CH 5: Theories of Motivation at Work

Motivation

The desire to achieve a goal or certain performance level, leading to goal-directed behavior. Motivation is clearly important if someone is to perform well, however, it is not sufficient on its own. Being motivated is not the same as being a high performer and is not the sole reason why people perform well, but is a key influence over our performance level.

Effective discipline

- Consider whether punishment is the most effective way to modify behavior - Be sure that the punishment fits the crime - Be consistent in your treatment of employees - Document the behavior in question - Be timely with discipline

Motivation and ethics

- The desire to fit in and belong may motivate employees to engage in unethical actions as a way to gain status and belonging in a group. As long as unethical behavior is followed by positive consequences for the person in question, we would expect unethical behavior to continue. To min unethical behavior, it is important to examine the rewards an punishments that follow unethical behavior and remove rewards following unethical behavior while increasing the severity and likelihood of punishment.

How to be a fair person

- When distributing rewards, pay attention to different contribution levels of employees - Sometimes you may have to disregard people'S contributions to distribute certain rewards - Pay attention to how you make decisions - Pay attention to how you talk to people - Remember that justice is in the eye of the beholder - People do not care only about their own justice level

Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod)

A systematic application of reinforcement theory to modify employee behaviors in the workplace. Stages of organizational behavior modification: 1) Identify behavior to be modified 2) Measure the baseline level 3) Analyze its antecedents and outcomes 4) Intervene 5) Evaluate and maintain

Equity theory (process based theory)

According to this theory, individuals are motivated by a sense of fairness to their interactions. Our sense of fairness is a result of the social comparisons we make. Specifically, we compare out inputs and outcomes with other peoples inputs and outcomes. We perceive fairness if we believe that the input-to-out one ratio we are brining into the situation is similar to the input-to-outcome ratio of a comparison person, or a referent (a person w compare ourselves to in equity theory). Perceptions of inequity create tension within us and drive us to action that will reduce perceived inequity. In other words, our bruins react in a way that shows discomfort when rewards are distributed in a way that violates equity theory. What are inputs and outcomes? contributions people feel they are making to the environment. A person's hard work, loyalty to the organization; amount of time with the organization; and level of education, training, and skills may have been relevant inputs. Outputs are perceived reward someone can receive from the situation (ex: pay rate). A different people may look at the same situation and perceive different levels of equity. Referent: individual compare themselves to someone performing similar tasks within the same organization or, in the case of a CEO, a different organization. Equity sensitivity: a personality trait that explains different reactions to inequity. Benevolent: Individuals who give without waiting to receive much in return. Entitleds: Individuals who expect to receive a lot without giving much in return. This theory is more useful in explaining behavior of equity-sensitive individuals, and organizations will need to pay particular attention to how these individuals view their relationships.

Expectancy theory

Argues that individual motivation to put forth more or less effort is determined by a rational calculation in which individuals evaluate their situation. According to this theory, individuals ask themselves three questions: 1) Expectancy: will my effort lead to high performance? 2) Instrumentality: will performance lead to outcomes? 3) Valence: do I find the outcomes desirable? Influencing expectancy perceptions: employees may not believe that their effort leads to high performance for a multitude of reasons. First, they may not have the skills, knowledge, or abilities to successfully perform their jobs. Second, low levels of expectancy may be because employees may feel that something other than effort predicts performance, such as political behaviors on the part of employees. if employees believe that the work environment is not conductive to performing well, expectancy will suffer. Clearing the path to performance and creating an environment in which employees do not feel restricted will be helpful. Influencing instrumentality perceptions: Connect pay and other rewards to performance busing bonuses, award systems, and merit pay. Publicizing any contests or award programs is needs to bring rewards to the awareness of employees. it is important to highlight that performance is being rewarded, and not something else, is being rewarded. Influencing valence: employees are more likely to be motivated if they find the reward to be attractive. This process involves managers finding what their employees value. Desirable rewards tend to be fair and satisfy different employees diverging needs. Ensuring high valence involves getting to know a company's employees through surveys and giving employees a choice between multiple rewards may be a good idea to increase valence. Ways managers can influence: Expectancy: make sure employees have proper skills, abilities, and knowledge. Ensure that the environment facilitates performance. Provide encouragement to make people believe that their effort makes a difference. Instrumentality: reward employee performance, inform people in advance about the rewards, try to eliminate non-performance influence over rewards. Valence: find rewards that are desirable to employees, make sure that the rewards are reviewed as fair. Give employees choice over rewards.

Maslow's Hierarchy or Needs (need based theory)

Based on a simple premise: human beings have needs that are hierarchically ranked. There are some needs that are basic to all human beings, and in their absence, other needs are not even thought about. As we satisfy these basic needs, we start looking to satisfy higher-order needs. Once a lower-level need is satisfied, it no longer serves as a motivator. 1) Self actualization: morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts 2) Self esteem: self esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others, respected by others 3) Love and belonging: friendship, family, sexual intimacy, sense of connection 4) Safety and security: security of body, employment, resources, morality, family, health, property 5) Physiological needs: breathing, food, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretion Understanding what people need goes us clues to understanding them. (5.3) How can an organization satisfy its employees various needs? In the long run, physiological needs may be satisfied by a paycheck, but that may also satisfy other needs such as safety and self esteem. Social needs may be satisfied by having a friendly environment and providing a workplace conductive to collaboration and communication with others. Providing promotional opportunities at work, recognizing a person's accomplishments verbally are ways to satisfy esteem needs. Finally, self actualization needs may be satisfied by the provision of development and growth opportunities on or off the job, as well as by work is that is interesting and challenging. By making an effort to satisfy the different needs of each employee, organizations may ensure a highly motivated workforce.

Acquired-needs theory (need based theory)

David McClelland's theory is one that received the greatest amount of support. According to this theory, individuals acquired three types of needs as a result of their life experiences. 1) achievement 2) affiliation 3) power All individuals possess a combination of these needs, and the dominant needs are thought to drive employee behavior. Using Thematic apperception test to assess the dominant need. Entails present research subjects with an ambiguous picture and asking them to write a story based on it. Those who have nigh need for achievement: having a strong need to be successful. As children they may have been praised for their hard work, which formed foundations for their persistence. Particularly suited to positions such as sales, where there are explicit goals, feedback is immediately available, and their effort often leads to success. More attracted to organizations that are merit based and reward performance rather than seniority. Also do well as entrepreneurs, scientists, and engineers. Need for achievement has significant disadvantages in management positions. They may view managerial activities such as coaching, communicating, and meeting with subordinates as a waste of time and may neglect these aspects of their jobs. They like doing the=inns themselves and may find it difficult to delegate any meaningful authority to their subordinates. These individuals often micromanage, expecting others to approach tasks a particular way, and may become overbearing bosses by expecting everyone to display high levels of dedication. Those who have need for affiliation: want to be liked and accepted by others. When given a choice, they prefer to interact with others and be with friends. Their emphasis on harmonious interpersonal relationships may be an advantage in jobs and occupations requiring frequent interpersonal interaction, such as social worker, or teacher. May serve as a disadvantage in a managerial position because they are overly concerned about how others perceive them. May find it difficult to perform aspects of a managers job such as giving employees critical feedback or disciplining poor performers. Work environment may be characterized by mediocrity and may lead to high performers leaving the team. Those who have a need for power: want to influence others and control their environment. May be a destructive element in relationships with colleagues if it takes the form of seeking and using power for one's own good and prestige. When it manifests in more altruistic forms such as changing the way things are done so that the work environment is more positive, or negotiating more resources for one's department it tends to lead to positive outcomes. The needs for power is viewed as an important trait for effectiveness in managerial and leadership positions.

Environmental

External factors that affect performance. Factors such as having resources, information, and support one needs to perform well are critical to determine performance.

Motivation around the globe

Factors that motivate employees in different cultures may not be equivalent.

Ability

Having the skills and knowledge required to perform the job and is sometimes the key determinant of effectiveness.

Two-factor theory (need based theory)

Herzberg labeled factors casting worker satisfaction as "hygiene" factors because these factors were part of the context in which the job was performed, as opposed to the job itself. Hygiene factors: factors that are extrinsic to the job, such as company policies and working conditions. Ex: if you are working in an unpleasant work environment, or if you are being mistreated and harassed, you are likely to be miserable. However, if these problems were solved, would you be motivated? Most likely, you would take the situation for granted. In fact, many factors in our work environment are things that we miss when they are absent, but take for granted if they are present. Motivators: factors that are intrinsic to the job such as achievement, recognition, interesting work, increased responsibilities, advancement, and growth opportunities. Motivators are the conditions that truly motivate employees. Think of hygiene factors as those factors that create contentment, whereas motivators are those factors that create high levels of engagement at work. Hygiene factors: company policy, supervision and relationships, working conditions, salary, security. Motivators: achievement, recognition, interesting work, increased responsibility, advancement and growth Downside: The classification of the factors as hygiene of motivator is not that simple. For example, the theory views pay as a hygiene factor - however, pay often has symbolic value by showing employees that they are being recognized for their contributions has well as communicating that they are advancing within the company. Similarly, the quality of supervision or the types of relationships employees form with their supervisors may determine whether they are assigned interesting work, whether they are recognized for their potential, and whether they take on more responsibilities.

ERG Theory (need based theory)

Modification of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Instead of the five needs that are hierarchically organized, Alderfer proposed that basic human needs may be grouped together under three categories: 1) existence 2) relatedness 3) growth ERG theory does not rank needs in any particular order and explicitly recognizes that one needs may operate at any given time. Theory also has a "frustration-regression" hypothesis suggesting that individuals who are frustrated in their attempts to satisfy one need may regress to another. Ex: someone who is frustrated by growth opportunities I his job and progress toward career goals may regress to relatedness need and start spending more time socializing with coworkers. The implication to this theory is that we need to recognize the multiple needs that may be driving individuals at a given point to understand their behavior and properly motivate them.

Three factors of job performance

Motivation, ability, and environment are the major influences over employee performance

Extrinsic motivation

Performing an activity because it is related to desirable outcomes such as financial rewards, status, or approval from others. When we do something for money we may enjoy it less.

Intrinsic motivation

Pursuing an activity because it is inherently enjoyable and absent of apparent rewards.

Intrinsic/extrinsic research

Research shows that: a) when individuals are intrinsically motivated, they tend to perform well b) when there are indirect rewards for performance, performance was largely a function of intrinsic motivation c) when there are direct rewards for performance, the importance of intrinsic motivation lessened, and rewards became a more powerful predictor of performance d) having rewards did not reduce intrinsic motivation, and in fact, increased it. Intrinsic motivation mattered more for performance quality, whereas external rewards mattered more for performance quality. These results suggest that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation matter for understanding employee performance.

Procedural justice

The degree to which fair decision-making procedures are used to arrive at a decision. Ex: you just found out you are getting a promotion with pay raise, increased responsibility, and prestige. If you feel that you deserve to be promoted, you would perceive high distributive justice (your getting promotion is fair). However, you later found out upper management chose you because your father is inn the city council. You might still like the outcome but feel that the decision-making process was unfair. When do people care about procedural justice? There are three potential all reasons: 1) people tend to believe that fairness is an end in itself and it is the right thing to do. 2) Fair processes guarantee future rewards. if the selection system is biased, you have no control over the process, and there is no guarantee that you will get future promotions. If the procedures are fair, you are more likely to believe that things will work out in the future. 3) Fairness communicates that the organization values its employees and cares about their well-being. How to achieve procedural justice? 1) Giving employees advance notice before laying them off, firing them, or disciplining them Is perceived as fair. 2) Allowing employees voice in decision making is also important. When designing performance-appraisal system or implementing a reorganization - ask people, for their input because it increase perception of fairness. 3) Consistency: If one person is given extra time taking a test while another Is not, individuals would perceive decision making as unfair.

Interactional Justice

The degree to which people are treated with respect, kindness, and dignity in interpersonal interactions. We expect to be treated with dignity by our peers, supervisors, and customers. When the opposite happens, we feel angry.

Distributive justice

The degree to which the outcomes received from the organization are fair. Two other types of fairness have been identified: procedural justice and interactional justice. Paying attention to justice perceptions leads to outcomes companies care about. Injustice is directly harmful to employees psychological health and well-being and contributes to stress and depression. High levels of justice create higher levels of employment to organizations, and they are related to higher job performance, higher levels of organizational citizenship (behaviors that are not part of one's job description but help the organization in other ways, such as speaking positively about the company and helping others), and higher levels of customer satisfaction. Low levels of justice lead to retaliation and support of unionization.

Reinforcement interventions

This theory describes four interventions to modify employee behavior. Two of these are methods of increasing the frequency of desired behaviors, while the remaining two are methods of reducing the frequency of undesired behaviors. Positive reinforcement: positive behavior followed by positive consequences (manager praises employee). Negative reinforcement: Positive behavior followed by removal of negative consequences (manager stops nagging the employee) Punishment: Negative behavior followed by negative consequences (manager demotes the employee) Extinction: Negative behavior followed by removal of positive consequences (manager ignores behavior) In addition to types of reinforcements, researchers have focused their attention on schedules of reinforcement as well: 1) continuous schedule: when reinforcers follow all instances of positive behavior. (Ex. Giving an employee a sales commission every time they make a sale. Often impractical) 2) Fixed interval schedules: involve providing rewards after a specified amount of time (Ex. End of the year bonuses) 3) Fixed-ratio schedules: providing rewards every time the right behavior is demonstrated. (Ex. Giving the employee a bonus for every tenth sale he makes). 4) Variable ratio: involves providing reinforcement in a random pattern, such as praising the employee occasionally when the person shows up on time. In the case of continuous schedules, behavioral change is more temporary. Once the reward is withdrawn, the person may stop performing the desired behavior. The most durable results occur under variable ratios, but there is also evidence that continuous schedules produce higher performance than do variable schedules.

Motivation and tech

Unfairness is a key demotivating. When organizations incorporate tech in their decision making, they may be love that they are combating biases inherent in humans. However, tech has the potential to be unfair due to algorithms calculating past decisions. On the positive side, organizations are using tech and principles of gaming to motivate their employees to perform at a higher level, or expand their skills. has potential to support teamwork, increase workplace engagement, and introduce an element of fun into the workplace.