Ch 7-8

Conceptual Style

Decision makers with a conceptual style have a high tolerance for ambiguity and strong people and social concerns. They take a broad perspective in solving problems and like to consider many options and future possibilities. These decision makers discuss things with as many people as possible in order to gather a great deal of information and then rely on intuition in making their decisions.

Resilient

"as the capacity to rebound or bounce back from adversity, conflict, failure or even positive events, progress and increased responsibility

Decision Making Styles

(1) Charismatics (enthusiastic, captivating, talkative, dominant): (2) Thinkers (cerebral, intelligent, logical, academic): (3) Skeptics (demanding, disruptive, disagreeable, rebellious): (4) Followers (responsible, cautious, brand-driven, bargain-conscious): (5) Controllers (logical, unemotional, sensible, detail oriented, accurate, analytical):

Besides being positive2 and a psychological resource capacity, to be included as a POB construct, the following operational criteria must be met:

1. Based on theory and research. 2. Valid measures. 3. "State-like" and thus open to development. (situationally based, open to learning, change, and development) 4. Managed for performance improvement.

from the preceding it can be seen that self-efficacy can directly affect:

1. Choice behaviors 2. Motivational effort 3. Perseverance 4. Facilitative thought patterns 5. Vulnerability to stress

Two widely recognized dimensions have been identified that can help explain the creative process:

1. Divergent thinking. This refers to a person's ability to generate novel, but still appropriate, responses to questions and problems. This is in contrast to convergent thinking, which leads to responses that are based mainly on knowledge and rational logic. 2. Cognitive complexity. This refers to a person's use of and preference for elaborate, intricate, and complex stimuli and thinking patterns. Creative people tend to have such cognitive complexity and display a wide range of interests, are independent, and are interested in philosophical or abstract problems.

Staw and Ross have identified four major reasons why this phenomenon, called escalation of commitment, might happen:

1. Project characteristics. This is probably the primary reason for escalation decisions. Task or project characteristics such as delayed return on investment or obvious temporary problems may lead the decision maker to stick with or increase the commitment to a wrong course of action. 2. Psychological determinants. Once the decision goes bad, the manager may have information-processing errors (use biased factors or take more risks than are justified). Also, because the decision maker is now ego-involved, negative information is ignored and defensive shields are set up. 3. Social forces. There may be considerable peer pressure put on decision makers and/ or they may need to save face, so they continue or escalate their commitment to a wrong course of action. 4. Organizational determinants. Not only may the project or task characteristics lend themselves to the escalation of bad decisions—so may a breakdown in communication, dysfunctional politics, and resistance to change

four of the most important purposes of interactive communication:

1. Task coordination. The department heads may meet monthly to discuss how each department is contributing to the system's goals. 2. Problem solving. The members of a department may assemble to discuss how they will handle a threatened budget cut; they may employ brainstorming techniques. 3. Information sharing. The members of one department may meet with the members of another department to give them some new data. 4. Conflict resolution. The members of one department may meet to discuss a conflict inherent in the department or between departments.

The Process and Impact of Self-Efficacy

1. The decision to perform the specific task in this context 2. The amount of effort that will be expended to accomplish the task 3. The level of persistence that will be forthcoming despite problems, disconfirming evidence, and adversity

Empirical basis (that is, tracing actual decisions in organizations), are the stages of decision making of Mintzberg and his colleague that contain?

1. The identification phase, during which recognition of a problem or opportunity arises and a diagnosis is made. 2. The development phase, during which there may be a search for existing standard procedures or solutions already in place or the design of a new, tailor-made solution. 3. The selection phase, during which the choice of a solution is made. There are three ways of making this selection: by the judgment of the decision maker, on the basis of experience or intuition rather than logical analysis; by analysis of the alternatives on a logical, systematic basis; and by bargaining when the selection involves a group of decision makers and all the political maneuvering that this entails.

2. Self-efficacy vs. expectancy concepts.

1. efficacy is a judgment of one's ability to successfully execute a certain behavior pattern (i.e., "I believe I can successfully execute this task"), 2. outcome expectancy is a judgment of the probable consequence such behavior will produce (i.e., "I believe that what I do will (or will not) lead to desired outcomes"). In other words, the individual's self-efficacy evaluation will usually come before any behavior outcome expectancies are even considered.

Resiliency Development

1. increased by building awareness of personal assets in the form of talents, skills, and social networks. 2. Participants were asked what resources they could leverage to accomplish a given goal. 4. Participants were then encouraged to leverage these resources as necessary and identify in advance obstacles that could impede their progress. 5. Finally, the influence process was impacted by each participant becoming aware of his or her initial thoughts and feelings when faced with adversity and choosing to focus on resilient thoughts based on their assessment of their resources and options to overcome adversity.

empathetic design process

1. observation 2. capturing data 3. reflection and analysis 4. brainstorming for solutions 5. developing prototypes of posisble solutions

The tolerance for ambiguity orientation measures how much the decision maker needs structure and control (a desire for low ambiguity) as opposed to being able to thrive in uncertain situations (a desire for high ambiguity). These two orientations with their low and high dimensions are portrayed with four styles of decision making called:

: directive, analytical, conceptual, and behavioral.

Body Language

Communication of information through body positions and gestures.

an interactive, reciprocal determination between one's health, relationships, and work (i.e., individuals' health affects their relationships and their relationships affect their health, their health affects their work and their work affects their health, and so forth)

H-R-W Model

non-verbal communication

Non-word human responses (such as gestures, facial expressions) and the perceived characteristics of the environment through which the human verbal and nonverbal messages are transmitted.

positive psychology movement

a movement that recommends shifting the focus of psychology away from the negative to a more positive focus on strengths, well-being, and the pursuit of happiness

paralanguage

an extensive set of noises (such as cries) and tones of voice that convey significant information about the speaker

Ann Masten and her colleagues, resiliency has been found to be influenced and developed by three types of factors:

assets, risks, and adaptational processes

Bandura's social cognitive theory (SCT)

explains psychological functioning in terms of environmental events; internal personal factors in the form of cognitive, affective, and biological variables; and behavioral patterns

cognitive mastery modeling

how to apply them by observing the decision rules and reasoning strategies successful models use as they arrive at solutions to problems and make effective decisions

nonverbal communication

nonword human responses (such as gestures, facial expressions) and the perceived characteristics of the environment through which the human verbal and nonverbal messages are transmitted."

360-degree feedback includes

peers (coworkers), managers, direct reports, Sometimes customers

Optimism as human nature

people tend to have a more positive bias of themselves than cold reality

Stajkovic and Luthans: "Self-efficacy

refers to an individual's conviction (or confidence) about his or her abilities to mobilize the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed to successfully execute a specific task within a given context."

subjective well-being

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.

optimism

the tendency to focus on the positive aspects of a situation

Empathetic Design

Focuses on observing how people respond to products and services and drawing creative conclusions from the results.

Gardner is careful to point out that his identified intelligences are:

(1) a new kind of construct and should not be confused with a domain or discipline; (2) a capacity with component processes and should not be equated with a learning style, cognitive style, or working style; and (3) based wholly on empirical evidence that could be revised or added to on the basis of new empirical findings

To be considered an intelligence under Gardner's well-known multiple approach, the following three criteria must be met:

(1) measurable, (2) valued by the person's culture, and (3) a strength that the person defaulted to when challenged to be creative or solve a problem.

Optimism development

1. Building efficacy in pathway generation and obstacle planning provided a foundation for the development of generally positive expectations. 2. When participants were confident that they could identify and plan to overcome obstacles, their expectations of achieving their goals increased. 3. Negative expectations that goals would not be accomplished were challenged as individuals began to see pathways to success and options on how to overcome obstacles. 4. Group feedback increased positive expectations as individuals saw other group members also expect and plan for success. 5. As participants' expectations of success increased, optimism both individually and within the group increased.

effective and ineffective feedback

1. Intention. Effective feedback is directed toward improving job performance and making the employee a more valuable asset. 2. Specificity. Effective feedback is designed to provide recipients with specific information so that they know what must be done to correct the situation. 3. Description: Effective feedback can also be characterized as descriptive rather than evaluative. 4. Usefulness. Effective feedback is information that an employee can use to improve performance. 5. Timeliness. There are also considerations in timing feedback properly. As a rule, the more immediate the feedback, the better. 6. Readiness. In order for feedback to be effective, employees must be ready to receive it. 7. Clarity. Effective feedback must be clearly understood by the recipient. 8. Validity. In order for feedback to be effective, it must be reliable and valid.

Happiness (subjective well-being SWB)

1. Happiness is a process, not a place. "Happiness is an ongoing process that requires a way of experienced life and the world that includes positive attitudes, meaning, and spirituality. 2. There is actually an optimal level of happiness. Those "too happy" may perform less well at school and work, and even be less healthy 3. Though not linear, happiness is clearly related to health and longevity, relationships, and effectiveness at work.

Herbert A. Simon, who conceptualized three major phases in the decision-making process?

1. Intelligence activity. Borrowing from the military meaning of "intelligence," Simon described this initial phase as consisting of searching the environment for conditions calling for decision making. 2. Design activity. During the second phase, inventing, developing, and analyzing possible courses of action take place. 3. Choice activity. The third and final phase is the actual choice—selecting a particular course of action from among those available.

Peterson identified and summarized three of the more important optimism issues:

1. Little vs. big optimism. The magnitude and level of optimism may function quite differently. Little optimism involves specific expectations about positive outcomes whereas big optimism refers to more generic, larger expectations of positive outcomes 2. Optimism vs. pessimism. Although the assumption is often made that optimism and pessimism are mutually exclusive, they may not be. Some people expect both good outcomes (optimism) and bad outcomes (pessimism) to be plentiful. 3. Learning and sustaining optimism. Although optimism is sometimes portrayed as a stable personality trait, Seligman popularized learned optimism. This says that anyone, including pessimists, can learn the skills to be an optimist.

suggestions to improve nonverbal communication:

1. Look at what is happening in the situation. When nonverbal behavior is an emotional response, it reflects what is going on at the moment and can be used to better understand the person's nonverbal behavior. 2. Consider the discrepancies between the nonverbal behavior and the verbal statements. If there is a mismatch, then this should be a signal for closer examination of what is going on. Sometimes the nonverbal signals are more accurate than the verbal ones. 3. Watch for subtleties in the nonverbal behavior. For example, the difference between a real smile and a fake one can usually be detected.

The Major Sources of Information for Self-Efficacy

1. Mastery Experiences or Performance Attainments 2. Vicarious Experiences or Modeling 3. Social Persuasion 4. Physiological and Psychological Arousal

Efficacy Development

1. Participants practiced setting up stepwise techniques to accomplish goals. Then they explained each subgoal (each step) to the group, and they answered questions about how each was to be accomplished. 2. Task mastery for designing and pursuing goals was thus attained. Vicarious learning took place as each participant saw peers work toward their goals and heard success stories about how goals were attained. 3. This stage included emotional arousal, which was influenced by positive expectations of achieving goals as well as the social persuasion by the facilitator and group members by validating schedules and timelines, goals would be accomplished

Seligman's causal attributions or explanatory style pessimists and optimists tend to habitually use in interpreting personal bad events:

1. Pessimists make internal (their own fault), stable (will last a long time), and global (will undermine everything they do) attributions. 2. Optimists make external (not their fault), unstable (temporary setback), and specific (problem only in this situation) attributions.

Developing and sustaining happiness process:

1. Practicing gratitude and positive thinking 2. Investing in social connections 3. Managing stress, hardship, and trauma 4. Living in the present 5. Committing to your goals; 6. Taking care of your body and soul

Goleman's Dimensions of Emotional Intelligence in the Workplace?

1. Self-awareness Self-understanding; knowledge of true feelings at the moment John recognizes that he is angry so he will wait to cool down and gather more information before making an important personnel decision. 2. Self-management Handle one's emotions to facilitate rather than hinder the task at hand; shake off negative emotions and get back on constructive track for problem solution Amber holds back her impulse to become visibly upset and raise her voice at the customer's unfair complaint and tries to get more facts of what happened. 3. Self-motivation Stay the course toward desired goal; overcome negative emotional impulses and delay gratification to attain the desired outcome Pat persisted to successful project completion in spite of the many frustrations from the lack of resources and top management support. 4. Empathy Understand and be sensitive to the feelings of others; being able to sense what others feel and want Because the head of the team knew her members were mentally if not physically exhausted, she took everyone bowling during an afternoon break and bought refreshments. 5. Social skills The ability to read social situations; smooth in interacting with others and forming networks; able to guide others' emotions and the way they act

The communication styles?

1. The Director. This person has a short attention span, processes information very quickly, and is interested only in the bottom line. So it is best to present this type of manager with a bulleted list of conclusions and forget all of the background information. 2. The Free Spirit. This manager is a creative, big-picture type of person who likes to consider alternative approaches to doing things, but is not very good on follow through. In communicating with this type of manager it is important to be patient and to be prepared for changes in direction. . 3. The Humanist. This manager likes everyone to be happy and is very concerned with the feelings of others. So any suggestions or recommendations that are given to him or her will be passed around the entire department for full consensus before any action is taken. In dealing with this type of manager, patience and tact are very important. 4. The Historian. This manager likes to know the whole picture and thrives on details. This individual wants to be given a thorough analysis and background information, especially if it is presented in linear fashion. This type of manager does not jump from subject to subject, but instead remains focused on the topic under consideration until it has been exhaustively reviewed and a decision is made.

A meta-analysis (117 studies) evaluating the effects of behavioral modeling Training (BMT) found:

1. The largest effects of BMT were on learning outcomes, but BMT also had an impact on job behavior and results outcomes. 2. Although the BMT effects on knowledge decayed over time, the effects on skills and job behavior remained stable or even increased. 3. The greatest impact of BMT was when: a. both negative and positive models were presented; b. practice included trainee-generated scenarios; c. trainers were instructed to set goals; d. trainees' supervisors were also trained; and e. rewards and sanctions were instituted in the trainees' work environment.

Predict the final outcome of group decision making on the basis of the individual members' initial positions. These have been summarized as follows:

1. The majority-wins scheme. In this commonly used scheme, the group arrives at the decision that was initially supported by the majority. This scheme appears to guide decision making most often when there is no objectively correct decision. 2. The truth-wins scheme. In this scheme, as more information is provided and opinions are discussed, the group comes to recognize that one approach is objectively correct. . 3. The two-thirds majority scheme. This scheme is frequently adopted by juries, who tend to convict defendants when two-thirds of the jury initially favors conviction. 4. The first-shift rule. In this scheme, the group tends to adopt the decision that reflects the first shift in opinion expressed by any group member. If a car-manufacturing group is equally divided on whether or not to produce a convertible, it may opt to do so after one group member initially opposed to the idea changes her mind.

three levels of positive psychology as follows:

1. Valued subjective experiences. Well-being, contentment, and satisfaction (in the past); hope and optimism (for the future); and flow and happiness (in the present). 2. Positive individual traits. The capacity for love and vocation, courage, interpersonal skill, aesthetic sensibility, perseverance, forgiveness, originality, future mindedness, spirituality, high talent, and wisdom. 3. Civic virtues and the institutions that move individuals toward better citizenship. Responsibility, nurturance, altruism, civility, moderation, tolerance, and work ethic.

Self-efficacy vs. attribution/locus of control.

1. locus of control attributions are causal beliefs about action-outcome contingencies, 2. self-efficacy is an individual's belief about his or her abilities and cognitive resources that can be marshaled together to successfully execute a specific task.37

Hope Development

1. shown to be impacted and influenced by goals, pathways, and agency. 2. participants practiced generating work-related goals that were personally valuable and reasonably challenging and that included a clear beginning and end point. 3. These goal characteristics generated sustained motivation, thus using goal components to increase agency. 4. After completing the exercise individually, each participant received feedback from the group on additional or alternative pathways that could be utilized and obstacles that could be expected. 5. This practice increased each participant's pathway-generating skill and ability to identify and plan for obstacles, thus reducing the negative impact of obstacles on agency.

1. Self-efficacy vs. self-esteem.

1.self-esteem is a global construct of one's evaluation and belief of overall worthiness, whereas self-efficacy is one's belief about a task-and context-specific capability. 2. self-esteem is stable and trait-like, whereas self-efficacy is changing over time as new information and task experiences are gained and developed and is state-like. 3. self-esteem is aimed at any aspect of one's current self, whereas self-efficacy is a current assessment of one's future success at a task.

Sonja Lyubomirsky confidently conclude that one's happiness (or level of positivity or H-R-W well-being) is determined by what % formula?

10% Situational 40% self driven and learned 50% is genetic

Hope

A positive motivational state that is based on an interactively derived sense of successful (a) agency (goaldirected energy), and "willpower" (agency) (b) pathways (planning to meet goals). and the "waypower" (pathways).

PSYCHOLOGICAL CAPITAL (PSYCAP)

An individual's positive psychological state of development that is characterized by: (1) having confidence (self-efficacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging tasks; (2) making a positive attribution (optimism) about succeeding now and in the future; (3) persevering toward goals and, when necessary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) in order to succeed; and (4) when beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and even beyond (resiliency) to attain success.1

The capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships

Emotional Intelligence

Emotions

Reactions to an object, not a trait. They're object specific. When you're "happy about something, angry at someone, afraid of something.

tacit knowledge

This type of knowledge is not readily explainable, is acquired through observation and experience, and seems to be in the unconscious

Analytical style

What decision making style have a high tolerance for ambiguity and a strong task and technical orientation. These types like to analyze situations; in fact, they often tend to over analyze things. They evaluate more information and alternatives than do directive decision makers.

Directive Style

What decision making style have a low tolerance for ambiguity and are oriented toward task and the technical concerns. These decision makers tend to be efficient, logical, pragmatic, and systematic in their approach to problem solving

Behavioral Style

What decision making style is characterized by a low tolerance for ambiguity and strong people and social concerns. These decision makers tend to work well with others and like situations in which opinions are openly exchanged. They tend to be receptive to suggestions, are supportive and warm, and prefer verbal to written information. They also tend to avoid conflict and be overly concerned with keeping everyone happy.

Mood

When you lose focus on the contextual object. So when a work colleague criticizes you for the way you spoke to a client, you might become angry at him [emotion]. But later in the day, you might find yourself just generally dispirited. This affective state describes a?

2 x 2 behavioral decision-making style matrix

can be categorized into two dimensions: value orientation and tolerance for ambiguity

guided mastery

includes instructive modeling to acquire a skill or competency, guided skill perfection, and then transferring the training back to the job to ensure self-directed success.

development of self regulatory competencies

involves a variety of interlinked self-referent processes such as self-monitoring, self-efficacy appraisal, personal goal setting, and use of self-motivating incentives

positive organizational behavior - Coined by Luthans

is the study and application of positive oriented human resource strengths and psychological capacities that can be measured, developed, and effectively managed for performance improvement in today's workplace.

Communication

is the understanding not of the visible but of the invisible and hidden.

Creativity

it involves combining responses or ideas of individuals or groups in novel ways