in us a sense of purpose and motivation to pursue goals. - Three suggestions for building meaning into your life: - - identify activities you love doing. Try to do more of these activities or find ways to build them into your work role. - - Find a way to build your natural strengths into your personal and work life. - - Go out and help someone. Research shows people derive a sense of meaningfulness try helping others. achievement - The final component, achievement, pertains to the extent to which you have a self directed achieving life. In other words, we flourish when we pursue achievement in its own sake. Doing so fosters feelings of competence and mastery, which in turn enhances our self esteem and self efficacy. Companies help employees achieve by providing skills based training and professional development activities.

most experts agree it is critically important to ensure pay for performance practices fit the situation and align with the organization's strategy and culture. Providing consequences is the last component of the performance management process, and the way rewards and consequences more generally are administered can make or break performance management efforts. Effective use of these OB tools is particularly important given that pay raises and promotions are often powerful career outcomes in the organizing framework. They often influence perceptions of fairness, intentions of quitting, emotions, and a range of behaviors at work. In the early 1900s, psychologist Edward L. Thorndike observed in his lab that a cat would behave randomly when placed in a small box with a secret trip lever that opened a door. However, once the cat had accidentally tripped the lever and escaped, it would go straight to the lever when placed back in the box. This observation led to Thorndike's now famous law of effect. B. F. Skinner refined Thorndike's work and developed what came to be known as behaviorism as he dealt strictly with observable behavior. He believed it was pointless to explain behavior in terms of unobservable interstates such as needs, drives, attitudes, or thought processes. He instead drew an important distinction between two types of behavior: respondent and operant behavior. Respondent behavior describes automatic reactions to stimuli, or stimulus-responses (S-R), like when you are startled by an unexpected loud noise or yank your hand from a hot surface. These behaviors are obviously important, but not nearly as common and consequential as operant behavior which are behaviors that are learned and occur when we operate on the environment to produce desired consequences. It can be helpful to think of this as response-stimulus (R-S) model for operant conditioning , as it describes things we do to generate desired behaviors and are the essence of much of OB. According to skinner's operant theory, contingent consequences controlled behavior in one of four ways:

positive reinforcement - A behavior is strengthened when it increases in frequency and weekend when it decreases in frequency. negative reinforcement - Many probationary periods for new hires are applications of negative reinforcement. During probation periods, often your first 30, 60, or 90 days on a new job, you need to have weekly meetings with your boss or have somebody sign off on your work. Once you have demonstrated your skill these requirements are removed. - Unfortunately, most people confuse negative reinforcement with negative feedback, which is a form of punishment. Negative reinforcement, as the word reinforcement indicates, strengthens a desirable behavior because it provides relief from something undesirable. punishment - Be sure to remember punishment needs to be used sparingly and wisely. Perceptual errors and biases you've learned about also apply to punishment. Specifically: - - Negative events are far more impactful on people than positive events. People typically exert more energy to avoid losses and negative events than they do to receive positive outcomes. - - Negative events stick with us much longer than a positive events. This means you are likely to remember and be affected by punishment such as demotion , or negative feedback such as poor performance review, much longer than a promotion or positive review. - - Punishment is more likely to be informal, unless of course you are put on a performance improvement plan or fired, and thus at the discretion of your manager period to elaborate, organizations must often have established policies and practices for allocating rewards, but they rarely devote as much attention and formality to punishments. One important implication is the use of punishments will be far more variable. Extinction - Not returning calls, unfriending, or otherwise not responding or extinction tactics. A good analogy for extinction is the fate of your house plants if you stop to watering them.

here are seven initiatives that can help organizations to motivate and retain an aging workforce:

provide challenging work assignments that make a difference to the firm and employees. Give employees considerable autonomy and latitude in completing a task. Provide equal access to training and learning opportunities when it comes to new technology and job processes. Provide frequent recognition for skills, experience, and wisdom gained over the years. Offer mentoring opportunities whereby older workers can pass on accumulated knowledge to younger employees. Offer short sabbaticals to help the workforce stay fresh and current. Design A work environment that is both stimulating and fun.

Any feedback that fails to clear one or more of these cognitive hurdles will be rejected or discounted by the employee. Remember that feedback itself is simply information. It becomes positive or negative only when you compare it to a goal or expectation. Such comparisons are the basis for improvement. People tend to perceive and recall positive feedback more accurately than they do negative feedback. But negative feedback such as being told that your performance is below average, can have a positive motivational effect. One study showed that those who were told they were below average on a creativity test subsequently outperformed those who were led to believe their results were above average. The subjects apparently took the negative feedback as a challenge and a set and pursued higher goals. Those receiving positive feedback were less motivated to do better. However, as you likely know, negative feedback needs to be used with discretion because it is perceived and processed differently. For instance, a study of employees in a company with a transparent peer review process or each employee knew both the ratings and the associated Raiders, showed that after receiving negative feedback employees tended to distance themselves from the sources of that feedback, and then a shopped around for and associated with colleagues who provided positive feedback. As you might expect, some employees had to work with those providing negative feedback and overtime they developed more and richer relationships with members outside of their group. Nonetheless, feedback with a negative message or threatening content needs to be administered carefully to avoid creating insecurity and defensiveness. Both negative and positive feedback need to provide clear guidance to improve performance. Feedback is most likely to be perceived accurately and thus more likely to be acted on, when it is instructional and helps achieve an important or valued outcome. Besides the do's and don'ts listed below, the following tips further improve your feedback skills and provide pointers on how to deliver it:

reflect. Before giving feedback you are well served to identify what change you want to see, what is the context or experiences of the target person (person or situation factors influencing his or her performance), and those needs you are meaning by giving the feedback. Answering these three questions helps clarify your motives and intended outcomes. Cultivate trust. By reflecting on and sharing the information in #1, you will help the receiver understand your intentions or for her or his development. be action oriented. Sharing information is not the end. Feedback is more effective if it is accompanied by suggested actions. When done in this way, providing feedback is a form of problem solving - what is the problem, likely causes, accompanied by recommended actions

Characteristics of the perceiver:

six key perceiver characteristics that affect our perception of others: - direction of gaze: gaze is the first step in the perception process because it focuses your attention and tells the brain what you think is important in the immediate environment. When scanning people, we also tend to pay attention to others who are gazing at us. We usually remember people when we make direct eye contact with them. - Needs and goals: we are more likely to perceive whatever is related to our goals and needs. For example, we perceive examples of food if we're hungry. If we are looking for a friend out of party, we scan the room for familiar faces and fail to perceive strangers. - Experience with target: our perception of a target is influenced by our past experience with him or her. You might perceive someone's firm handshake negatively, for instance, if you know this person has attempted to exert power and control over you in the past. The same handshake is positive if you remember the target as a friendly, caring person. - Category based knowledge: category based knowledge consists of perceptions, including stereotypes, that we have stored in memory about various categories of people such as professors, singers, artists, police, politicians, and so on. We use this information to interpret what we see in here. For instance, if you believe professors in general are intelligent, you are more likely to perceive that those teaching your current courses are intelligent. If your memory tells you that people who lie cannot be trusted, you are likely to perceive a politician as untrustworthy who is caught in a lie. - Gender and emotional status: women recognize emotions more accurately than men, and both men and women are more likely to recognize the targets emotions when they are consistent with their own. Experiencing negative emotions such as anger and frustration is likely to make your perceptions more negative. The opposite is true for positive emotions such as optimism and love. - Cognitive load: cognitive load represents the amount of activity going on in your brain. If you are tired and distracted after working a long day, here perceptions are more likely to be distorted and susceptible to stereotypical judgments.

in 2060 so-called minority groups will constitute approximately 57% of the workforce, according to the Census Bureau. And yet three additional trends suggest that current date minority groups are stalled at their own glass ceilings:

smaller percentage in the professional class period Hispanics or Latinos, and African Americans have a smaller relative hold on managerial and professional jobs compared with whites. Women of color generally do better than men of color. More discrimination cases. The number of race based charges of discrimination that were deemed to show reasonable cause by the US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission increased from 294 in 1995 to 723 in 2017. Companies paid a total of 355.6 million US dollars to resolve these claims without litigation in 2017 lower earnings period minorities also tend to earn less personal income than whites. In 2018, median weekly earnings for workers 16 years and older were $916.00, $694.00, 1095 dollars, an $680 for whites, Blacks, Asians, and Hispanics, respectively. Asians have the highest median income

Give me financially does not necessarily detract from outcomes. Researchers studied the links between the amount of discounted care and the quality of all care provided by a number of hospitals in Southern California. Discounted care is given to those who cannot pay or can pay only a reduced rate; Sometimes it amounts to a financial loss for the hospital. The researchers found hospitals that provided more discounted care also reported lower incidences of pneumonia and heart failure, as well as better surgical outcomes and fewer re admissions. This seems to suggest altruism and high performance are not mutually exclusive. Balancing the needs of multiple stakeholders such as employees, customers, communities, and investors, is a major challenge. Despite what particular leaders may say, most give clear priority to 1, often at the expense of the others. But some truly attempt to satisfy all stakeholders. Like their negative cousins, positive emotions are relatively flexible individual differences and are important processes in the organizing framework. You may think of emotions in terms of positive or negative; However there is much more to the story. Positive and negative emotions by not polar opposites. The world of emotions is not happy versus sad. Negative emotions spur you to act and quite narrow or specific ways. Fear it may motivate you to flee and anger may motivate you to fight. Positive emotions in contrast, tend to broaden your mindset and allow you to consider new, different, and possibly better alternatives when trying to solve a problem. If you think of emotions in this way, you can see negative emotions or limiting and positive emotions are resources that fuel individual, group, and organizational flourishing. The bottom line is positive emotions help you build resources in the form of:

social relationships that are supportive, fulfilling, and lasting. Psychological well being that leads to personal growth, meaningful goals, and self acceptance. Physical well being in the form of lower stress and a healthy heart.

Variable ratio and variable interval schedules of reinforcement generally produced the strongest behaviors and are most resistant to extinction. Continuous and fixed schedules, in contrast, are the least likely to elicit the desired response overtime period nevertheless, the majority of work organizations rely on fixed intervals a reinforcement, such as hourly wages and annual reviews and raises. The bottom line for the example of students: have students generally do not like unannounced or pop quizzes. However, if the professor's goal is increased student preparation and learning, then variable interval grading is 1 means for generating a higher average level of student performance. These same patterns and results apply in business settings too. For instance, many sales and professional service jobs such as accounting and law have monthly numbers to meet, like sales or billable hours. This often means employees get far more work done in the last few days of the month than in the beginning. Hello in general, any type of consequence whether reward or punishment, is more effective when administered near the time of behavior. Effectiveness wears off as time passes. You are unlikely to change your professors grading format or the timing of your employers pay and bonus schedule; however there are many ways you can put your knowledge of positive reinforcement schedules to use within the confines of existing practices:

spot rewards. Spot rewards are highly effective. If your coworker has worked hard to make your project a success, recognize her efforts via an email to the entire team including your manager. Your manager in turn may decide to give Friday off to those who complete their current work satisfactorily and ahead of schedule. Variable rewards and or bonuses. Entrepreneurs can especially benefit from applying knowledge of reinforcement schedules. Assume you started your own business and like many new business owners, you are short on cash. You would like to provide regular bonuses and pay raises but you can afford monetary rewards only when your company secures a new customer or a big order. The variable nature of these rewards not only recognizes employees efforts and success, but also motivates them to work hard in the future because they know that such efforts are recognized and reinforced. Celebrations. When it comes to school we advocate celebrating and thus reinforcing victories such as completing a paper, achieving a good score on an exam, and ending a semester in which you worked hard and performed well. Scattering days reinforcers throughout the semester can help re energize you to work hard in the future, especially if you make these rewards contingent on good behavior and outcomes.

Taking this a step further, positive outcomes are generated through three processes:

the amplifying effect - the amplify effect is often conveyed via positive emotions and a social capital such as your relationships and network. The idea is positively fuels more positivity, such that both the receiver and witnesses of kind acts are likely to perform kind acts of their own. This results in reinforcing cycles or upward spirals of positivity. Such behaviors can then transform organizations into more compassionate and harmonious places, while improving interpersonal interactions, collaboration, information sharing, and efficiency. - This perspective on positive emotions is called the broaden and build theory, which proposes positive emotions broaden our attention and make us more open to experience. These are self reinforcing , more creates more, resulting in upward spirals of additional positive emotions and actions. - People are more likely to exhibit pro social behaviors when positive OB is taking place in their work environments. the buffering effect - To buffer means to reduce or counteract the effects of a negative force. - When we are confronted with stressors or otherwise undesirable experiences, we utilized various social and personal resources to buffer or cope with them. At work, we use social support from helpful coworkers to cope, and or we may use personal resources such as psychological capital. the positivity effect - Organizations using positive practices are more likely to create an atmosphere of positive energy, which in turn fuels performance, such as financial, work climate, turnover, patient satisfaction, employee participation, and managerial support.

Diversity management focuses on changing an organization's culture and infrastructure such that people work to the highest productivity possible. Ann Morrison, a diversity expert, attempted to identify the types of initiatives 16 companies used to successfully manage diversity. Her results found three key strategies at work:

the educational component: - education has two thrusts: one is to prepare nontraditional managers for increasingly responsible posts, and the other is to help traditional managers overcome their prejudice and thinking about and interacting with people who are of a different sex or ethnicity the enforcement component: - enforcement puts teeth in diversity goals and encourages behavior change the exposure component: - exposing people two others with different backgrounds and characteristics at a more personal approach to diversity by helping managers get to know and respect others who are different

Once you have defined and communicated performance expectations or goals, you are ready to monitor and evaluate progress and ultimate performance. Re emphasize the need to monitor and evaluate both progress towards the goal and ultimate level of goal achievement. By doing both instead of simply focusing on the final outcome boosts both motivation and performance. This is why accurately and appropriately monitoring and evaluating both progress and outcomes are critical components of effective performance management and your personal effectiveness. You use the information gathered through monitoring to identify problems and successes and to find opportunities for enhancing performance during the pursuit of a goal period to be effective, you need to use or even create accurate and appropriate measures. Your measurement and monitoring can improve further still if you consider the following:

timeliness. Was the work completed on time? Many customer service rules require representatives to answer calls within a certain number of rings, or to respond to customer requests and a certain number of hours or days. Quality. How well was the work done? A behavioral goal that could fit here is greeting customers warmly, personally, and with a smile. Measurement consists of observing and/or reporting that these actually occurred. Quantity. How much? Sales goals are common examples here, such as dollars or a number of units sold. Financial metrics. What are the profits, returns, or other relevant accounting/financial outcomes?

This broader view of rewards has grown partly in reaction to stiffer competition and challenging economic conditions, which have made it difficult for cost conscious organizations to offer higher wages and more benefits each year. Employers have had to find alternative forms of rewards that cost less but still motivate employees to Excel. The bottom line: the most effective reward programs tend to align with employee preferences. But we know that rewards often do not work as intended. Here are some of the reasons reward

too much emphasis on monetary rewards sense in recipient that extensive benefits are entitlements fostering of counterproductive behavior long delay between performance and reward On-size-fits-all rewards Use of one-shot rewards with short-lived motivational impact Continued use of demotivating practices such as layoffs, across-the-board raises and cuts, and excessive executive compensation

these observations offer useful lessons for all of us:

we tend to disproportionately attribute behavior to internal causes. This bias can result in inaccurate evaluations of performance, leading to reduced employee motivation. The organizing framework for understanding and applying OB offers a simple solution for overcoming his tendency. You must remind yourself that behavior and performance are functions of both person and situation factors. Other attributional biases may lead managers to take inappropriate actions. Search actions could include promotions, transfers, layoffs, and so forth. Inappropriate responses can dampen motivation and performance. An employee's attributions for his or her own performance have dramatic effects on motivation, performance, and personal attitudes such as self esteem. For instance, people tend to give up, lower their expectations of future success, and experience decreased self esteem when they attribute failure to lack of ability. employees are more likely to display high performance and job satisfaction when they attribute success to internal factors such as ability and effort.

Tools to reinforce problem solving skills:

Problem solving application mini cases which are many cases that present a problem or challenge for you to solve using the three step approach. Self assessments which are validated instruments the allow you to immediately assess your personal characteristics related to OB concepts and are frequently with a problem solving focus. End of chapter problem solving application cases which are full length cases requiring you to apply the OB knowledge gained in a particular chapter to define the problem, determine the causes, and make recommendations. Ethical/legal challenge which are mini cases the present provocative ethical dilemmas in today's workplace. You are asked to consider, choose, and then justify different courses of action.

Russell Ackoff recommends first deciding how complete a response you are looking for. Do you want the problem to be resolved, solved, or dissolved:

Resolving= resolving problems is arguable the most common action managers take and simply means choosing a satisfactory solution, one that works but is less than ideal. Solving= solving problems is the optimal or ideal response. Dissolving= dissolving problems requires changing or eliminating the situation in which the problem occurs. Making this decision of resolving, solving, or dissolving helps guide your choice among alternatives. In addition, it helps you decide what you need, whether it is realistic, and what level of effort and resources to use.

To help increase your personal performance and well being at school, work, and home, we have created a three step approach:

Step 1: Define the problem. Most people identify problems reactively or after they happened, which causes them to make snap judgments or assumptions. These are often plagued by a reliance on common sense and result in defining the problem incorrectly, which in turn leads to identifying inaccurate causes and any effective solutions. - Define problems in terms of desired outcomes, and then test each one by asking "why is this a problem?" First think of what you want, what is the desired outcome or state, then compare it to what you have for the current situation. It is important to resist snap judgements and quickly conclude you "know" the problem and underlying causes. You are better served to start with available facts and details. Then ask yourself "why is this gap a problem?" We find that asking "why" multiple times helps refine and focus your definition of the problem. Step 2: Identify potential causes using OB concepts and theories. Essential to effective problem solving is identifying the appropriate underlying causes. So far you have OB concepts like the contingency perspective and ethics to use as potential causes. The more knowledge you have to choose from, the more likely you will identify the appropriate causes and recommendations. - To improve your ability to accurately identify potential causes, you should test your causes by asking, "why or how does this cause the problem?" Once you have confidently defined the problem in step one which is disengagement, you need to identify potential causes by asking why am I disengaged. One common reason which is backed by science, is that you perceive you were evaluated unfairly can you recent performance review. Why or how did this cause disengagement? If you feel unappreciated for what you've done, then you are unmotivated to go the extra mile to help your coworkers or customers. Asking why multiple times and following the line of reasoning will lead you to define and identify problems and causes more accurately. Step 3: Make recommendations and if appropriate take action. Whether planning and/or implementing recommendations, it is important to map or link recommendations to the causes and problems. - A simple and helpful suggestion is to map recommendations onto causes. Be certain to link recommendations to causes which are linked to the problem. The rationale is good recommendations address the causes and when causes are removed or improved, the underlying problem is solved or at least mitigated.

Personality testing is a commonly used tool for making decisions about hiring, training, and promotion. Roughly 90% of Fortune 500 companies use some form of pre employment testing, including personality tests. A few of the major reasons organizations use such tests are:

reduce time and cost of recruiting and hiring reduce biases in the interview process Increase the pool of candidates (because such tests can be administered electronically and remotely) Complement candidate information found in resumes and interviews

Understanding the way values affect our behavior matters for two reasons:

the first reason is that values guide our actions across all situations And knowing this helps you to self manage, such as by choosing a major or career for which you are well suited. The second reason is that you will be more effective at influencing others attitudes and behaviors when you are armed with an understanding of values and their effects.

Improving intelligence through training is difficult, and you are well served to consider carefully before investing your time, money, or energy. But if you are going to do it, experts say in order to be effective such training needs three characteristics:

adaptive. In intellectual training, much like physical training, improvement occurs when you exert yourself just beyond your limits. Easy should be avoided; Constant and increasing challenge is what you need. Variety. Given you have multiple intelligences, you'll need a variety of activities to improve. Memory, for instance, involves multiple areas of your brain which is why it is best to include a host of stimuli such as sights and sounds, to improve it. Training only your mathematical skills will improve just your mathematical skills, not your linguistic intelligence or more general IQ. Generalizability. Most games and intelligence tests do not involve what you actually do in your job or everyday life. Therein lies the problem, you improve on a game or a test, but it has no relevance or impact on your performance at work period this is part of the reason why in 2014, more than a 70 scientists signed a statement warning consumers about commercial brain training programs. Because you improve on the games doesn't mean you're smarter or will be a better performer at school or work.

As for the big 5, knowledge of these stable personality dimensions can assist in selecting the right people and assigning responsibilities to them that will set them up to win.

Conscientiousness has the strongest and most positive effects on performance across jobs, industries, and levels. Individuals who exhibit traits associated with a strong sense of purpose, obligation, and persistence generally perform better than those who do not. They also tend to have higher job satisfaction. This trait has consistently been shown to be the most influential when it comes to performance at work. Extraversion, not surprisingly, is beneficial if the job involves interpersonal interaction. It is also a stronger predictor of job performance than agreeableness, across all professions. Agreeable employees are likely to fit and Excel in jobs requiring interpersonal interaction, such as customer service. These same employees are more likely to stay with their jobs, be kind and get along with others, and thus have positive relationships and experiences at work. Openness is linked with higher levels of creativity compared with other traits, but open employees may be more likely to quit. Such people are curious and may seek and find new opportunities, even when they are satisfied with their current jobs. This characteristic seems like a double-edged sword for employers. On the one hand they want open and flexible employees, but these are also the same employees who are likely to quit. Emotional stability is associated with higher job satisfaction and well being. Those low in emotional stability and high on neuroticism have opposite experiences, including higher levels of burnout. It is difficult to find a downside to emotional stability in the workplace. If you are a hiring manager, perhaps you'd consider including this trait in your recruiting and selecting efforts.

Ethics also gets priority because many OB topics have a direct and substantial influence on the conduct of individuals and organizations. Notably reward systems, decision making, leader behavior, and organizational culture all can powerfully challenge our ethical standards at work. Cheating is a persistent part of reality in sports, schools, and business. 51% of high school students participating in a national survey reported cheating on exams. 62% of U.S. college students reported knowledge of another student using a connected device to cheat on an assignment, exam, or project. The vast majority of founders, leaders, and managers mean to run ethical organizations, yet corporate corruption is widespread. Some of the executives whose unethical behavior bankrupted the organizations they led, destroyed the lives of many employees, and caused enormous financial losses for employees, investors, and customers in the last few decades.

Examples: - Michael Milken (Drexel Burnham Lambert 1990) - Kenneth Lay and Jeff Skilling (Enron 2001) - Bernie Ebbers (WorldCom 2002) - Bernie Madoff (Madoff Investment Securities LLC 2009) - Hisao Tanaka (Toshiba 2015) - Sepp Blatter (FIFA 2015) - Shigehisa Takada (Takada 2017) - Elizabeth Holmes (Theranos 2018)

What it takes to get hired:

For most jobs you are selected for your technical skills (or your ability to do the given job). How to ace your next interview: - Create an elevator pitch (imagine you're in the elevator with the interviewer and have only 60 seconds to sell yourself) by selecting your 3 best-selling points (strengths) and concisely explain how each would benefit the company. - Finish strong (at the end of the interview, state and show your enthusiasm for the opportunity and restate your 1 or 2 best-selling points and how they will benefit the company). - Prepare for situational questions (anticipate questions like "why do you want this job" and "tell me about a time when you had a conflict at work and what you did about it") and how to answer them (by describing the situation, your behavior and the resulting impact and what you learned in that situation). - Make your research social (reach out to your network privately and learn whether anyone has worked for or interviewed with your target company, learn about the person you're interviewing with on LinkedIn - education, past jobs, positions within the company, etc.) - Don't trip up on the money (it's generally best yo wait until you have a formal offer in hand before discussing pay. If asked about your salary requirement during the interview, respond by saying "are you making me an offer?" the answer will likely be no. But if the interviewer persists, say "I would prefer to have all the details in hand in order to determine what would be most appropriate and fair. Once I have those, I will happily discuss compensation").

The outcomes of internals and externals differ widely at work.

Internals display greater work motivation, have stronger expectations that effort leads to performance, exhibit higher performance on tasks that require learning or problem solving, when performance leads to valued rewards, And derive more job satisfaction from performance. externals demonstrate last motivation for performance when offered valued rewards, earn lower salaries and smaller salary increases, and tend to be more anxious.

Effectively applying the contingency approach requires self-awareness, which means knowing your own skills, abilities, values, weaknesses, strengths, preferences, and fit with the environment.

It also includes knowing how others see you in terms of these same factors. Not surprisingly, self-awareness is key to your success in both the short and long term

Moreover, common sense is largely based on experience or logic, both of which have limits, and it suffers three major weaknesses you need to be aware of and avoid:

Overreliance on hindsight= - common sense works best in well-known or stable situations with predictable outcomes - what worked before should work again. - But modern business situations are complex and uncertain and require adapting to change, which are exactly the conditions under which common sense is likely to fail. - And because it focuses on the past, common sense lacks vision for the future. Lack of rigor= - people comfortable with common sense responses may not apply the effort required to appropriately analyze and solve problems. - If you lack rigor, and aren't especially thorough or precise, then you are unlikely to define the problem accurately, identify the true causes, or recommend the right courses of action. Lack of objectivity= - common sense can be overly subjective and lack a basis in science. - In such cases we are not always able to explain or justify our reasoning to others, which is a sign that common sense lacks objectivity.

To confront unethical conduct at work/school, you can:

Recognize that it's business and treat it that way. Ethical issues are business issues, just like costs, revenues, and employee development. Collect data and present a convincing case against the unethical conduct just as you would to develop a new product or strategy. Accept that confronting ethical concerns is part of your job. Whether it is explicit in your job description or not, ethics is everyone's job. If you think something is questionable, act. Challenge the rationale. Lapses occur despite policy's against them. If this is the case, then ask, "if what you did is common practice or OK, then why do we have a policy forbidding it?" Alternatively, in no matter the rationale, you can ask, "would you be willing to explain what you did and why in a meeting with our superiors, customers, or during an interview on the Evening News?" Use your lack of seniority or status as an asset. While many employees rely on their junior status to avoid confronting ethical issues, being junior can instead be an advantage. It enables you to raise issues by saying, "because I'm new, I may have misunderstood something, but it seems that what you've done may be out of bounds or could cause problems". Consider and explain long-term consequences. Many ethical issues are driven by temptations and benefits that play out in the short term. Frame and explain your views in terms of long-term consequences. Suggest solutions - not just complaints. When confronting an issues, you will likely be perceived as more helpful and be taken more seriously if you provide an alternate course or solution. Doing so will also make it more difficult for the offender to disregard your complaint.

To help increase your self-awareness we include multiple self-assessments in every chapter.

These are an excellent way to learn about yourself and see how you apply OB at school, at work, and in your personal life.

We tend to attribute the causes of our behavior primarily to either ourselves or environmental factors. Locus of control has 2 forms:

internal - Such people, called internals, tend to attribute positive outcomes to their own abilities and negative outcomes to their personal shortcomings. - Many entrepreneurs eventually succeed because their internal locus of control helps them overcome setbacks and disappointments. They see themselves as Masters of their own fate and not as simply "lucky". - Those who willingly take high stakes jobs in the face of diversity such as pulling a company back from scandal or bankruptcy, likely have a high internal locus of control. - For example, Dara Khosrowshahi, for instance took over at Uber after a slew of scandals and bad press damaged the company's reputation and resulted in the ouster of then CEO Travis Kalanick. external - House who have a external locus of control tend to attribute outcomes to environmental causes such as luck or fate. An external would attribute a passing grade on an exam to something external like an easy test and attribute a failing grade to unfair test or distractions at work.

You notice from the definition you can think of emotions, whether positive, negative, or mixed, in terms of your goals.

positive - if your goal is to do well in school and you graduate on time with honors, you are likely to experience positive emotions such as joy, gratitude, pride, satisfaction, contentment, and relief period these emotions are positive because they are congruent or consistent with your goal. negative - Negative emotions are triggered by frustration and failure to meet goals. They are said to be gold incongruent. Comment negative emotions are anger, fright, anxiety, guilt, shame, sadness, envy, jealousy, and disgust. Which of these are you likely to experience if you fail the final exam in a required course? Failing would be incongruent with your goal of graduating on time with a good GPA. Typically the more important the goal the more intense the emotion. mixed - meeting or failing to meet our goals can also generate mixed emotions. Let's say you receive a well earned promotion that brings with it positives such as increased responsibility and higher pay but only if you relocate to another state, what you don't want to do