Ch. 7
Because they generally result in high, consistent rates of response without pausing, slot machines in casinos use _____ schedules of reinforcement.
variable ratio
negative reinforcement
a stimulus is removed that increases the likelihood of a behaviour.
What was watson's goal with the little albert experiment?
1) he waned to show that a relatively complex reaction could be conditioned using pavlovian techniques. 2) Wanted to show that emotional responses such as fear an anxiety could be produced by classical conditioning and therefore need not be the product of deeper unconscious processes or early life experiences as Freud and his followers had argued. 3) Watson wanted to confirm that conditioning could be applied to humans as well as to other animals.
What does becoming a more sophisticated and effective learner require understanding?
1) key features of learning and memory 2) effective learning techniques 3) how to monitor and control ones own learning 4) biases that can undermine judgements of learning.
What did the Rescorla-Wagner model introduce?
A cognitive component that accounted for a variety of classical conditioning phenomena that were difficult to understand from a simple behaviourist point of view.
Cognitive map
A mental representation of the physical features of the environment.
latent learning
A process in which something is learned, but is not manifested as a behaviour change until sometime in the future.
Biological Preparedness
A propensity for learning particular kinds of association over other kinds.
Sensitization
A simple form of learning that occurs when presentation of stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus.
Operant conditioning.
A type of learning in which the consequences of an organisms behaviour determine whether it will repeat that behaviour in the future.
classical conditioning
A type of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response.
Second-order conditioning
A type of learning whereby a CS is paired with a stimulus that became associated with the US in an earlier procedure.
The study of operant conditioning is the exploration of behaviours that are __________.
Active
Unconditional response (UR)
a reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
Variable interval schedule (IV)
An operant conditioning principle whereby a behaviour is reinforced on the basis of an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement.
intermittent reinforcement
An operant conditioning principle whereby only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement.
fixed ration schedule (FR)
An operant conditioning principle whereby reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made.
Fixed interval schedule (FI)
An operant conditioning principle whereby reinforcers are presented at fixed time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made.
Punisher
Any stimulus or event that decreases the likelihood of the behaviour.
The night before her chemistry final, Shalonda spends her time rereading her notes. Joanna, her roommate, studies for the same final, using practice tests. All other conditions being equal, whom should the professor expect to do better on the exam?
Joanna, because practice testing has a high utility value as a study technique
Shaping
Learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behaviour.
implicit learning
Learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition.
Judgements of learning
People's judgements about what they have learned.
what is one reason why reinforcement is generally more effective than punishment in promoting learning?
Punishment signals that an unacceptable behaviour has occurred, but it doesn't specify what should be done instead.
What did skinner use the word positive for?
Situations in which a stimulus was presented.
What did skinner use the word negative for?
Situations in which a stimulus was removed.
Superstitious behaviour is to latent learning as _____ is to _____.
Skinner; Tolman
Unconditional stimulus (US)
Something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism.
What does classical conditioning demonstrate?
That scientists can achieve durable, substantial changes in behaviour simply by setting up the proper conditions.
Generalization
The CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the CS used during acquisition.
Learning
The acquisition, from experience, of new knowledge, skills, or responses that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner.
Discrimination
The capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli.
intermittent reinforcement effect
The fact that operant behaviours that are maintained under intermittent reinforcement schedules resist extinction better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement.
Extinction
The gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US.
acquisition
The phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US are presented together.
Law of effect
The principle that behaviours that are followed by a "satisfying state of affairs" tend to be repeated, whereas those that produce an "unpleasant state of affairs are less likely to be repeated.
Spontaneous recovery
The tendency of a learned behaviour to recover from extinction after a rest period.
positive punishment
a stimulus is administered that reduces the likelihood of a behaviour.
positive reinforcement
a stimulus is presented that increases the likelihood of a behaviour.
negative punishment
a stimulus is removed that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour.
How do secondary reinforcers work? what are some examples?
They derive their effectiveness from their associations with primary reinforcers through classical conditioning. Ex: money starts out as a neutral CS that, though its association with primary USs such as acquiring food or shelter, takes on a conditioned emotional element.
Road construction prevents you from getting to campus using the route that you usually travel. You think about the situation for a moment and then come up with a different route to take. To figure out this alternative route, you are using _____ to devise a different route.
a cognitive map
Road construction prevents you from getting to campus using the route that you usually travel. You think about the situation for a moment and then come up with a different route to take. To figure out this alternative route, you are using _____ to devise a different route. Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.
a cognitive map
interleaved practice
a practice schedule that mixes different kinds of problems or materials within a single study session.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
a previously neutral stimulus that produces a reliable response in a n organism after being paired with a US.
observational learning
a process in which an organism learns by watching the actions of others.
diffusion chain
a process whereby individuals initially learn a behaviour by observing another individual perform that behaviour, and then become models from which other individuals learn the behaviour.
Conditioned response (CR)
a reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus.
reinforcer
any stimulus or event that functions to increase the likelihood of the behavior that led to it
Fabian ordered chicken from a national chicken chain restaurant and became very ill immediately after eating it. Years later, Fabian still feels queasy when he sees an advertisement for the chicken chain or drives by one of its establishments. In this example, the unconditioned stimulus is the:
bacteria that caused the illness.
Fabian ordered chicken from a national chicken chain restaurant and became very ill immediately after eating it. Years later, Fabian still feels queasy when he sees an advertisement for the chicken chain or drives by one of its establishments. In this example, the unconditioned stimulus is the: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.
bacteria that caused the illness.
ratio schedules
based on the ration of response to reinforcements.
interval schedules
based on the time intervals between reinforcements.
Operant behavior
behaviour that an organism performs that has some impact on the environment.
Instrumental Behaviourism
behaviour that required an organism to do something, such as solve a problem or otherwise manipulate elements of its environment.
Observational learning challenges the _____ explanation of learning because it involves no direct reinforcement. Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.
behavioural
Opening the chapter on learning, the textbook relates the experiences of Jennifer, a military nurse deployed in Iraq. Jennifer now reacts with fear to the sound of a helicopter, a sound the text notes was "previously innocent" for Jennifer. Jennifer's learning of fear in this instance is BEST explained by:
classical conditioning.
Advertisers often use pictures of attractive people with their products, with the expectation that people will respond positively to the product. They believe that this reaction will occur based on:
classical conditioning. The attractive person is the unconditioned stimulus and the product being advertised is the conditioned stimulus.
Jonas, a veteran of the war in Iraq, suffers from PTSD. Now, back home in a quiet California neighborhood, he jumps when he hears a firecracker or a car backfire. In the terminology of classical conditioning, these sounds are BEST thought of as _____ stimuli.
conditioned
Ariel ordered pizza from a national pizza chain and became very ill immediately after eating it. Years later, Ariel still feels queasy when she sees an advertisement for the pizza chain or drives by one of its establishments. In this example, the pizza establishment is the:
conditioned stimulus.
Deidra learns to speak Spanish by listening to a neighbor, and then models the behaviour for her younger sister. Deidra is part of a _____ chain.
diffusion
If a person watches someone to learn how to ride a bicycle, and then serves as a model for another student, that person is part of a:
diffusion chain.
Cruz, a 6-year-old, was recently bitten by his grandmother's Chihuahua. Cruz sees a different small dog in the park a week later and begins to cry, but he shows no fear when he sees a large dog. Cruz's behaviour in response to the large dog indicates that he is showing:
discrimination.
Xenon purchases food that tastes good to her and avoid foods that do not taste good. Her behaviours are consistent with Edward Thorndike's law of _____. Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.
effect
Todd, a 3-year-old, enjoys having books read to him and frequently asks to be read to. Todd hates to have his hair washed and will run and hide if he sees his parent get the shampoo out. Edward Thorndike would explain his behaviours using the law of:
effect.
Examples of primary reinforcers. Also, why are they called primary reinforcers
ex: food, comfort, shelter, and warmth. They help satisfy biological needs or desires.
Abraham trained a rat to run up a set of miniature steps whenever he plays the theme song to a specific movie by giving the rat treats at the same time as the song is playing. After acquisition, if Abraham were to present the song but no longer provide the treats, the rat's behaviour would show:
extinction; the rat will stop responding to the song.
A local frozen yogurt shop gives its customers a card and stamps it each time the customer purchases a frozen yogurt. After seven stamps, the customer gets a free yogurt. The shop has its customers on a _____ schedule of reinforcement.
fixed-ratio
habituation
general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding.
Dana, a 6-year-old, was recently bitten by her grandmother's poodle. Dana sees a different kind of small dog in the park a week later and begins to cry. MOST likely Dana is exhibiting:
generalization.
Edana, a 4-year-old, was recently scratched by a neighbor's cat. When Edana was taken to a pet store he saw a cat and began to cry. MOST likely Edana is exhibiting:
generalization.
The gradual reduction in a response to a repeated stimulus is called _____.
habituation
When Jasminda first moved into her apartment, the buzzing noise coming from her refrigerator greatly annoyed her. Now, after 3 months, Jasminda does not notice the sound at all. Jasminda's experience BEST demonstrates:
habituation.
When Suhana got ready for work this morning, she put on some perfume. Several hours later, Suhana cannot smell her own perfume, but her colleague remarks that maybe she should not wear so much perfume to work. Suhana no longer smells the perfume because of:
habituation.
In a variable-ratio schedule, the _____ the ratio, the _____ the response rate.
higher; higher
Children with dyslexia show deficits in _____ learning of artificial grammar. Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.
implicit
Daphne knows that she cannot interrupt her professor while he is talking to another student, even if she does not know when or how she learned this type of information. That is because this type of learning is:
implicit.
A neuropsychological patient who experiences severe problems with explicit learning is MOST likely to have _____ implicit learning.
intact
Consider the two main types of conditioning. Classical conditioning is based on _____ responses; operant conditioning produces _____ behaviours.
involuntary; voluntary
In implicit learning, complex behaviour may be acquired largely outside awareness. Implicit learning is therefore MOST similar to _____ learning.
latent
Joey watches his older brother using a spoon to help twirl his pasta around his fork. Joey then attempts to twirl his pasta in the same way. Joey's older brother served as a _____ for Joey. Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.
model
Johnny is "hammering" a nail in with his toy hammer as his father is hammering nails into deck boards. Johnny's behaviour is a clear example of: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.
modelling.
A teacher originally wanted to increase class participation, so she positively reinforced the asking of questions with nickels. After a few days, students had stacks of nickels on their desks and were asking far too many questions. To reduce question asking, the teacher could remove a nickel whenever they ask a question, a process known as:
negative punishment.
Because of the powerful effects of _____, many parents monitor the content of video games, television shows, and movies so that their children do not imitate violent behaviour.
observational learning
In which form of learning must the learner be consciously aware that their behaviour is changing?
observational learning
Alisha suffers from claustrophobia, despite having never been stuck in an elevator or locked in a supply closet. The notion of diffusion chains suggests that Alisha may have acquired the phobia through:
observational learning.
Deon lives in an isolated farmhouse in a flat Plains state. He has never looked out the window from an office in a skyscraper. He has never flown in an airplane; in fact, he has never climbed a tree. Nevertheless, Deon has a fear of heights. The concept of diffusion chains suggests that Deon may have acquired this phobia through:
observational learning.
Lana is in dental school and is learning the correct way to take an X-ray of the mouth. Her instructor first shows the class a video that demonstrates the proper procedures for taking an X-ray and then demonstrates these same procedures using Lana as a patient. Lana and her class are learning how to take an X-ray of patients' teeth through the use of: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.
observational learning.
When does the unconditioned stimulus occur in classical conditioning?
on every trial, no matter what the organism does.
When does the reinforcements occur in operant conditioning?
only when the proper response has been made, and they don't always occur even then.
According to research, which study technique has the HIGHEST utility value? -creating images based on the information -practice testing -using keyword mnemonics -summarizing the text in one's own words
practice testing
Lawrence slaps his baby sister. His mother yells at Lawrence, and he stops slapping his sister. For Lawrence, being reprimanded acted as a(n):
punisher.
Vanida throws her food on the floor. Vanida's mother yells at her, and she stops throwing her food on the floor. For Vanida, being reprimanded acted as a(n):
punisher.
masses practice
repeatedly studying the information to be learned with little or no time between repetitions.
A rat is foraging in the country for food. On Tuesday, the rat finds food in Farmer Brown's barn. A behaviourist like B. F. Skinner would predict that on Wednesday, the rat would:
return to Farmer Brown's barn.
Danielle is visiting a friend in a neighborhood charitably described as "lively." Danielle startles when she hears a car backfire. Later, she jumps even more dramatically when a falling pecan hits the tin roof of the garage. Danielle is demonstrating:
sensitization.
After being around roses at her grandmother's funeral, McKenna feels sad when she is given a bouquet of roses on her birthday. In this example, the unconditioned stimulus is: the bouquet. Valentine's Day. the funeral. feeling sad.
the funeral.
The last time Etan went camping he found a snake in his tent. He is deathly afraid of snakes. Now, he is nervous every time he thinks about camping or watches a movie or television show that involves camping. The unconditioned stimulus in this case is:
snakes.
The last time Etan went camping he found a snake in his tent. He is deathly afraid of snakes. Now, he is nervous every time he thinks about camping or watches a movie or television show that involves camping. The unconditioned stimulus in this case is: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.
snakes.
Maceo hated having his diaper changed, but he loved cake. So, Maceo's father decided to use classical conditioning to make diaper changes less miserable. Every time he changed Maceo's diaper, he would play the same song and give Maceo a small bite of cake. Now, as soon as Maceo hears the song, he is happy to have the diaper changed. The conditioned stimulus is the: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.
song.
Maceo hated having his diaper changed, but he loved cake. So, Maceo's father decided to use classical conditioning to make diaper changes less miserable. Every time he changed Maceo's diaper, he would play the same song and give Maceo a small bite of cake. Now, as soon as Maceo hears the song, he is happy to have the diaper changed. The conditioned stimulus is the: a. cookie b. song c. diaper d. happiness
song.
distributed practice
spreading out study activities so that much more time intervenes between repetitions of the information to be learned.
Which behaviour is LEAST likely to be studied by researchers using operant techniques?
startle response
People stand up and cheer at a basketball game, but not in a library, because of _____.
stimulus control
People stand up and cheer at a basketball game, but not in a library, because of:
stimulus control.
Georgia likes to make tuna sandwiches for lunch. She uses her electric can opener and then usually gives the can with a few bits of tuna left inside to the cat. Georgia recently noticed that the cat comes running into the kitchen every time she uses her can opener to open anything. The cat's behaviour is a result of: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.
stimulus generalization.
Paco has trained his dog to hit bells Paco has hanging on the back door to let him know that his dog wants to go outside. While visiting a friend with his dog, Paco's dog noticed some bells hanging from the Christmas tree and starting hitting the bells and running to the back door. Paco's dog's behaviour at his friend's house is a result of:
stimulus generalization.
Edward Tolman's concept of a means-end relationship is similar to that of _____ model in classical conditioning.
the Rescorla-Wagner
Angie's always-angry boss wears a particular type of cologne. One day, Angie was at a store when she smelled the same cologne. The smell produced a momentary feeling of uneasiness. In this example, the unconditioned stimulus is:
the boss.
In learned food aversion, spoiled or poisoned food is a powerful
unconditioned stimulus.
Dante always hated having his diaper changed, but he loved cookies. Dante's father decided to use classical conditioning to make diaper changes less miserable. Every time he changed Dante's diaper, he would play the same song and give Dante a small cookie. Now, as soon as Dante hears the song, he is happy to have his diaper changed. What is the conditioned response in this example?
the happiness
Silvia is a patient with Parkinson's disease taking the medication called L-dopa. As a result, she has developed a problem with compulsive shopping and has extended her credit cards to their limits. Her behaviour is the result of:
the positive reward prediction error.
Yusra is frightened of spiders. When she sees a spider web in her basement, she immediately has a feeling of fear. The sight of the spider web produced a feeling of fear. In this example, the unconditioned stimulus is:
the spider.
Zarita's instructor wants students in the class to choose a lab partner. Zarita's friends tell her that Theo is very trustworthy and that he will not slack off during the class. The research on trustworthiness suggests that Zarita will continue to view Theo as _____, regardless of his behaviour.
trustworthy