CH 7 (The First 2 Years: Psychosocial Development)
How does stress during infancy affect brain development?
-excessive stress impairs the brain, particularly in areas associated with emotions -hypothalamus grows more slowly -abnormal activation in parts of the brian in response to stress
What are 1-year-olds afraid of?
-fear not only strangers and being separated from caregiver but also unexpected sights/sounds
attachment
an affectional tie that an infant forms /w a caregiver--a tie that binds them together in space and endures over time
Do babies' temperament change?
-Many factors, both nature/nurture, underlie every trait of temperament/personality -Some studies find that fearful, inhibited infants most likely to change and exuberant children least likely. This speaks to the influence of child-rearing methods. Adults coax frightened children to be brave.They are reassuring and don't act frightened themselves. They also encourage exuberant children to stay happy. Parental attitudes/actions were likely to cause changes -But some fearful children do not change and it's not known whether it's b/c their parents are not sufficiently reassuring (nurture) or b/c they're temperamentally more fearful (nature)
oral stage
-according to Freud, the first year of life so named b/c the mouth is the young infant's primary source of gratification
What did the still face technique/experiment reveal?
-babies are very upset at still face, esp of their parents. -babies frown, fuss, drool, look away, kick, cry, suck at fingers, babble more. -young brains need social interaction to develop their fullest
What emotions are present at about 2-4 months?
-infants express social joy, laughter, curiosity between 2-4 months -at 4 months, infants have full responsive smiles
How would behaviorists explain family and cultural patterns of personality traits?
-stresses caregiving -emotions/personalty are molded as parents reinforce behaviors they want their child to learn or punish a child's spontaneous behaviors or as they thoughtlessly teach unwanted behaviors (social learning)
What 5 essential characteristics of high quality day care
1.) adequate attention to each infant (2 adults for a group of 5 or less) 2.) encouragement of language and sensorimotor development (there must be language--songs, conversations--and easily manipulated toys) 3.) attention to health/safety (washing hand routines, safe place to play, no tiny objects around) 4.) professional caregivers (experienced/ have degrees or certificates in ECE) 5.) warm/responsive caregivers
What are the 2 ways infants show attachment?
1.) proximality-seeking (such as approaching/following their caregiver) 2.) contact-maintaining (such as talking, touching, snuggling, holding) -contact can be visual or verbal
What are the first emotions to appear in very young infants?
2 emotions: contentment and distress (crying) -newborns look happy/relaxed when fed and drifting to sleep. They cry when hurt/hungry/tired/frightened
All the research finds that traces of childhood temperament endure, blossoming into adult personality, but all the research also confirms that innate tendencies are only part of the store. CONTEXT ALWAYS SHAPES BEHAVIOR.
All the research finds that traces of childhood temperament endure, blossoming into adult personality, but all the research also confirms that innate tendencies are only part of the store. CONTEXT ALWAYS SHAPES BEHAVIOR.
Fathers affect mother's stress levels and if the mother is highly stressed, that stress can harm their child. Contemporary fathers also directly affect infants' stress: if they're intrusive and critical caregivers, their babies by 7 months have higher levels of cortisol levels in response to challenged
Fathers affect mother's stress levels and if the mother is highly stressed, that stress can harm their child. Contemporary fathers also directly affect infants' stress: if they're intrusive and critical caregivers, their babies by 7 months have higher levels of cortisol levels in response to challenged
What is the evolutionary explanation of attachment?
Attachment is a reflection of a universal trait. Over history, proximity-seeking and contact maintaining fostered the survival of the species by keeping toddlers near their caregivers and the caregiver vigilant. All of us inherited these impulses from our ancestors who would have died w/o them
Brain maturation is involved in all the emotional development. Varied experiences/good nutrition promote both brain growth and emotional development. Emotional reactions begin /w neurons connecting to other neurons.
Brain maturation is involved in all the emotional development. Varied experiences/good nutrition promote both brain growth and emotional development. Emotional reactions begin /w neurons connecting to other neurons.
Emotions take on new strength during toddlerhood. For example, throughout the 2nd year and beyond, anger/fear become less frequent but more focused,targeted toward infuriating or terrifying experiences. Laughing and crying become louder and more discriminating. That is, social awareness produces more selective fear, anger, & joy
Emotions take on new strength during toddlerhood. For example, throughout the 2nd year and beyond, anger/fear become less frequent but more focused,targeted toward infuriating or terrifying experiences. Laughing and crying become louder and more discriminating. That is, social awareness produces more selective fear, anger, & joy
autonomy vs shame/doubt
Erikson's 2nd psychosocial crisis -toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their own actions/bodies -w/o authority over their own body/actions, they feel ashamed and doubtful
trust vs mistrust
Erikson's first psychosocial crisis -infants learn basic trust if their basic needs (for food, comfort and attention) are met
Ethnotheories are apparent /w emotional development. A simple example comes from whenever a baby cries: Is the baby expressing pain, anger, or just normal activity. Adults interpret it through their own culture's lens /w some adults rushing to comfort the baby and others believing that the baby should cry to strengthen their lungs/independence
Ethnotheories are apparent /w emotional development. A simple example comes from whenever a baby cries: Is the baby expressing pain, anger, or just normal activity. Adults interpret it through their own culture's lens /w some adults rushing to comfort the baby and others believing that the baby should cry to strengthen their lungs/independence
Ethnotheories often limit father-child involvement, /w some mothers believing that childcare is the special domain of women and some fathers thinking it unmanly to dote on infants. But in many nations, ethnotheories about fathers are changing as fathers become more involved with their infant.
Ethnotheories often limit father-child involvement, /w some mothers believing that childcare is the special domain of women and some fathers thinking it unmanly to dote on infants. But in many nations, ethnotheories about fathers are changing as fathers become more involved with their infant.
___help with infant's mastery of motor skills and development of muscle control
Fathers
Fathers and mothers interact to provide infant care by cooperating and complementing each other, each giving the infant what the other does not. Mothers are usually the caregivers and fathers the playmate
Fathers and mothers interact to provide infant care by cooperating and complementing each other, each giving the infant what the other does not. Mothers are usually the caregivers and fathers the playmate
Securely attached infants are more likely to become secure toddlers, socially competent preschoolers, high-achieving schoolchildren, and capable parents. However, harsh contexts, esp the stress of poverty, make secure attachment less likely, which means that later problems can be blamed on SES, not specifically an attachment.
Securely attached infants are more likely to become secure toddlers, socially competent preschoolers, high-achieving schoolchildren, and capable parents. However, harsh contexts, esp the stress of poverty, make secure attachment less likely, which means that later problems can be blamed on SES, not specifically an attachment.
Ideally, infants develop a working model of the self as valued, loved and competent and a working model of parents as emotionally available, sensitive and supportive. But reality doesn't always conform to his ideal. A 1 yr old might develop a model, based on her parents inconsistent responses to her, that ppl are unpredictable. She'll continue to apply that model to everyone: Her childhood friendship will be insecure and her adult relationships will be guarded. Such a girl develops a cognitive schema to organize her perceptions.
Ideally, infants develop a working model of the self as valued, loved and competent and a working model of parents as emotionally available, sensitive and supportive. But reality doesn't always conform to this ideal. A 1 yr old might develop a model, based on her parents inconsistent responses to her, that ppl are unpredictable. She'll continue to apply that model to everyone: Her childhood friendship will be insecure and her adult relationships will be guarded. Such a girl develops a cognitive schema to organize her perceptions.
In the second year, as infants become more self-aware, they express emotions connected to themselves-including pride, shame, guilt, and embarrassment,--and others
In the second year, as infants become more self-aware, they express emotions connected to themselves-including pride, shame, guilt, and embarrassment,--and others
Like Freud, Erikson believed that problems in early infancy could last a lifetime, creating adults who are suspicious/pessimistic (mistrusting) or easily shamed (lacking autonomy)
Like Freud, Erikson believed that problems in early infancy could last a lifetime, creating adults who are suspicious/pessimistic (mistrusting) or easily shamed (lacking autonomy)
Nations/families vary in how much nonmaternal infant care they use as well as in the quality of that care.
Nations/families vary in how much nonmaternal infant care they use as well as in the quality of that care.
Parents are influenced not only by ethnotheories of their ethnic group but also by personal theories that arose from their own family or personal history. For instance, some parents blame their infants for crying not realizing that young infants have no control over their crying or much else. Caregivers can respond to such emotions, but can't eliminate them
Parents are influenced not only by ethnotheories of their ethnic group but also by personal theories that arose from their own family or personal history. For instance, some parents blame their infants for crying not realizing that young infants have no control over their crying or much else. Caregivers can respond to such emotions, but can't eliminate them
Particular people arouse specific emotions. This is the result of past experiences and neurological maturation, as a sequence of neurons that fire together become more closely and quickly connected in the brain.
Particular people arouse specific emotions. This is the result of past experiences and neurological maturation, as a sequence of neurons that fire together become more closely and quickly connected in the brain.
Responsive parenting early in life leads to a secure parent-child relationship that buffers later stress and encourages later exploration
Responsive parenting early in life leads to a secure parent-child relationship that buffers later stress and encourages later exploration
Social learning theory acknowledges inborn temperament but stresses parental example. Shyness may be inborn, for instance, but parents who model social interaction will help a withdrawn child become more outgoing.
Social learning theory acknowledges inborn temperament but stresses parental example. Shyness may be inborn, for instance, but parents who model social interaction will help a withdrawn child become more outgoing.
Explain how specific aspects of brain maturation support social emotions.
Social smile/laughter appear as the cortex matures. The same is true for nonreflexive fear, self-awareness and anger. -maturation of the anterior cingulate gyrus is connected to emotional self-regulation
The tendency of one part of the brain to activate another may also occur for emotions. An infant's cry may be triggered by fear, pain, tiredness, surprise or excitement; laughter can turn into tear
The tendency of one part of the brain to activate another may also occur for emotions. An infant's cry may be triggered by fear, pain, tiredness, surprise or excitement; laughter can turn into tear
The consequences/effects of nonmaternal care are an ongoing subject of debate. Each study reflects several possible variables and consequently researchers find mixed evidence on infant day care. Many factors are relevant that can affect child development: infant sex/ temperament, family income/culture/ education, and the quality of care at home and elsewhere
The consequences of nonmaternal care are an ongoing subject of debate. Each study reflects several possible variables and consequently researchers find mixed evidence on infant day care. Many factors are relevant that can affect child development: infant sex/ temperament, family income/culture/ education, and the quality of care at home and elsewhere
Fathers are more likely to elicit smiles and laughter from their infants than mothers are. True or False.
True
True of False. Anxious/difficult children are more affected by their parents' responsiveness than are easy-going children
True
True or False. A balanced reaction, being concerned but not overwhelmed by comings and goings, is an indication of secure attachment.
True
True or False. Adults high in extroversion (surgency), high in agreeableness (effortful control), and low in neuroticism (negative mood) tend to become warmer and more competent parents
True
True or False. Close father-infant relationship can teach infants (esp boys) appropriate expressions of emotions, particularly of anger.
True
True or False. Ineffective or harsh parenting combined with a negative temperament creates antisocial, destructive children
True
Describe an instance of synchrony
When a parent detects an emotion from an infant's facial expressions/body motions and then responds /w exaggerated tones/expressions, the infant reciprocates /w smile and moving limbs/waving arms. The infant also learns to connect and internal state /w an external expression.
Can fathers provide the same care as mothers?
YES -synchrony, attachment and social referencing are all apparent /w fathers and they enhance their childrens' social/emotional development in many ways
synchrony
a coordinated, rapid and smooth interaction/exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infant -usually begins /w parents imitating infants
insecure-avoidant attachment
a pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection /w caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure or return -child plays happily in play room and when mom leaves. Child ignored mom when she returns
insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment
a pattern of attachment in which anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when an infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion -in play room, child clings/is preoccupied with mother. When mom leaves, child is unhappy and may stop playing. When mom returns, child is angry, may cry/hit mother/cling
self-awareness
a person's realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose mind, body, and actions are separate from those of other ppl -usually occurs at 18 months
secure attachment
a relationship (type B) in which an infant obtains both comfort/confidence from the presence of his/her caregiver -the caregiver becomes a base for exploration, providing assurance that enables exploration -plays happily in play room. When mom leaves, the child pauses/is not as happy. When the mom returns, child welcomes her and returns to play
social smile
a smile evoked by the human face at 6 weeks
ethnotheories
a theory that underlies the values/practices of a culture but is not usually apparent to the ppl within the culture -shape infant emotions and traits so that they fit well within the culture -many child-rearing practices arise from ethnotheories
Disorganized attachment
a type of attachment that's marked by an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregivers departure/return -infant may shift from hitting to kissing their mothers, from staring blankly to crying hysterically
anal stage
according to Freud, the 2nd year of life in which the infant's main pleasure comes from the anus, particularly, from the sensual pleasure of bowel movements and eventually the psychological pleasure of controlling them
Describe the mutuality of synchrony
adults rarely smile at newborns until the infant smiles at them, at which point the adult grins broadly and talks animatedly
What is this an example of? Parents readily use deception to get their children to do what they want
an ethnotheory
What emotions are present at about 4-8 months?
anger (usually 6 months) triggered by frustration -anger is evident when infants are prevented from grabbing and object they want or moving as they wish -they hate being tied, strapped, closed in when they want to explore
Why does synchrony and face-to-face play disappear at the end of the first year?
b/c once infants can move around, they are no longer content to respond to adult facial expression.
Why does synesthesia seem to be more common in infants than adults?
b/c the boundaries between the sensory parts of the cortex are still forming. Textures seem associated with vision, sounds with smells, and the infant's own body seems connected to the bodies of others. The sensory connections are called cross-modal perception
proximal parenting
caregiving practice that involves being physically close to a baby, /w frequent touching and holding -results in toddlers who are less self-aware but more compliant, as needed in an interdependent society
distal parenting
caregiving practices that involve remaining distant from a baby, providing toys, food, and face-to face communication with minimal holding and touching -results in toddlers who are self aware but less obedient, as needed when culture values independence/self-reliance
childcare that occurs in a place especially designed for the purpose where several paid adults care for many children. Usually children are grouped by age, the day-care is licensed, and providers and trained/education/certified in child development
center day care
-this view holds that thought/values determine a person's perspective -early experiences are important b/c beliefs, perception and memories make them so not b/c they're buried in the unconscious or burned into brain patterns -the interpretations of early experiences are crucial
cognitive theory
bouts of uncontrollable crying -probably the result of immature digestion
colic
How is father-infant interaction different from mother-infant interaction?
contemporary fathers feed, diaper and bathe children but typically mother engage in more caregiving/comforting and fathers in more high intensity play. -fathers provide excitement; mothers caress,read,sing
What kind of attachment is this an example of? In the playroom, the child is cautious. When Mom leaves, the child may stare or yell; looks scared/confused. When mom returns, child acts oddly--may scream, hit self, throw things
disorganized attachment
What are the 4 categories of temperal traits?
easy, difficult, slow to warm up, and hard to classify
What are the 3 dimensions of temperament clearly present in early childhood?
effortful control (able to regulate attention, balanced) negative mood (fearful, angry, unhappy) surgency (active, social, not shy, exuberant)
Another example of ____involves a culture's idea about how frequently parents should carry and cuddle their children
ethnotheory
childcare that occurs in the home of someone to whom the child is not related and who usually cares for several children of various ages -the quality of this varies; if ages vary, infants/toddlers may get less attention than older children who resent them
family day care
What emotions are present at about 9-14 months?
fear of social events (strangers, separation from caregiver)
With a ____, parents of difficult babies build a close/affectionate relationship; parents of exuberant babies learn to protect them from harm' parents of slow to warm up toddlers encourage them while giving them time to adjust. Parent must do most of the accomodating
good fit
a similarity of temperament and values that produces a smooth interaction between an individual and his/her social context, including family, school, community -an adjustment that allows smooth infant-caregiver interaction
goodness of fit
How is the oral stage fraught /w potential conflicts that have long term consequences?
if mother frustrates her infant's urge to suck, the child might become distressed/anxious, eventually becoming and adult /w and oral fixation. Such a person is stuck at the oral stage and thus eats, drinks, chews or bites excessively in quest of mouth related pleasure denied in infancy
How is the anal stage fraught /w potential conflicts that have long term consequences?
if toilet training is too strict or begins before the infant is mature enough, parent and infant may become locked into a conflict over the toddler's refusal, or inability, to comply. The child develops an anal personality--as an adult, seeking self-control /w unusually strong need for regularity in all aspects of life
working model
in cognitive theory, a set of assumptions that the individual uses to organize perception and experiences and that becomes a frame of reference for later life -it's a model b/c these early relationships are a prototype or blueprint for later relationships -it's working b/c although it is used, it's not final
temperament
inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity and self-regulation -it is epigentic, originating in genes but affected by experience--the result of child-rearing practices, culture, and learning
What are the following predictors of? 1.) the parent mistreat the child 2.) mother is mentally ill 3.) parents are highly stresses about income, children, or their marriage 4.) parents are alcoholics 5.) child's temperament is difficult or slow to warm up 6.) parents ar eintrusive/controlling
insecure attachment
If a child plays independently w/o maintaining contact with the caregiver, what kind of attachment is this?
insecure-avoidant attachment
What are the 4 types of attachment?
insecure-avoidant attachment (A) secure attachment (B) insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment (C) disorganized attachment (D)
social learning
learning that is accomplished by observing others
What is the different between personality and temperament?
personality traits (honesty, humility) are thought to be primarily LEARNED whereas temperamental traits (shyness/aggression) are considered primarily GENETIC
What are the following predictors of? 1.) the parent is usually sensitive and responsive to the infant's needs 2.) the infant-parent relationship is high in synchrony 3.) the infant's temperament is easy 4.) the parent's aren't stressed about income, other children or marriage 5.) parents have a working model of secure attachment to their own parents
secure attachment
social referencing
seeking info about how to react to an unfamiliar or ambiguous object or event by observing someone else's expressions and reactions. That other person becomes a social reference
What emotions are present at about 18 months?
self-awareness and new emotions like pride, shame, embarrassment, disgust/guilt. -these emotions require social awareness, which emerges from family interaction and is influenced by culture
The mirror/rouge test was used to see if infants had an understanding of what?
self-awareness/recognition
an infant's distress when a familiar caregiver leaves, expressed in tears, dismay, or anger
separation anxiety
What is this an example of? In many families, toddlers express emotions in various ways--from giggling to cursing--just as they have seen their parents or older sibling do.
social learning
A glance of reassurance or words of caution or an expression of alarm, pleasure of dismay are examples of what?
social reference
an experimental practice in which adults keep face unmoving and expressionless in face-to-face interaction /w an infant
still face technique
a lab procedure for measuring attachment by evoking infants' reactions to stress in 8 episodes of 3 minute each
strange situation
an infant's expression of concern--a quiet stare, clinging to a familiar person, or sadness--when a stranger appears
stranger wariness
What are 2 kinds of social fear?
stranger wariness & separation anxiety
Via ____, infants learn to read others' emotions and to develop the skills of social interaction, such as taking turn and paying attention.
synchrony
a phenomenon in which one sense triggers another in the brain
synesthesia
biologically based core of individual differences in style of approach and response to the environment that is stable across time/situations
temperament
Big 5
the 5 basic clusters of personality traits that remain quite stable throughout life:openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism
What is the most common form of synesthesia for adults and older children?
when a # or letter evokes a vivid color
Early relationships help infants develop a _____.
working model