ch 6
Ryan receives a scolding from his mother every time he picks his nose. Fearing retribution, Ryan hesitates to pick his nose whenever his mother is present with him. In this scenario, Ryan is demonstrating
operant conditioning.
Which of the following scenarios exemplifies a fixed mindset in the context of psychological constraints in learning?
Alan does not think he has academic abilities, so he abandons the idea of going to college.
Which of the following is true of continuous reinforcement in operant conditioning?
In continuous reinforcement, a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.
In the context of operant conditioning, identify a true statement about negative reinforcement.
It has nothing to do with "good" and "bad" behavior.
Identify a true statement about classical conditioning.
It is a form of respondent behavior, behavior that occurs in automatic response to a stimulus and later to a conditioned stimulus.
Identify a true statement about classical conditioning.
It is a learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.
In the context of classical conditioning, which of the following statements is true of habituation?
It refers to the decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations.
In the context of Pavlov's studies on classical conditioning, which of the following statements is true of contingency?
It refers to the information value of a conditioned stimulus relative to an unconditioned stimulus.
Which of the following statements is true of unconditioned responses?
They are involuntary.
Which of the following statements is true of unconditioned stimuli?
They produce a response without prior learning.
Jenny received a lot of praise in class when she was the only one who did her homework on time. As a result, Jenny has never had to be reminded to do her homework; she always submits it on time. In this scenario, Jenny's behavior illustrates
Thorndike's law of effect.
Grayson's dog salivates whenever he hears the refrigerator door open because he is accustomed to receiving food each time anyone opens it. Grayson tries an experiment with his dog. Over the next few days, Grayson does not give his dog any food when he opens the refrigerator door, even though he knows the dog expects it. As a result, the dog stops salivating when the refrigerator door is opened. Grayson's dog's behavior best illustrates ________ in classical conditioning.
extinction
Mark, a high school student, dislikes the fact that his mother yells at him in the morning to wake him up. His mother usually wakes up at 5:30 a.m., and he tries to wake up at around 5:15 a.m. to avoid listening to his mother's yelling. In the context of operant conditioning, which of the following is exemplified in this scenario?
negative reinforcement
The dog becomes a conditioned stimulus after it bites John.
positive punishment
Which of the following best exemplifies a reflex?
A man salivates while watching a chef fry a sausage.
________ is a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.
Learning
Which of the following scenarios best illustrates Tolman's views on purposive behavior
Mike works hard all through the week because he expects to get paid on Friday.
Identify the accurate statement about operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning is a form of associative learning.
Observational learning is different from the associative learning described by behaviorism because observational learning
relies on mental processes.
Which of the following best illustrates positive punishment in operant conditioning?
scolding a child for being rude to his or her teachers
Dale works for a publishing company. Every time he writes a good article, he gets lots of fan mail expressing support to him. In the context of operant conditioning, the mails that Dale receives are called a(n)
secondary reinforcer.
In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when
an organism performs a reinforced behavior in a different situation.
In operant conditioning, discrimination occurs when
an organism responds appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced.
In operant conditioning, organisms learn
association between behavior and consequence
Jack always takes his dog out for a walk in the morning. Whenever Jack puts the leash on his dog, the dog gets very excited about going for a walk. In this scenario, the dog has learned to associate the leash with going for a walk through
classical conditioning.
Matt's school ends at 3 in the afternoon. So, whenever it becomes three in the afternoon, he feels happy even if he is not in school. In this scenario, Matt has learned to associate a fixed timing with happiness through
classical conditioning.
Jessica loves to go to the park. However, after three separate incidents of violence over the course of two years in a park, she begins to fear going to parks. In this scenario, in the context of classical conditioning, Jessica's fear of parks is a(n)
conditioned response
Henry loves animals and has always wanted a pet animal. However, when he met his neighbor's dog, it bit him. Now, Henry stays away from dogs. In this scenario, in the context of classical conditioning, Henry's fear of dogs is a(n)
conditioned response.
In Pavlov's experiments on classical conditioning, the dog began to associate the sound of the bell with the food and salivated when it heard the bell because the bell had become a(n)
conditioned stimulus.
Carol is training her dog to sit on command. Each time he sits in response to her command, she gives him a treat. In the context of operant conditioning, Carol is using a ________ to train her dog.
continuous reinforcement schedule
Jim feeds his dog the Paws brand of dog food every day. When the dog sees Jim pouring the food into his bowl, he starts to salivate. When Jim switches to a new brand, the food does not suit the dog and makes him sick. The dog no longer salivates when he sees Jim pouring the food into his bowl. In this scenario, the dog's change in behavior can be best explained by learning through
counterconditioning.
In operant conditioning, a punishment is a consequence that
decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur.
In operant conditioning, ________ means responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced.
discrimination
Kyle wants to buy a new watch. While making the decision to buy the watch, he purchases the brand of watch that his favorite actor wore in a movie. In this scenario, in the context of classical conditioning, the movie that Kyle watched promoted the brand of watch using
embedded marketing.
Wendell always gets anxious before taking a math test because he is not good with numbers and formulae. When his science teacher announces a physics test that requires him to apply numerical formulae, Wendell begins to feel anxious, even though he enjoys physics. Which of the following is Wendell most likely demonstrating in this scenario?
generalization in classical conditioning
Joseph, a three-year-old boy, is afraid of the doctor who gave him a shot and made him cry. Consequently, whenever Joseph sees a person in a white laboratory coat, he starts crying. In this scenario, Joseph's behavior best exemplifies
generalization in classical conditioning.
Mark's dog, Gus, sits whenever Mark says, "Sit." Mark now wants to teach Gus a new trick. He wants to teach him to bark each time he says, "Speak." But whenever Mark says, "Speak," Gus sits. The dog's behavior is most likely an example of
generalization.
George drinks three glasses of wine at home every evening but rarely feels its effect. However, he feels the immediate effect of a single glass of wine on the rare occasions that he goes to a bar. Which of the following classical conditioning concepts best explains this discrepancy in George's responses?
habituation
Which of the following is a cognitive form of learning?
insight learning
Andrea, an avid golfer, imitates a professional golfer's swing after watching him play golf on television. Andrea's act of imitation represents the ________ element of observational learning.
motor reproduction
Five minutes are deducted from Frankie's recess hour by his teacher every time Frankie misbehaves in class. In the context of operant conditioning, Frankie's teacher is using ________ to discipline him.
negative punishment
In the Water Kingdom Amusement Park, when two sea lions throw and catch balls on their nose, they are rewarded with fish after they successfully complete the act. The sea lions have been trained to perform this behavior through
shaping
________ refers to the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior.
Behavior modification
Which of the following statements is true of behaviorism as a theory of learning?
Behaviorism maintains that the principles of learning are the same whether one is talking about humans or nonhuman animals.
________ in classical conditioning is the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response.
Generalization
Boris uses classical conditioning to teach his goldfish to swim to the surface of its tank to eat whenever Boris turns on the aquarium light. He drops food into the tank and then turns on the light. After several such trials, the fish shows no more inclination to swim to the surface when the light is turned on than it did on the first trial. In the context of classical conditioning, which of the following should Boris do to improve his training technique?
He should turn on the light before he drops the food into the tank.
In the context of operant conditioning, identify a true statement about a continuous reinforcement schedule.
In a continuous reinforcement schedule, a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.
Which of the following statements is true of classical conditioning?
In classical conditioning, organisms learn the association between two stimuli.
In the context of operant conditioning, identify a true statement about positive reinforcement.
In positive reinforcement, the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by a desirable stimulus.
In the context of classical conditioning, which of the following statements is true of spontaneous recovery?
It becomes weaker when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
Which of the following statements best describes classical conditioning?
It is a learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.
Which of the following statements about taste aversion learning is true?
It is a special kind of classical conditioning involving the learned association between a particular taste and nausea.
In the context of operant conditioning, which of the following statements is true of a primary reinforcer?
It is innately satisfying.
In the context of classical conditioning, which of the following statements is true of spontaneous recovery?
It is the process by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning.
In the context operant conditioning, which of the following statements is true of reinforcement?
It is the process by which a stimulus or event following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again.
Which of the following statements is true of associative learning?
It occurs when an organism makes a connection between two events.
Which of the following is true of a fixed-ratio schedule in operant conditioning?
It reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors.
Which of the following is true of a fixed-interval schedule in the context of operant conditioning?
It reinforces the first appropriate behavior after a set amount of time has passed
________ was the Russian physiologist who demonstrated that neutral aspects of the environment can attain the capacity to evoke responses through pairing with other stimuli and that bodily processes can be influenced by environmental cues.
Ivan Pavlov
Which of the following is true of partial reinforcement?
Partial reinforcement is particularly resistant to extinction.
On Monday, Rat A receives 25 mild electric shocks per hour and Rat B receives 5 mild shocks per hour. On Tuesday, both rats receive 10 shocks per hour. In the context of stress and improvement, which of the following is the most likely result of this experiment?
Rat A will be more likely to experience lowered stress.
In a television advertisement, a young man is shown to be the center of attraction for young and attractive models because he drives the luxury car Exotica. The advertisement targets young, single men. In the context of embedded marketing, which of the following statements is true?
The advertisement will work best if the Exotica car precedes the appearance of the attractive person.
Which of the following is true of Ivan Pavlov's experiment on classical conditioning?
The bell was a neutral stimulus before it was paired with the meat powder.
John, a six-year-old boy, loves dogs. However, after being bitten by one, he starts to fear dogs. Which of the following is true in the context of classical conditioning?
The dog becomes a conditioned stimulus after it bites John.
Which of the following statements is true of classical conditioning?
The human body's internal organ systems can be classically conditioned.
Which of the following best exemplifies an innate unconditioned stimulus-unconditioned response connection?
a child sneezing after accidently inhaling pepper
Aversive conditioning is
a form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus
While on her way to work recently, Martha was pulled over for the first time for exceeding the speed limit. She was required to pay a heavy fine. Since then, she has maintained a consistent speed of 30 miles per hour while driving, regardless of the speed limits in place. In this scenario, Martha is demonstrating ________ learning.
avoidance
Which of the following is an example of a primary reinforcer in operant conditioning?
being treated to a good meal
Counterconditioning is a classical conditioning procedure for
changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response.
Tyler's grandmother, Rose, has been receiving emails from Tyler every day for many years. In anticipation of his emails, she has been checking her inbox more than once in a day. However, since Tyler started college, the emails have stopped. As a result, Rose checks her emails only every few days. If this pattern continues, Rose will completely stop checking her email. In classical conditioning, this is known as
extinction.
Samuel, a line worker in a factory, is required to produce 50 units to be paid $10. In the context of the schedules of reinforcement, this scenario most likely exemplifies a
fixed-interval schedule.
Josh has romantic feelings for the girl who works at the comic bookstore down the street. He likes to go into the store and talk to her. However, he does not know which days of the week she works. So, he visits the store every Sunday, when he is sure she will be there. In this scenario, Josh is operating on a ________ schedule in operant conditioning.
fixed-ratio
classical conditioning
focuses on the association between two stimuli.
Liza's teacher has given her class a math problem to solve. She says that there is a trick to it but if they really think about it, the answer is quite simple. The class is silent for a few moments before Liza suddenly raises her hand and provides the correct solution to the problem. In this scenario, Liza's sudden understanding of the problem exemplifies
insight learning.
Continuous reinforcement in operant conditioning
is the type of reinforcement in which organisms learn rapidly.
Which of the following describes the reinforcement element in observational learning?
judging whether to repeat a behavior depending on the consequences of the behavior
While observing rats in a maze, Patrick realizes that the rats are able to find their way to the end of the maze even though they are not rewarded at any point during the experiment. This type of learning can best be defined as
latent learning.
Rose is in an abusive relationship with Dan, who is physically violent with her and has injured her seriously more than once. Despite this, Rose has never been able to stop him or leave him. Rose was also abused by her stepfather as a child. Rose's inability to put up a fight with Dan is most likely the result of ________ in operant conditioning.
learned helplessness
Shirley, a housewife, has been a victim of domestic violence for approximately nine years and has still not been able to walk out of the relationship. In the context of operant conditioning, which of the following concepts is most likely to aid her therapist understand her situation better?
learned helplessness
Caleb, the owner of a small garage, is particular about paying his employees more than they ask for. He believes that this action will prevent his employees from leaving the organization because of job dissatisfaction. In this scenario, Caleb is most likely using ________ in operant conditioning to ensure a desired outcome.
negative reinforcement
Gary, a high school student with no interest in academics, has started to study for four hours every week to avoid getting poor grades in school. This scenario is reflective of ________ in operant conditioning.
negative reinforcement
In the context of operant conditioning, ________ is defined as an increase in the frequency of a behavior because it is followed by the removal of something undesirable.
negative reinforcement
Some bears kept in zoos allow veterinarians to routinely conduct total body checkups. These bears open their mouths for teeth cleaning and present their paws for nail clipping. Your friend wonders how anyone could ever get these dangerous animals to be so cooperative without anesthesia. You, a psychology student, quickly summarize that the bears had most likely undergone
operant conditioning.
Ron had to undergo a painful medical procedure in a hospital when he was a child. Now, every time Ron walks past a hospital, he gets anxious and nauseated. In this scenario, in the context of classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus is the
painful procedure.
Jennifer accidentally plays a radio channel that she has never heard before. She loves the music it plays, and, as a result, she plays only that channel whenever she wants to listen to music. In this scenario, Jennifer's behavior has most likely been learned through ________ in operant conditioning.
positive reinforcement
Four-month-old Simon quickly learns that he will be fed milk every time he cries. From a behaviorist perspective, the milk that Simon receives when he cries is a
primary reinforcer.
James loved swimming and swam for two hours every day. However, he met with an accident and was advised to avoid any strenuous physical activity for two years. When he first went near a swimming pool after two years, he visualized himself swimming and experimenting with different strokes. He eventually jumped into the pool and swam for an hour. In the context of classical conditioning, this scenario best exemplifies
spontaneous recovery.
The law of effect is profoundly important because it presents the basic idea that
the consequences of a behavior influence the likelihood of that behavior's recurrence.
A worker at a handicraft store is paid $25 for every 20 wind chimes she makes. Which of the following schedules of reinforcement in operant conditioning is her payment based on?
the fixed-ratio schedule
Fred's mother allows him to watch television on Sundays only if he studies for four hours a day, every day of the week. Which of the following schedules of reinforcement in operant conditioning is Fred's mother using to discipline him?
the fixed-ratio schedule
Positive reinforcement in operant conditioning is a learning process in which
the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by a desirable stimulus.
Andrea is the mother of Leo, a six-month-old child. She wants to introduce vegetables in Leo's diet. As Leo is used to having lentil soup as his evening snack, Andrea prepares lentil soup with vegetables in it and makes Leo taste it. He does not like the taste of the soup and refuses to have it. After that day, he refuses to have even plain lentil soup. In this scenario, which of the following acts as the conditioned stimulus?
the soup
Applied behavior analysis is
the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior.
Extinction in classical conditioning is
the weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent.
In Pavlov's experiments on classical conditioning, the dog salivated each time the food was presented. The dog's response to the food was a(n)
unconditioned response.
In aversive conditioning experiments to treat alcohol addiction, every time a person drinks an alcoholic beverage, he or she also consumes a mixture that induces nausea. In classical conditioning terminology, the nausea-inducing agent is the
unconditioned stimulus.
Hitchhikers are unable to predict when they will get a ride and when they will not. They are most likely functioning on a ________ schedule of reinforcement in operant conditioning.
variable ratio
Mrs. Graham is the principal of a high school. She enforces the practice of pop quizzes in the school because she knows that students will be more likely to study if they cannot predict when they will be tested. In this scenario, Mrs. Graham is relying on a ________ schedule in operant conditioning to enforce a desired behavior in her students.
variable-interval
A process that makes an observer less likely to repeat a behavior on seeing the model reprimanded is called ________ in observational learning.
vicarious punishment