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learning disability
A child with a learning disability has difficulty in learning that involves understanding or using spoken or written language, and the difficulty can appear in listening, thinking, reading, writing, or spelling. A learning disability also may involve difficulty in doing mathematics. To be classified as a learning disability, the learning problem is not primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; intellectual disabilities; emotional disorders; or environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage About three times as many boys as girls are classified as having a learning disability. Among the explanations for this gender difference are a greater biological vulnerability among boys and referral bias
Moral development
Moral development involves the development of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding rules and conventions about what people should do in their interactions with other people.
parental influence
Mothers' socialization strategies. In many cultures mothers socialize their daughters to be more obedient and responsible than their sons. They also place more restrictions on daughters' autonomy. Fathers' socialization strategies. Fathers show more attention to sons than to daughters, engage in more activities with sons, and put forth more effort to promote sons' intellectual development.
guilt
The great governor of initiative is guilt. Young children's initiative and enthusiasm may bring them not only rewards but also guilt, which lowers self-esteem.
convergent thinking
convergent thinking, Page 350which produces one correct answer and characterizes the kind of thinking that is required on conventional tests of intelligence
coparenting
coparenting, which is the support that parents provide one another in jointly raising a child.
executive function
executive function is an umbrella-like concept that comprises a number of higher-level cognitive processes. One of those cognitive processes is working memory, especially its central executive dimension.
fuzzy trace theory
fuzzy trace theory states that memory is best understood by considering two types of memory representations: (1) verbatim memory trace and (2) gist
gender schema theory
gender schema theory, which states that gender typing emerges as children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture (Halim & others, 2016; Martin & Cook, 2017; Miller & others, 2013). A schema is a cognitive structure, a network of associations that guide an individual's perceptions. A gender schema organizes the world in terms of female and male. Children and adolescents are internally motivated to perceive the world and to act in accordance with their developing schemas. Bit by bit, children and adolescents pick up what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture, developing gender schemas that shape how they perceive the world and what they remember
whole-language approach
whole-language approach stresses that reading instruction should parallel children's natural language learning. In some whole-language classes, beginning readers are taught to recognize whole words or even entire sentences, and to use the context of what they are reading to guess at the meaning of words
Motor skills
Boys are better at gross motor skills. Gorls are better at fine motor skills.
exercise
A research review concluded that aerobic exercise also increasingly is linked to children's cognitive skills (Best, 2010). Researchers have found that aerobic exercise benefits children's attention, memory, effortful and goal-directed thinking Page 320and behavior, creativity, and academic success (Davis & Cooper, 2011; Davis & others, 2007, 2011; Hillman & others, 2009; Jackson & others, 2016; Krafft & others, 2014; Pan & others, 2017; Tomporowski, 2016). In a recent fMRI study of physically unfit 8- to 11-year-old overweight children, a daily instructor-led aerobic exercise program that lasted eight months was effective in improving the efficiency or flexible modulation of neural circuits that support better cognitive functioning (Krafft & others, 2014). Further, a recent meta-analysis concluded that children who engage in regular physical activity have better cognitive inhibitory control
Mindfulness
According to Ellen Langer (2005), mindfulness—being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible while going through life's everyday activities and tasks—is an important aspect of thinking critically. Mindful children and adults maintain an active awareness of the circumstances in their life and are motivated to find the best solutions to tasks. Mindful individuals create new ideas, are open to new information, and are able to use multiple perspectives. By contrast, mindless individuals are entrapped in old ideas, engage in automatic behavior, and operate from a single perspective.
understanding others
And, at about 4 to 5 years of age, children not only start describing themselves in terms of psychological traits but they also begin to perceive others in terms of psychological traits
Articulation disorders
Articulation disorders are problems in pronouncing sounds correctly
Asperger syndrome
Asperger syndrome is a relatively mild autism spectrum disorder in which the child has relatively good verbal language skills, milder nonverbal language problems, and a restricted range of interests and relationships (Boutot, 2017). Children with Asperger syndrome often engage in obsessive, repetitive routines and are preoccupied with a particular subject. For example, a child may be obsessed with baseball scores or specific videos on YouTube.
Asthma
Asthma is a chronic lung disease that involves episodes of airflow obstruction (Rutman & others, 2016). Symptoms of an asthma attack include shortness of breath, wheezing, or tightness in the chest. The incidence of asthma has risen steadily in recent decades, possibly because of increased air pollution (Ding & others, 2017). Asthma is the most common chronic disease in U.S. children, being present in 8.6 percent of them (National Center for Health Statistics, 2017a). Asthma is the primary reason for absences from school, and it is responsible for a number of pediatric admissions to emergency rooms and hospitals (Rutman & others, 2016). Children with asthma account for more than 600,000 emergency room visits per year in the United States
ADHD (Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder)
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a disability in which children consistently show one or more of the following characteristics over a period of time: (1) inattention, (2) hyperactivity, and (3) impulsivity. For an ADHD diagnosis, onset of these characteristics early in childhood is required, and the characteristics must be debilitating for the child. The number of children diagnosed and treated for ADHD has increased substantially, by some estimates doubling in the 1990s (Stein, 2004). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2016) estimates that ADHD has continued to increase in 4- to 17-year-old children, going from 8 percent in 2003 to 9.5 percent in 2007 and to 11 percent in 2016. Approximately 13.2 percent of U.S. boys and 5.6 of U.S. girls have ever been diagnosed with ADHD. The disorder occurs as much as four to nine times more often in boys than in girls. There is controversy about the increased diagnosis of ADHD, however (Watson & others, 2014). Some experts attribute the increase mainly to heightened awareness of the disorder. Others are concerned that many children are being diagnosed without undergoing extensive professional evaluation based on input from multiple sources.
Authoritative parenting (baumrind)
Authoritative parent encourages children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions. Extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed, and parents are warm and nurturant toward the child. An authoritative parent might put his arm around the child in a comforting way and say, "You know you should not have done that. Let's talk about how you can handle the situation better next time." Authoritative parents show pleasure and support in response to children's constructive behavior. They also expect mature, independent, and age-appropriate behavior by children.
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD)
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD), also called pervasive developmental disorder, range from the severe disorder labeled autistic disorder to the milder disorder called Asperger syndrome. Autism spectrum disorders are characterized by problems in social interaction, problems in verbal and nonverbal communication, and repetitive behaviors (Boutot, 2017; Gerenser & Lopez, 2017). Children with these disorders may also show atypical responses to sensory experiences (National Institute of Mental Health, 2017). Intellectual disability is present in some children with autism, while others show average or above-average intelligence (Bernier & Dawson, 2016). Autism spectrum disorders can often be detected in children as early as 1 to 3 years of age.
Autistic disorder
Autistic disorder is a severe developmental autism spectrum disorder that has its onset in the first three years of life and includes deficiencies in social relationships, abnormalities in communication, and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior. Estimates indicate that approximately 2 to 5 of every 10,000 young children in the United States have autistic disorder. Boys are about four times more likely to have autistic disorder than girls.
Binet
Binet and his student Theophile Simon developed an intelligence test to meet this request. The test, called the 1905 Scale, consisted of 30 questions on topics ranging from the ability to touch one's ear to the ability to draw designs from memory and define abstract concepts.
debating Piaget's egocentrism
Both the extensive theory of mind research and the recent research on young children's social understanding underscore that young children are not as egocentric as Piaget envisioned (Birch & others, 2017; Decety, Meidenbauer, & Cowell, 2017; Thompson, 2012). Piaget's concept of egocentrism has become so ingrained in people's thinking about young children that too often the current research on social awareness in infancy and early childhood has been overlooked. Research increasingly shows that young children are more socially sensitive and perceptive than was previously envisioned, suggesting that parents and teachers can help them to better understand and interact in the social world by how they interact with them (Thompson, 2015, 2016). If young children are seeking to better understand various mental and emotional states (intentions, goals, feelings, desires) that they know underlie people's actions, then talking with them about these internal states can improve young children's understanding of them
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a technique in which people are encouraged to come up with creative ideas in a group, play off each other's ideas, and say practically whatever comes to mind that seems relevant to a particular issue. Participants are usually told to hold off from criticizing others' ideas at least until the end of the brainstorming session
intrinsic motivation
By contrast, the cognitive approaches stress the importance of intrinsic motivation in achievement (Flannery, 2017; Luyckx & others, 2017; Miele & Scholer, 2016; Ryan & Deci, 2016). Intrinsic motivation is based on internal factors such as self-determination, curiosity, challenge, and effort.
Cardiovascular disease
Cardiovascular disease is uncommon in children. Nonetheless, environmental experiences and behavior in the childhood years can sow the seeds for cardiovascular disease in adulthood (
performance orientation
Children with a performance orientation are focused on achievement outcomes, believing that winning is what matters most and that happiness results from winning. Does this mean that mastery-oriented individuals do not like to win and that performance-oriented individuals are not motivated to experience the self-efficacy that comes from being able to take credit for one's accomplishments? No. A matter of emphasis or degree is involved, though. For mastery-oriented individuals, winning isn't everything; for performance-oriented individuals, skill development and self-efficacy take a backseat to winning.
low vision and educationally blind
Children with low vision have visual acuity of between 20/70 and 20/2000 (on the Snellen scale, in which 20/20 is normal) with corrective lenses. Children with low vision can read with the aid of large-print books or a magnifying glass. Children who are educationally blind cannot use their vision in learning and must use their hearing and touch to learn.
vocab
Children's vocabulary grows from an average of about 14,000 words at 6 years of age to an average of about 40,000 words by 11 years of age.
Constructive play
Constructive play combines sensorimotor/practice play with symbolic representation. Constructive play occurs when children engage in the self-regulated creation of a product or a solution. Constructive play increases in the preschool years as symbolic play increases and sensorimotor play decreases. Constructive play is also a frequent form of play in the elementary school years, both inside and outside the classroom.
Brain Development
Cortical thickening across a two-year time period was observed in the temporal and frontal lobe areas that function in language, which may account for improvements in language abilities such as reading. One shift in activation that occurs as children develop is from diffuse, larger areas to more focal, smaller areas. This shift is characterized by synaptic pruning, in which areas of the brain not being used lose synaptic connections and those being used show increased connections. In one study, researchers found less diffusion and more focal activation in the prefrontal cortex from 7 to 30 years of age
Creative thinking
Creative thinking is the ability to think in novel and unusual ways and to come up with unique solutions to problems.
Critical thinking
Critical thinking involves thinking reflectively and productively, as well as evaluating evidence. In this edition, the "Connect" and "Reflect" questions at the end of each section challenge you to think critically about a topic or an issue related to the discussion.
Culture-fair tests
Culture-fair tests are tests of intelligence that are intended to be free of cultural bias. Two types of culture-fair tests have been devised. The first includes items that are familiar to children from all socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds, or items that at least are familiar to the children taking the test. For example, a child might be asked how a bird and a dog are different, on the assumption that all children have been exposed to birds and dogs. The second type of culture-fair test has no verbal questions.
mastery motivation
Developmental psychologists Valanne Henderson and Carol Dweck (1990) have found that children often show two distinct responses to difficult or challenging circumstances. Individuals who display mastery motivation are task-oriented; they concentrate on learning strategies and the process of achievement rather than focusing on their ability or the intended outcome. Those with a helpless orientation seem trapped by the experience of difficulty, and they attribute their difficulty to lack of ability.
diabetes
Diabetes is one of the most common chronic diseases in children and adolescents. Rates of diabetes in children have increased in the United States and other countries (National Center for Health Statistics, 2017c). In type 1 diabetes, the body produces little or no insulin (the hormone that regulates the body's blood sugar level) (Mitchell, 2017). Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease in which the body's immune system destroys insulin-producing cells. In type 2 diabetes, the most common type of diabetes, the body is able to produce insulin, but the amount may be insufficient or the body's cells may be unable to use it. Risk factors for type 2 diabetes include being overweight and/or physically inactive, having relatives with this disease, or belonging to certain ethnic groups
overweight in child
Diabetes, hypertension (high blood pressure), and elevated blood cholesterol levels are common in children who are overweight Social and psychological consequences of being overweight in childhood include low self-esteem, depression, and some exclusion of obese children from peer groups Many experts recommend a program that involves a combination of diet, exercise, and behavior modification to help children lose weight. Exercise is an extremely important component of a successful weight-loss program for overweight children
Dual-language learning
Dual-language learning—the ability to speak two languages—has a positive effect on children's cognitive development
Nutrition
During middle and late childhood, children's average body weight doubles. Children exert considerable energy as they engage in many different motor activities. To support their growth and active lives, children need to consume more food than they did in early childhood. From 1 to 3 years of age, infants and toddlers should consume about 1,300 calories per day. At 4 to 6 years of age, young children should take in around 1,700 calories per day. From 7 to 10 years of age, children should consume about 2,400 calories per day; however, depending on the child's size, the range of recommended calories for 7- to 10-year-olds is 1,650 to 3,300 per day.
skeletal growth
During the elementary school years, children grow an average of 2 to 3 inches a year until, at the age of 11, the average girl is 4 feet, 9 inches tall, and the average boy is 4 feet, 7¾ inches tall. During the middle and late childhood years, children gain about 5 to 7 pounds a year. The weight increase is due mainly to increases in the size of the skeletal and muscular systems, as well as the size of some body organs
Dyscalculia
Dyscalculia, also known as developmental arithmetic disorder, is a learning disability that involves difficulty in math computation
Dysgraphia
Dysgraphia is a learning disability that involves difficulty in handwriting
Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a category reserved for individuals with a severe impairment in their ability to read and spel
Elaboration
Elaboration is an important strategy that involves engaging in more extensive processing of information. When individuals engage in elaboration, their memory benefits
Ellen Winner
Ellen Winner (1996) described three criteria that characterize gifted children, whether in art, music, or academic domains: Precocity. Gifted children are precocious. They begin to master an area earlier than their peers. Learning in their domain is more effortless for them than for ordinary children. In most instances, these gifted children are precocious because they have an inborn high ability in a particular domain or domains. Marching to their own drummer. Gifted children learn in qualitatively different ways from ordinary children. One way that they march to a different drummer is that they need minimal help, or scaffolding, from adults to learn. In many instances, they resist any kind of explicit instruction. They often make discoveries on their own and solve problems in unique ways. A passion to master. Gifted children are driven to understand the domain in which they have high ability. They display an intense, obsessive interest and an ability to focus. They motivate themselves, says Winner, and do not need to be "pushed" by their parents.
Emotion-coaching parents
Emotion-coaching parents monitor their children's emotions, view their children's negative emotions as opportunities for teaching, assist them in labeling emotions, and coach them in how to deal effectively with emotions Researchers have observed that emotion-coaching parents interact with their children in a less rejecting manner, use more scaffolding and praise, and are more nurturant than are emotion-dismissing parents (Gottman & DeClaire, 1997). Moreover, the children of emotion-coaching parents are better at soothing themselves when they get upset, more effective in regulating their negative affect, focus their attention better, and have fewer behavior problems than the children of Page 282emotion-dismissing parents
Emotional and behavioral disorders
Emotional and behavioral disorders consist of serious, persistent problems that involve relationships, aggression, depression, fears associated with personal or school matters, as well as other inappropriate socioemotional characteristics
sibiling relationships
Emotional quality of the relationship. Both intensive positive and negative emotions are often expressed by siblings toward each other. Many children have mixed feelings toward their siblings. Familiarity and intimacy of the relationship. Siblings typically know each other very well and this intimacy suggests that they can either provide support or tease and undermine each other, depending on the situation. Variation in sibling relationships. Some siblings describe their relationships more positively than others. Thus, there is considerable variation in sibling relationships. Above we saw that many siblings have mixed feelings about each other, but some children mainly describe their sibling in warm, affectionate ways, whereas others primarily talk about how irritating and mean a sibling is.
Empathy
Empathy empathy An affective response to another's feelings with an emotional response that is similar to the other's feelings. is an affective response to another's feelings in which the onlooker's emotional response is similar to the other's feelings (Eisenberg, Spinrad, & Valiente, 2016; Ross, 2017). To empathize is not just to sympathize; it is to put oneself in another's place emotionally.
Initiative versus Guilt (3 to 6 Years)
Erikson's psychosocial stage associated with early childhood is initiative versus guilt. By now, children have become convinced that they are persons of their own; during early childhood they begin to discover what kind of person they will become. They identify intensely with their parents, who most of the time appear to them to be powerful and beautiful, although often unreasonable, disagreeable, and sometimes even dangerous. During early childhood, children use their perceptual, motor, cognitive, and language skills to make things happen.
Freud's theory of moral feelings
Feelings of anxiety and guilt are central to the account of moral development provided by Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory. According to Freud, to reduce anxiety, avoid punishment, and maintain parental affection, children identify with parents, internalizing their standards of right and wrong, and thus form the superego, the moral element of personality. The superego consists of two main components: the ego ideal and the conscience. The ego ideal rewards the child by conveying a sense of pride and personal value when the child acts according to ideal standards approved by the parents. The conscience punishes the child for behaviors disapproved by the parents, making the child feel guilty and worthless.
Fluency disorders
Fluency disorders often involve what is commonly called "stuttering."
Piget's stages of moral reasoning
From 4 to 7 years of age, children display heteronomous morality, the first stage of moral development in Piaget's theory. Children think of justice and rules as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people. From 7 to 10 years of age, children are in a transition, showing some features of the first stage of moral reasoning and some features of the second stage, autonomous morality. From about 10 years of age and older, children show autonomous morality. They become aware that rules and laws are created by people, and, in judging an action, they consider the actor's intentions as well as the consequences.
games
Games are activities that are engaged in for pleasure and that have rules. Often they involve competition. Preschool children may begin to participate in social games that involve simple rules of reciprocity and turn-taking. However, games take on a much more important role in the lives of elementary school children. After age 12, playground and neighborhood games decline in popularity
Gender and Peer Relations
Gender composition of children's groups. Around the age of 3, children already show a preference to spend time with same-sex playmates. From 4 to 12 years of age, this preference for playing in same-sex groups increases, and during the elementary school years children spend a large majority of their free time with children of their own sex (see Figure 1). Group size. From about 5 years of age onward, boys are more likely to congregate in larger clusters than girls are. Boys are also more likely to participate in organized group games than girls are. Interaction in same-sex groups. Boys are more likely than girls to engage in rough-and-tumble play, competition, conflict, ego displays, risk taking, and dominance seeking. By contrast, girls are more likely to engage in "collaborative discourse," in which they talk and act in a more reciprocal manner. A recent study of preschool children (average age: 4 years) found that children selected playmates of the same sex who engaged in similar levels of gender-typed activities
Intellectual disability
Intellectual disability is a condition of limited mental ability in which the individual (1) has a low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional intelligence test; (2) has difficulty adapting to the demands of everyday life; and (3) first exhibits these characteristics by age 18 student who suffers massive brain damage in a car accident, resulting in an IQ of 60, as having an "intellectual disability."
Gardner's Eight Frames of Mind
Howard Gardner (1983, 1993, 2002, 2016) suggests that there are eight types of intelligence, or "frames of mind." These are described here, with examples of the types of occupations in which they function as strengths (Campbell, Campbell, & Dickinson, 2004): Verbal: the ability to think in words and use language to express meaning (occupations: authors, journalists, speakers) Mathematical: the ability to carry out mathematical operations (occupations: scientists, engineers, accountants) Spatial: the ability to think three-dimensionally (occupations: architects, artists, sailors) Bodily-kinesthetic: the ability to manipulate objects and be physically adept (occupations: surgeons, craftspeople, dancers, athletes) Musical: a sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone (occupations: composers, musicians, sensitive listeners) Interpersonal: the ability to understand and interact effectively with others (occupations: successful teachers, mental health professionals) Intrapersonal: the ability to understand oneself (occupations: theologians, psychologists) Naturalist: the ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural and human-made systems (occupations: farmers, botanists, ecologists, landscapers)
Public Law 94-142 and IDEA
In 1975, Public Law 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, required that all students with disabilities be given a free, appropriate public education and be provided the funding to help implement this education. In 1990, Public Law 94-142 was recast as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). IDEA was amended in 1997 and then reauthorized in 2004 and renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act. IDEA spells out broad mandates for providing services to all children with disabilities (Cook & Richardson-Gibbs, 2018; Heward, Alber-Morgan, & Konrad, 2017). These include evaluation and eligibility determination, appropriate education and an individualized education plan (IEP), and education in the least restrictive environment (LRE)
self-understanding
In Erikson's portrait of early childhood, the young child clearly has begun to develop self-understanding, which is the representation of self, the substance and content of self-conceptions
Ross Thompson's view
In Ross Thompson's (2006) view, young children are moral apprentices, striving to understand what is moral. They can be assisted in this quest by the "sensitive guidance of adult mentors in the home who provide lessons about morality in everyday experiences" (Thompson, Meyer, & McGinley, 2006, p. 290). An important parenting strategy is to proactively avert potential misbehavior by children before it takes place (Thompson, Meyer, & McGinley, 2006). With younger children, being proactive means using diversion, such as distracting their attention or moving them to alternative activities. With older children, being proactive may involve talking with them about values that the parents deem important. Transmitting these values can help older children and adolescents to resist the temptations that inevitably emerge in contexts such as peer relations and media exposure beyond the scope of direct parental monitoring.
IEP (Individualized Education Plan)
In general, the IEP should be (1) related to the child's learning capacity, (2) specially constructed to meet the child's individual needs and not merely a copy of what is offered to other children, and (3) designed to provide educational benefits.
Individual differences
Individual differences are the stable, consistent ways in which people are different from each other (Sackett & others, 2017). We can talk about individual differences in personality or any other domain, but it is in the domain of intelligence that the most attention has been directed at individual difference
Indulgent parenting
Indulgent parenting is a style in which parents are highly involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them. Such parents let their children do what they want. The result is that the children never learn to control their own behavior and always expect to get their way. Some parents deliberately rear their children in this way because they believe the combination of warm involvement and few restraints will produce a creative, confident child.
Accidents and Injuries
Injuries are the leading cause of death during middle and late childhood. The most common cause of severe injury and death during this period is motor vehicle accidents, either as a pedestrian or as a passenger
LRE (Least Restrictive Environment)
LRE, a setting as similar as possible to the one in which children who do not have a disability are educated. And schools must make an effort to educate children with a disability in the regular classroom. The term inclusion means educating a child with special educational needs full-time in the regular classroom
hearing impairment
Many hearing-impaired children receive supplementary instruction beyond that of the regular classroom (Hall, 2014). Educational approaches for children with hearing impairments fall into two categories: oral and manual (Hoskin & Herman, 2001): Oral approaches include using lip reading, speech reading (relying on visual cues to teach reading), and use of whatever hearing the child has. Manual approaches involve sign language and finger spelling. Sign language is a system of hand movements that symbolize words. Finger spelling consists of "spelling out" each word by placing the hand in different positions.
self-description
Many young children's self-descriptions are typically unrealistically positive, as reflected in the comment of the 4-year-old above who says he is always happy, which he is not (Harter, 2006, 2012, 2016). This optimism occurs because they don't yet distinguish between their desired competence and their actual competence, tend to confuse ability and effort (thinking that differences in ability can be changed as easily as can differences in effort), don't engage in spontaneous social comparison of their abilities with those of others, and tend to compare their present abilities with what they could do at an earlier age (which usually makes them look quite good).
Neglectful parenting
Neglectful parenting is a style in which the parent is uninvolved in the child's life. Children whose parents are neglectful develop the sense that other aspects of their parents' lives are more important than they are. These children tend to be socially incompetent. Many have poor self-control and don't handle independence well. They frequently have low self-esteem, are immature, and may be alienated from the family. In adolescence, they may show patterns of truancy and delinquency.
Neo-Piagetians
Neo-Piagetians argue that Piaget got some things right but that his theory needs considerable revision. They place greater emphasis on how children use attention, memory, and strategies to process information. According to neo-Piagetians, a more accurate portrayal of children's thinking requires attention to children's strategies, the speed at which children process information, the particular task involved, and the division of problems into smaller, more precise steps.
Disabilities
Of all children in the United States, 12.9 percent from 3 to 21 years of age received special education or related services in 2012-2013, an increase of 3 percent since 1980-1981 students with a learning disability were by far the largest group of students with a disability to be given special education, followed by children with speech or language impairments, autism, intellectual disabilities, and emotional disturbance.
Organic intellectual disability
Organic intellectual disability describes a genetic disorder or a lower level of intellectual functioning caused by brain damage. Down syndrome is one form of organic intellectual disability, and it occurs when an extra chromosome is present. Other causes of organic intellectual disability include fragile X syndrome, an abnormality in the X chromosome that was discussed in "Biological Beginnings"; prenatal malformation; metabolic disorders; and diseases that affect the brain. Most people who suffer from organic intellectual disability have IQs between 0 and 50.
gifted
People who are gifted have above-average intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something.
overweight children
Recall that being overweight is defined in terms of body mass index (BMI), which is computed by a formula that takes into account height and weight. Also, children at or above the 95th percentile of BMI are included in the overweight category, Page 322whereas children at or above the 85th percentile are described as at risk for being overweight (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017). Over the last three decades, the percentage of U.S. children who are at risk for being overweight has increased dramatically. Recently there has been a decrease in the percentage of 2- to 5-year-old children who are obese, which dropped from 12.1 percent in 2009-2010 to 9.4 percent in 2013-2014 (Ogden & others, 2016). In 2013-2014, 17.4 percent of 6- to 11-year-old U.S. children were classified as obese, which is essentially unchanged from 2009-2010
types of child maltreatment
Physical abuse is characterized by the infliction of physical injury as a result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, burning, shaking, or otherwise physically harming a child. The parent or other person may not have intended to hurt the child; the injury may have resulted from excessive physical punishment (Lo & others, 2017; Villodas & others, 2016). Child neglect is characterized by failure to provide for the child's basic needs. Neglect can be physical (abandonment, for example), educational (allowing chronic truancy, for example), or emotional (marked inattention to the child's needs, for example) (Naughton & others, 2017). Page 294Child neglect is by far the most common form of child maltreatment. In every country where relevant data have been collected, neglect occurs up to three times more often than abuse (O'Hara & others, 2017). Sexual abuse includes fondling a child's genitals, intercourse, incest, rape, sodomy, exhibitionism, and commercial exploitation through prostitution or the production of pornographic materials (Daigneault & others, 2017; Mathews, Lee, & Norman, 2016). Emotional abuse (psychological/verbal abuse/mental injury) includes acts or omissions by parents or other caregivers that have caused, or could cause, serious behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems
Physical disorders
Physical disorders in middle and late childhood include orthopedic impairments such as cerebral palsy. Many children with physical disorders require special education as well as related services. The related services may include transportation, physical therapy, school health services, and psychological services. Orthopedic impairments involve restricted movement or lack of control over movement due to muscle, bone, or joint problems. The severity of problems ranges widely. Orthopedic impairments can be caused by prenatal or perinatal problems, or they can result from diseases or accidents during the childhood years. With the help of adaptive devices and medical technology, many children with orthopedic impairments function well in the classroom (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2015; Lewis, Wheeler, & Carter, 2017). Cerebral palsy is a disorder that involves a lack of muscular coordination, shaking, and unclear speech. The most common cause of cerebral palsy is lack of oxygen at birth (O'Callaghan & others, 2013). In the most common type of cerebral palsy, which is called spastic, children's muscles are stiff and difficult to move. The rigid muscles often pull the limbs into contorted positions. In a less common type, ataxia, children's muscles are rigid one moment and floppy the next moment, making movements clumsy and jerky.
social understanding (piaget)
Piaget emphasized that this social understanding comes about through the mutual give-and-take of peer relations.
concrete operational stage
Piaget proposed that the concrete operational stage lasts from approximately 7 to 11 years of age. In this stage, children can perform concrete operations, and they can reason logically as long as they can apply their reasoning to specific or concrete examples. Remember that operations are mental actions that are reversible, and concrete operations are operations that are applied to real, concrete objects.
play
Play is a pleasurable activity that is engaged in for its own sake, and its functions and forms vary.
Practice play
Practice play involves the repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when physical or mental mastery and coordination of skills are required for games or sports. Sensorimotor play, which often involves practice play, is primarily confined to infancy, whereas practice play can be engaged in throughout life. During the preschool years, children often engage in practice play. Although practice play declines in the elementary school years, practice play activities such as running, jumping, sliding, twirling, and throwing balls or other objects are frequently observed on the playgrounds at elementary schools.
Pretense/symbolic play
Pretense/symbolic play pretense/symbolic play occurs when the child transforms aspects of the physical environment into symbols. Between 9 and 30 months of age, children increase their use of objects in symbolic play. They learn to transform objects—substituting them for other objects and acting toward them as if they were these other objects (Edmiston, 2017; Hakkarainen, Bredikyte, & Safarov, 2017; Taggart, Eisen, & Lillard, 2018). For example, a preschool child treats a table as if it were a car and says, "I'm fixing the car," as he grabs a leg of the table.
self-conscious emotions
Pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt are examples of self-conscious emotions. Self-conscious emotions do not appear to develop until self-awareness appears around 18 months of age.
improving memory
Repeat with variation on the instructional information and link early and often. These are memory development research expert Patricia Bauer's (2009) recommendations to improve children's consolidation and reconsolidation of the information they are learning. Variations on a lesson theme increase the number of associations in memory storage, and linking expands the network of associations in memory storage; both strategies expand the routes for retrieving information from storage. Embed memory-relevant language when instructing children. Teachers vary considerably in how much they use memory-relevant language that encourages students to remember information. In recent research that involved extensive observations of a number of first-grade teachers in the classroom, Peter Ornstein and his colleagues (Ornstein, Grammer, & Coffman, 2010; Ornstein, Coffman, & Grammer, 2007; Ornstein & others, 2010) found that in the time segments observed, the teachers rarely used strategy suggestions or metacognitive (thinking about thinking) questions. In this research, when lower-achieving students were placed in classrooms in which teachers were categorized as "high-mnemonic teachers" who frequently embedded memory-relevant information in their teaching, their achievement increased
triarchic theory of intelligence,
Robert J. Sternberg developed the triarchic theory of intelligence,which states that intelligence comes in three forms: Analytical intelligence, referring to the ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast Creative intelligence, consisting of the ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine Practical intelligence, involving the ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice
Sensorimotor play
Sensorimotor play is behavior by infants to derive pleasure from exercising their sensorimotor schemes. The development of sensorimotor play follows Piaget's description of sensorimotor thought. Infants initially engage in exploratory and playful visual and motor transactions in the second quarter of the first year of life. For example, at 9 months of age, infants begin to select novel objects for exploration and play, especially responsive objects such as toys that make noise or bounce. At 12 months of age, infants enjoy making things work and exploring cause and effect.
Sensory disorders
Sensory disorders include visual and hearing impairments. Sometimes these impairments are described as part of a larger category called "communication disorders" that also encompasses speech and language disorders.
Mindset (Dweck)
She concludes that individuals have one of two mindsets: (1) a fixed mindset, in which they believe that their qualities are carved in stone and cannot change; or (2) a growth mindset, in which they believe their qualities can change and improve through their effort. A fixed mindset is similar to a helpless orientation; a growth mindset is much like having a mastery motivation.
long-term memory
Short-term memory increases considerably during early childhood but after the age of 7 does not show as great an increase. Long-term memory, a relatively permanent and unlimited type of memory, increases with age during middle and late childhood. In part, improvements in memory reflect children's increased knowledge and their increased use of strategies to retain information (
working memory
Short-term memory is like a passive storehouse with shelves to store information until it is moved to long-term memory. Alan Baddeley (2007, 2010a, b, 2012, 2013, 2015) defines working memory as a kind of mental "workbench" where individuals manipulate and assemble information when they make decisions, solve problems, and comprehend written and spoken language (see Figure 2). Working memory is described as more active and powerful in modifying information than short-term memory.
Stimulant medication ADHD
Stimulant medication such as Ritalin (methylphenidate) or Adderall (amphetamine and dextroamphetamine) is effective in improving the attention of many children with ADHD, but it usually does not improve their attention to the same level as children who do not have ADHD (Brams, Mao, & Doyle, 2009). A recent research review also concluded that stimulant medications are effective in treating ADHD during the short term but that longer-term benefits of stimulant medications are not clear
WISC-V
The WISC-V now not only provides an overall IQ score but also yields five composite scores (Verbal Comprehension, Working Memory, Processing Speed, Fluid Reasoning, and Page 354Visual Spatial) (Canivez, Watkins, & Dombowski, 2017). These allow the examiner to quickly see whether the individual is strong or weak in different areas of intelligence. The Wechsler also include 16 verbal and nonverbal subscales. Three of the Wechsler subscales are shown i
extrinsic motivation
The behavioral approach emphasizes the importance of extrinsic motivation, which involves external incentives such as rewards and punishments
Immanent justice (Piaget)
The heteronomous thinker also believes in immanent justice, the concept that if a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately. The young child believes that a violation is connected automatically to its punishment. Thus, young children often look around worriedly after doing something wrong, expecting inevitable punishment. Immanent justice also implies that if something unfortunate happens to someone, the person must have transgressed earlier. Older children are moral autonomists—that is, they recognize that punishment occurs only if someone witnesses the wrongdoing and that, even then, punishment is not inevitable.
screen time
The length of real-world time required to display a piece of video.
social cognitive approach
The social cognitive approach provides an alternative explanation of how children develop gender-typed behavior. According to the social cognitive theory of gender, children's gender development occurs through observing and imitating what other people say and do, and through being rewarded and punished for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior
hormones play a key role in the development of sex differences
The two main classes of sex hormones are estrogens and androgens, which are secreted by the gonads (ovaries in females, testes in males). Estrogens, such as estradiol, influence the development of female physical sex characteristics. Androgens, such as testosterone, promote the development of male physical sex characteristics. Sex hormones also can influence children's socioemotional development.
verbatim memory trace
The verbatim memory trace consists of the precise details of the information, whereas gist refers to the central idea of the information. When gist is used, fuzzy traces are built up. Although individuals of all ages extract gist, young children tend to store and retrieve verbatim traces. At some point during the early elementary school years, children begin to use gist more and, according to the theory, its use contributes to the improved memory and reasoning of older children because fuzzy traces are more enduring and less likely to be forgotten than verbatim traces.
play therapy
Therapists use play therapy both to allow the child to work off frustrations and to analyze the child's conflicts and ways of coping with them
subtractive dual-language learning
This subtractive dual-language learning can have negative effects on children, who often become ashamed of their home language.
flynn affect
This worldwide increase in intelligence test scores over a short time frame is called the Flynn effect after the researcher who discovered it—James Flyn
Perspective talking
To understand others, it is necessary to take their perspective. Perspective taking is the social cognitive process involved in assuming the perspective of others and understanding their thoughts and feelings. Executive function is at work in perspective taking (Galinsky, 2010). Among the executive functions called on when young children engage in perspective taking are cognition inhibition (controlling one's own thoughts to consider the perspectives of others) and cognitive flexibility (seeing situations in different ways).
Corporal (physical) punishment
Use of corporal (physical) punishment is legal in every state in the United States. banned in 41 countries
Voice disorders
Voice disorders are reflected in speech that is hoarse, harsh, too loud, too high-pitched, or too low-pitched.
cultural-familial intellectual disability
When no evidence of organic brain damage can be found, cases are labeled cultural-familial intellectual disability. Individuals with this type of disability have IQs between 55 and 70. Psychologists suspect that this type of disability often results from growing up in a below-average intellectual environment. Children with this type of disability can be identified in schools, where they often fail, need tangible rewards (candy rather than praise), and are highly sensitive to what others expect of them. However, as adults, they are usually not noticeably different from others, perhaps because adult settings don't tax their cognitive skills as sorely. It may also be that they increase their intelligence as they move toward adulthood.
autobiographical memory
autobiographical memory involves memory of significant events and experiences in one's life
central executive,
central executive, which supervises and controls the flow of information.
divergent thinking
divergent thinking, which produces many different answers to the same question and characterizes creativity
emotion-dismissing parents
emotion-dismissing parents view their role as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions.
training parents
he style of parenting used by many Asian American parents, which she calls training parents, is distinct from the domineering control of the authoritarian style.
intelligence
intelligence as problem-solving skills and the ability to learn from and adapt to life's everyday experiences.
intelligence quotient (IQ)
intelligence quotient (IQ), a person's mental age (MA) divided by chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100. That is: IQ = MA/CA × 100.
evolutionary psychology, adaptation during human evolution produced psychological differences between males and females
males will pass on their genes, natural selection favored males who adopted short-term mating strategies. These are strategies that allow a male to win the competition with other males for sexual access to females. In contrast, according to evolutionary psychologists, females' contributions to the gene pool were improved when they secured resources that ensured that their offspring would survive; this outcome was promoted by obtaining long-term mates who could provide their offspring with resources and protection
mental age (MA)
mental age (MA), an individual's level of mental development relative to that of others
metalinguistic awareness
metalinguistic awareness, which is knowledge about language, such as knowing what a preposition is or being able to discuss the sounds of a language
metamemory
metamemory, or knowledge about memory. This includes general knowledge about memory, such as knowing that recognition tests are easier than recall tests. It also encompasses knowledge about one's own memory, such as a student's ability to monitor whether she has studied enough for a test that is coming up next week.
gender identity
our sense of being male or female
phonics approach
phonics approach emphasizes that reading instruction should teach basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds. Early phonics-centered reading instruction should involve simplified materials. Only after children have learned correspondence rules that relate spoken phonemes to the alphabet letters that are used to represent them should they be given complex reading materials, such as books and poems
provide environments that stimulate creativity
provide environments that stimulate creativity. Some environments nourish creativity, while others inhibit it
psychoanalytic theory of gender
psychoanalytic theory of gender stems from Freud's view that the preschool child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent. This is the process known as the Oedipus complex (for boys) or Electra complex (for girls).
Metacognition
schools should do more to develop metacognition, which is cognition about cognition, or knowing about knowing Conceptualization of metacognition consists of several dimensions of executive function, such as planning (deciding how much time to spend focusing on a task, for example), self-regulation (modifying strategies as work on a task progresses, for example) (McCormick, Dimmitt, & Sullivan, 2013), or a child's confidence in eyewitness judgments
self-efficacy
self-efficacy—the belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes—is an important cognitive view for children to develop. Albert Bandura (2004, 2012, 2015), whose social cognitive theory was discussed earlier, emphasizes that self-efficacy is a critical factor in whether or not students achieve. Self-efficacy has much in common with mastery motivation and intrinsic motivation. Self-efficacy is the belief that Page 371"I can"; helplessness is the belief that "I cannot"
seriation
seriation, which is the ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension (such as length).
gender roles
sets of behavioral norms assumed to accompany one's status as male or female
social play
social play involves interaction with peers. Social play increases dramatically during the preschool years. For many children, social play is the main context for social interactions with peers
social role theory
social role theory, which states that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of women and men. In most cultures around the world, women have less power and status than men, and they control fewer resources
strategies
strategies, which consist of deliberate mental activities to improve the processing of information. For example, organizing is a strategy that older children, adolescents, and adults use to remember information more effectively. Strategies do not occur automatically; they require effort and work. Strategies, which are also called control processes, are under the learner's conscious control and can be used to improve memory. Two important strategies are creating mental images and elaborating on information
sustained attention
sustained attention is the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time. Sustained attention requires effort, and as individuals develop through childhood and adolescence, school tasks, projects, and work become more complex and require longer periods of sustained attention, effort, and task persistence than in childhood.
gender typing
the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
Transitivity
transitivity, which is the ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions. In this case, consider three sticks (A, B, and C) of differing lengths.