Ch2 cont.

Compare the goals of researchers who use the observational method, the correlational method, and the experimental method. Provide an example of a question that is best addressed by each method.

-observational method is used to describe a phenomenon and often used to test hunches EXAMPLE????? -correlational method is designed to determine the relation between two variables and is useful in making predictions -experimental method is used to determine whether two variables are related -the only method in which you can determine causation -EXAMPLE (pg 31-41)

Where do theories come from in social psychology, and how do social psychologists refine them?

-reading and thinking about previous theories and research -personal observations -once they reach a hypothesis, the hypothesis is tested empirically -the hypothesis is then revised -etc. -process yields a cumulative body of knowledge about human behaviour

A developmental psychologist who used the correlational method found that there was a positive correlation between children's self-esteem and their academic achievement. First, what does a positive correlation mean in this case? Second, how might these results be explained?

1 - positive correlation means that children with high self esteem (the low) also manifest high (low) academic achievement 2 - results -high self esteem = higher confidence so they try harder and achieve more -high achievement boosts childrens self confidence ans self esteem -another variable like parental involvement might cause both self-esteem and achievement to be correlated

Explain the two essential features of internal validity in experimentation

1) Ensure that nothing other than the independent variable can affect the dependent variable by controlling all extraneous variables (those that might affect the dependent variable). 2) Ensure that there is random assignment of subjects: that is, all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to each condition of the experiment.

What are some possible advantages and disadvantages associated with using surveys to enhance our understanding of social behaviour?

Although surveys are useful in collecting data about behaviours that cannot easily be observed directly and surveys can afford the prediction of behaviours, the data they generate are correlational data, so unequivocal cause-and-effect conclusions cannot be drawn. In addition, nonrepresentative surveys can yield inaccurate results and conclusions. Finally, even surveys collected from representative samples can yield inaccurate responses due to unclear or leading questions or inaccurate respondent recall or reports.

How do social psychologists who do basic research differ from social psychologists who do applied research?

Basic research is conducted to satisfy scientific and intellectual curiosity; basic researchers seek answers to questions about human behaviour solely to test a specific hypothesis or theory. Applied research is conducted with an eye toward elucidating the sources of, or finding solutions to, real-world social problems. Of course, applied researchers should and do rely on basic research findings that provide information on psychological processes and social influence.

According to the authors, cross-cultural research "...is not a simple matter of traveling to another culture, translating materials into the local language, and replicating the study there." What factors make conducting cross-cultural research difficult?

First, researchers must make sure that they are not imposing their own viewpoints learned in their own culture onto another culture with which they aren't familiar. Second, they must make sure that the independent and dependent variables are interpreted the same way in different cultures. Third, they need to be aware that there are subtle norms or values in different cultures, and that these may be operating in a new culture, without the researcher's awareness.

What happens during a typical post-experimental debriefing?

If any deception was used, the deception and the reasons for it are explained to participants. The experimenter looks for any lingering discomfort and works to eliminate it. The experimenter tells participants about the goals and purposes of the research, so that participation serves an educational function. Experimenters question their participants about their experiences, listen to what they say, and answer any of their questions.

"What is the relation between viewing violence on the one hand, and behaving aggressively on the other hand?" How might an observational researcher, a correlational researcher, and an experimental researcher answer that question?

Observational researchers might systematically observe how much violence children watch on television and how aggressively they behave on the playground or in the classroom; they might also conduct archival research, comparing rape statistics with the availability of violent pornography. Correlational researchers might use surveys to see whether there is a relation between what people watch on television and their self-reports of aggressive behaviours; alternatively, they could survey parents about children's viewing habits and survey teachers about the children's behaviours. Minimally, experimental researchers would randomly assign participants to one of two experimental conditions (experimental and control groups) that systematically vary in violent content, and collect dependent measures of participants' aggressive behaviours.

Briefly define psychological realism and mundane realism, and provide an example of each.

Psychological realism in an experiment refers to the extent to which experimental manipulations evoke the same psychological processes in participants that are evoked in the world outside the laboratory; manipulations that are powerful and believable are psychologically real. Mundane realism refers to the extent to which experimental manipulations or procedures mirror situations encountered in real life. -EXAMPLES

What is the basic dilemma of the social psychologist, as described by the authors?

There is frequently a trade-off between internal and external validity. More specifically, there is a trade-off between (1) having enough experimental control to eliminate extraneous variables and to use random assignment and (2) ensuring that results can be generalized to everyday life.

Describe two kinds of generalizability that experimental social psychologists can use to enhance the external validity of their experiments. Explain how each kind can be achieved.

They can ensure there is generalizability across situations by increasing mundane realism (the extent to which the experimental situation resembles a real-life situation) and/or by increasing psychological realism (the extent to which the psychological processes evoked in the experiment resemble real-life ones). One way to increase psychological realism for participants is to provide a realistic cover story for the experiment. Secondly, they can ensure generalizability across people by using replication of the experiment with different populations, in different settings, or using different methods. Further, meta-analyses, averaging the results of many studies in different contexts, can also indicate if an effect is reliable.

Provide a hypothesis that can be tested using the experimental method. Identify the independent variable and the dependent variable in your experiment.

Whatever the hypothesis, the independent variable is the variable that is manipulated; there must be at least two levels of the independent variable for the study to be an experiment. Whatever the hypothesis, the dependent variable is the variable that is measured; it may be an attitude, a feeling, a belief, or a behaviour.

An experimenter conducts a program of research to determine what types of messages are most effective in promoting condom use among adolescents. How would you classify this type of research? A) applied research B) secondary research C) basic research D) descriptive research E) primary research

a) applied research

In social psychology, the technique of meta-analysis is most like ________ research. A) archival B) survey C) experimental D) correlational E) observational

a) archival

If a researcher were to use deception as part of her experimental procedure, when would she explain the purpose of this deception to her participants? A) During the debriefing. B) Immediately preceding the experimental manipulation. C) Before obtaining informed consent. D) After she has analyzed the data. E) Before collecting any dependent measures.

a) during the debriefing

The procedure whereby the researcher explains the nature of the study and participants then decide whether or not to participate is called A) informed consent. B) experimental debriefing. C) experimental review. D) a truthful cover story. E) pre-experimental briefing.

a) informed consent

Kurt Lewin once wrote, "There is nothing so practical as a good theory." By that, Lewin was referring to the idea that A) to solve social problems, psychologists must understand the processes that underlie them. B) basic researchers should have a higher status in the field of social psychology. C) basic researchers should not be afraid to conduct applied research aimed at solving social problems. D) applied researchers should have a higher status in the field of social psychology. E) the line between basic and applied researcher is clearer in social psychology than in other sciences.

a) to solve social problems, psychologists must understand the processes that underlie them

Cross-cultural research has revealed that A) Western cultures emphasize individualism and independence. B) Westerners are more likely to intervene in an emergency than are people in the East. C) American researchers have historically imposed their own values on other cultures. D) many Eastern cultures have no concept of "emergency." E) there are few differences between Western and Eastern culture.

a) western cultures emphasize individualism and independence

When Latané and Darley (1970) later tested the effects of the number of bystanders on whether people intervene in an emergency, they left the laboratory and staged a fake theft at a convenience store. This new study was A) covered in the New York Times. B) a non-experimental field study that supported experimental results. C) low in external validity. D) unsuccessful, demonstrating the low external validity of their lab experiments. E) a field experiment that replicated laboratory results.

b) a non-experimental field study that supported experimental results

The two main goals of cross-cultural research are to ________ and to ________. A) increase internal validity; replicate questionable findings B) demonstrate human universals; explore cultural differences C) increase external validity; secure unbiased samples D) explore cultural differences; replicate questionable findings E) demonstrate human universals; replicate questionable findings

b) demonstrate human universals; explore cultural differences

Although field experiments may be high in ________, they often lack ________. A) mundane realism; psychological realism B) external validity; internal validity C) psychological realism; mundane realism D) internal validity; psychological realism E) internal validity; external validity

b) external validity; internal validity

Social neuroscience examines A) social behaviour among neuroscientists. B) the correlation of social information processing and brain activity. C) how social behaviour affects brain development. D) the correlation of social action and motor activity in the brain. E) brain activity in social scientists.

b) the correlation of social information processing and brain activity

The notion of "the basic dilemma of the social psychologist" refers to A) whether or not to conduct ethically questionable research. B) the trade-off between internal and external validity. C) the trade-off between correlational and experimental research. D) the trade-off between independent and dependent variables. E) whether or not to use deception in their experiments.

b) the trade-off between internal and external validity

The study of brain processes is ________ in social psychology ________. A) not relevant; as the focus is on social thoughts, feelings and behaviour B) well developed; and especially used to study cultural differences C) a recent area; called social neuroscience D) used; to carry out applied rather than basic research E) only relevant; for research on anti-social behaviour

c) a recent area; called social neuroscience

Consider the following (fictitious) conclusion reached by a social psychologist: "After analyzing a sample of over 578 experiments, we have concluded that the question of whether men are more likely than women to help is difficult to answer. Based on the findings of this large number of studies, we have concluded that men are more likely to help when helping demands physical risk or 'chivalry;' otherwise, there are no reliable gender differences in helping." This conclusion about the reliability of the relation between gender and helping was most likely based on A) pure conjecture. B) surveys of researchers. C) meta-analytic techniques. D) correlational research. E) experimental procedures.

c) meta-analytic techniques

Which of the following is an ethical concern in social psychological research? A) It is often difficult to debrief participants in a study. B) Undoing the effects of a plausible cover story can be difficult. C) Participants are sometimes exposed to upsetting situations. D) Participants must sometimes be discouraged from withdrawing prematurely from the experiment. E) People do not have a choice about the experimental condition to which they are assigned.

c) participants are sometimes exposed to upsetting situations

Basic research is to ________ as applied research is to ________. A) correlation; causation B) experiments; surveys C) satisfying intellectual curiosity; solving social problems D) biological sciences; social sciences E) experiments; observational research

c) satisfying intellectual curiosity; solving social problems

What is one of the main problems faced by researchers who want to test their theories cross-culturally? A) It is difficult to find funding to study culture. B) Basic psychological processes inevitably differ from culture to culture. C) Variables may have to be changed so that their meaning is understood in the same way across cultures. D) Ethical laws often prohibit psychologists from studying phenomena in all cultures. E) Because experimental social psychology is historically an American enterprise, it is difficult to secure funding for cross-cultural research.

c) variables may have to be changed so that their meaning is understood in the same way across cultures

Conceptually, what distinguishes laboratory from field experiments is A) whether there is a dependent variable. B) whether there is an independent variable. C) where the experiment is conducted. D) the number of participants. E) whether there is random assignment.

c) where the experiment is conducted

What technique will most efficiently determine the generalizability of social-psychological findings conducted in different situations and with different people? A) A series of replications. B) A conceptual review of the literature. C) A case study analysis. D) A meta-analysis. E) Multiple experiments that use random sampling.

d) a meta-analysis

Which of the following is one of the ethical principles that psychologists must follow when using human participants? All participants must be A) contacted six months after the study to assure that no psychological harm resulted. B) compensated in some way for their participation in research. C) informed of the true nature of the study upon arriving at the laboratory. D) informed that they can withdraw from the study at any time. E) over the age of 18.

d) informed that they can withdraw from the study at any time

There is invariably a trade-off between ________ and ________ in social psychology experiments. A) mundane realism; psychological realism B) validity; reliability C) independent variables; dependent variables D) internal validity; external validity E) psychological realism; reliability

d) internal validity; external validity

A major difference between a field experiment and a laboratory experiment is that A) Mundane realism is higher in a field experiment. B) The levels of the independent variable cannot be controlled by the experimenter. C) The results on the dependent variable are less predictable due to the variable behaviours of participants in a real-life setting. D) Participants are unaware of their involvement in a psychology experiment. E) Psychological realism is lower in a field experiment.

d) participants are unaware of their involvement in a psychology experiment

According to your text, when conducting experiments in social psychology, there is almost always a trade-off between A) mundane and psychological realism. B) random selection and random assignment. C) basic and applied research. D) funding and replication. E) internal and external validity.

e) internal and external validity

Researchers at the University of Manitoba assessed attitudes toward deception research in 1970 and again in 1990 (Sharpe, Adair & Roese, 1992). The results show that A) participants who were deceived were less likely to agree that deception research was necessary. B) although students did not react negatively to the deception experiments they did show a greater distrust of psychologists. C) attitudes toward deception research were less favourable in the more recent (1990) survey. D) attitudes toward deception research were more favourable in the more recent (1990) survey. E) respondents did not feel negatively about their experiences in either time period.

e) respondents didn't feel negatively about their experiences in either time period

Before the experiment begins, the researcher is ethically obligated to A) get permission from the Canadian Psychological Association. B) debrief all participants. C) randomly assign subjects to conditions. D) provide a cover story. E) secure informed consent.

e) secure informed consent

From an ethical perspective, what two goals often collide in social psychological research? On the one hand, social psychologists ________; on the other hand, they ________. A) provide cover stories to disguise their true purposes; debrief participants at the close of the study B) use a limited number of participants in their studies; want to generalize to all people C) are concerned about their participants; want to find interesting results D) want to satisfy their intellectual curiosity; want to respond to real-life problems E) seek both mundane and psychological realism; don't want to cause participants unnecessary discomfort or harm

e) seek both mundane and psychological realism; don't want to cause participants unnecessary discomfort or harm

If Professor Klein is using EEGs and fMRIs to study social behaviour, she is most likely to be involved in A) clinical psychology. B) computer science research. C) research on internet social networking. D) cognitive neuroscience. E) social neuroscience.

e) social neuroscience

In describing the intricacies of cross-cultural research, the authors of your text assert that it's not as simple as translating one's materials into an appropriate language, traveling to another culture, and conducting the experiment there. Which of the following statements best captures the role of construals in making cross-cultural research very difficult to do? A) It is very difficult to translate some cover stories and dependent measures into some languages. B) There is variability among people, even within the same culture. C) People in different cultures differ on a number of personal characteristics. D) The experimenter may be culturally biased. E) The same experimental situation can have different meanings in different cultures.

e) the same experimental situation can have different meanings in different cultures

Which statement below best captures the major ethical dilemma faced by experimental social psychologists? A) The good of the many often comes at the costs to the few. B) Some people do not enjoy participating in psychological research. C) Research results can be misused by those in power. D) It is necessary to lie to discover the truth. E) What is good science may not be ethical science.

e) what is good science may not be ethical science