Ch.22 Respiratory System (Outline part 2)

Carbon dioxide transport: Approximately _______% of carbon dioxide is dissolved in blood plasma.

7%

Carbon dioxide transport: Approximately ______% of carbon dioxide that enters the blood from the tissues diffuses into RBCs.

93%

High Altitude Effects: _____________ - the process of adjustment that the respiratory system makes due to chronic exposure to a high altitude.

Acclimatization

High Altitude Effects: _____________, or altitude sickness, - a condition that results from acute exposure to high altitudes due to a low partial pressure of oxygen at high altitudes.

Acute mountain sickness (AMS)

Four primary types of Hypoxia: __________ hypoxia - not enough oxygen in blood due to low RBC counts or due to the inability of hemoglobin to bind oxygen. Blood loss or carbon monoxide poisoning are examples.

Anemic

Disorders of the Respiratory System ____________ - respiratory passages are extremely sensitive to irritants resulting in constriction of the airways, inflammation and edema within the mucosa of the passageways, and accelerated mucus production. Can be caused by allergies, toxins, or exercise.

Asthma

More Disorders of the Respiratory System: _______________ - collapsed lung.

Atelectasis

Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System: ____________ - Prior to birth, the lungs are filled with amniotic fluid, mucus, and surfactant. As the fetus is squeezed through the birth canal much of this fluid is expelled. The first inhalation occurs within 10 seconds after birth and not only serves as the first inspiration, but also acts to inflate the lungs. Pulmonary surfactant is critical for inflation to occur, as it reduces the surface tension of the alveoli. Preterm birth around 26 weeks frequently results in severe respiratory distress.

Birth

Transport of Gasses: Oxygen transport in the blood The remaining 1-2% of oxygen in blood is dissolved in the ___________.

Blood plasma

Gas Exchange: The principles that govern the movement and diffusion of gas molecules are relatively straightforward. These principles are known as the gas laws and include: . __________ Law - the volume (V) of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure (P). As the gas volume increases, its pressure decreases.

Boyle's Law

Gas Exchange: The principles that govern the movement and diffusion of gas molecules are relatively straightforward. These principles are known as the gas laws and include ___________.

Boyle's Law (already mentioned), Dalton's Law, and Henry's Law.

Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System: Embryonic Timeline: Weeks 7-16?

Bronchial buds continue to branch as development progresses until all of the segmental bronchi have been formed. Beginning around week 13, the lumens of the bronchi begin to expand in diameter. By week 16, respiratory bronchioles form. The fetus now has all major lung structures involved in the airway.

Disorders of the Respiratory System __________ - a general term indicating a progressive disorder of the airways that restricts airflow and reduces alveolar ventilation..

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases (COPD

Disorders of the Respiratory System _____________ - a long-term inflammation and swelling of the bronchial lining, leading to overproduction of mucous secretions. The characteristic sign is frequent coughing with copious sputum production. Commonly related to cigarette smoking but also results from other environmental irritants. Often described as "blue bloater" as a result of the edema from heart failure and skin turning blue from lack of oxygenation.

Chronic bronchitis

Disorders of the Respiratory System ____________ - the most common lethal inherited disorder among Caucasians of Northern European descent. Causes an increase in mucus produced by the mucus membranes of the respiratory and digestive tracts. Within the lungs, the excess mucus inhibits gas exchanged and clogged respiratory passages. Frequency is 1 in 2500 births.

Cystic Fibrosis

Gas Exchange: The principles that govern the movement and diffusion of gas molecules are relatively straightforward. These principles are known as the gas laws and include: . __________ Law - the sum of all the partial pressures equals the total pressure exerted by a gas mixture.

Dalton's Law

Oxygen reversibly binds to hemoglobin. The affinity of oxygen to hemoglobin changes in the lungs to stimulate loading of oxygen onto hemoglobin while the tissues stimulate the unloading of oxygen from the hemoglobin so that it can diffuse from the blood and out to the tissues. _____________ - PO2 is high, PCO2 is low, pH is high, and temperature is low. All of these factors increase oxygen's affinity for hemoglobin and therefore oxygen loading occurs and hemoglobin saturation increases.

During external respiration

Oxygen reversibly binds to hemoglobin. The affinity of oxygen to hemoglobin changes in the lungs to stimulate loading of oxygen onto hemoglobin while the tissues stimulate the unloading of oxygen from the hemoglobin so that it can diffuse from the blood and out to the tissues. ______________ - PO2 is low, PCO2 is high, pH is low, and temperature is high. All of these factors decrease oxygen's affinity for hemoglobin and therefore oxygen unloads from the hemoglobin and the hemoglobin saturation declines

During internal respiration

Lung cancer: _______________ - cells are damaged and their functional characteristics change; smoking paralyzes the cilia of the pseudostratified columnar epithelium lining the respiratory passages and causes a local buildup of mucus. May be reversed.

Dysplasia

More Disorders of the Respiratory System: ____________ - difficult or labored breathing.

Dyspnea

Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System Begins at about week 4 of gestation. By week 28, enough alveoli have matured that a baby born prematurely at this time can usually breathe on its own. The respiratory system, however, is not fully developed until early childhood, when a full complement of mature alveoli is present. Embryonic Timeline: Week 4 ?

Ectodermal tissue from the anterior head region invaginates posteriorly to form olfactory pits, which fuse with endodermal tissue of the developing pharynx. An olfactory pit enlarges to become the nasal cavity. The lung bud is a dome-shaped structure composed of tissue that bulges from the foregut. The foregut is endoderm just inferior to the pharyngeal pouches. The laryngotracheal bud forms from the longitudinal extension of the lung bud as development progresses. The portion of this structure nearest the pharynx becomes the trachea, whereas the distal end becomes more bulbous, forming bronchial buds. A bronchial bud will eventually become the bronchi and all other lower respiratory structures.

Disorders of the Respiratory System _____________ - a chronic, progressive condition characterized by shortness of breath and an inability to tolerate physical exertion. The underlying problem is the destruction of alveolar surfaces and inadequate surface area for oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange. To compensate, the individual breathes more rapidly to maintain near normal oxygenation. Often described as "pink puffers".

Emphysema

Respiration can be subdivided into three basic components: _______________ - the exchange of gases between the lungs and the blood. Oxygen moves from the lungs into the blood while carbon dioxide moves from the blood into the lungs.

External respiration

Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System: ______________ - Can be observed starting at 20-21 weeks of development. Fetal breathing movements involve muscle contractions that cause the inhalation of amniotic fluid and exhalation of the same fluid, with pulmonary surfactant and mucus.

Fetal breathing

Gas Exchange: _______________ depends on the partial pressures and solubility of gases.

Gas diffusion

Gas Exchange: The principles that govern the movement and diffusion of gas molecules are relatively straightforward. These principles are known as the gas laws and include: . __________ Law - at a given temperature, the amount of a particular gas in solution is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas. As the concentration of a gas increases, its partial pressure increases.

Henry's Law

Modifications in Respiratory Functions: ____________: An increase in altitude results in a decrease in atmospheric pressure. Although the proportion of oxygen relative to gases in the atmosphere remains at 21 percent, its partial pressure decreases. As a result, it is more difficult for a body to achieve the same level of oxygen saturation at high altitude than at low altitude, due to lower atmospheric pressure. In fact, hemoglobin saturation is lower at high altitudes compared to hemoglobin saturation at sea level.

High Altitude Effects

Four primary types of Hypoxia: ___________ hypoxia - quantity of oxygen reaching the cells is normal, but the cells are unable to use the oxygen effectively, due to disabled oxidative phosphorylation enzymes. Cyanide poisoning is one example.

Histotoxic

Modifications in Respiratory Functions: __________ is an increased depth and rate of ventilation to meet an increase in oxygen demand as might be seen in exercise or disease, particularly diseases that target the respiratory or digestive tracts. This does not significantly alter blood oxygen or carbon dioxide levels, but merely increases the depth and rate of ventilation to meet the demand of the cells.

Hyperpnea

Modifications in Respiratory Functions: ___________ is an increased ventilation rate that is independent of the cellular oxygen needs and leads to abnormally low blood carbon dioxide levels and high (alkaline) blood pH.

Hyperventilation

Four primary types of Hypoxia: __________ hypoxia - not enough oxygen in blood due to low oxygen concentrations within the air or due to reduced respiratory minute volume. Being in high altitudes or hypoventilation are examples.

Hypoxemic

More Disorders of the Respiratory System: _____________ - inadequate oxygen delivery to tissues. Three (4) primary types.

Hypoxia

Disorders of the Respiratory System _____________ - inadequate surfactant production in newborns or premature babies. Leads to increased surface tension and alveolar collapse.

Infant Respiratory Distress Syndrome

Gas Exchange: The partial pressures and solubility of gases affects gas exchange between the lungs and blood (external respiration) as well as the blood and tissues (internal respiration). During _________ respiration - in the blood, the PO2 is high (95 mmHg) and the PCO2 is low (40 mmHg) but in the tissues, the PO2 is low (40 mmHg) and PCO2 is high (45 mmHg). Therefore oxygen is forced out of the blood and into the tissues while carbon dioxide is forced from the tissues into the blood.

Internal

Respiration can be subdivided into three basic components: ________________ - the exchange of gases between the blood and the tissues. Oxygen moves from the blood to the tissues while carbon dioxide moves from the tissues into the blood.

Internal respiration

Four primary types of Hypoxia: __________ hypoxia - adequate oxygen in blood but oxygen is not reaching the tissues due to reduced blood flow to the tissues. Heart failure or clogged blood vessels can cause ischemic hypoxia.

Ischemic

Disorders of the Respiratory System _____________ - inflammation of the vocal cords.

Laryngitis

__________________ - now accounts for 12.6 percent of new cancer cases in both men and women and kills more people each year than colon, breast, and prostate cancer combined. Over 50% of lung cancer patients die within a year of diagnosis. Research has shown that 85-90% of all cases of lung cancer are the direct result of cigarette smoking. Life expectancy of a smoker is shorter than that of a non-smoker. Although some decrease in respiratory performance is inevitable, you can prevent serious respiratory deterioration by stopping smoking or never starting.

Lung cancer

Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System: Embryonic Timeline: Weeks 24-Term?

Major growth and maturation of the respiratory system occurs from week 24 until term. More alveolar precursors develop, and larger amounts of pulmonary surfactant are produced. Surfactant levels are not generally adequate to create effective lung compliance until about the eighth month of pregnancy. The respiratory system continues to expand, and the surfaces that will form the respiratory membrane develop further. At this point, pulmonary capillaries have formed and continue to expand, creating a large surface area for gas exchange. The major milestone of respiratory development occurs at around week 28, when sufficient alveolar precursors have matured so that a baby born prematurely at this time can usually breathe on its own. However, alveoli continue to develop and mature into childhood. A full complement of functional alveoli does not appear until around 8 years of age.

Lung cancer: ______________ - tissue changes its structure in response to injury or chemical stresses. The pseudostratified columnar changes to stratified epithelium. May be reversed.

Metaplasia

Lung cancer: ______________ - abnormal cells form a cancerous tumor, the most dangerous stage where the cells become malignant and metastasize (spread) to other parts of the body. Not reversible but can be treated with chemicals, radiation, and/or surgery.

Neoplasia or Anaplasia

Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System: Embryonic Timeline: Weeks 16-24?

Once the respiratory bronchioles form, further development includes extensive vascularization, or the development of the blood vessels, as well as the formation of alveolar ducts and alveolar precursors. At about week 19, the respiratory bronchioles have formed. In addition, cells lining the respiratory structures begin to differentiate to form type I and type II pneumocytes. Once type II cells have differentiated, they begin to secrete small amounts of pulmonary surfactant. Around week 20, fetal breathing movements may begin.

There are several factors affecting the amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin, or rather, the hemoglobin saturation. _________ - as the partial pressure of carbon dioxide increases, the percent hemoglobin saturation decreases.

PCO2

There are several factors affecting the amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin, or rather, the hemoglobin saturation. _________ - as the partial pressure of oxygen increases, the percent hemoglobin saturation increases.

PO2

More Disorders of the Respiratory System: ________________ - inflammation of the pleural membranes.

Pleurisy

More Disorders of the Respiratory System: _____________ - a bacterial or viral infection of the lungs.

Pneumonia

Respiration can be subdivided into three basic components: ______________ - moving air into and out of the respiratory tract; inhalation and exhalation; the exchange between the atmosphere and the lungs. More simply referred to as "breathing".

Pulmonary ventilation

There are several factors affecting the amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin, or rather, the hemoglobin saturation. _________ - as temperature increase, the percent of hemoglobin saturation decreases.

Temperature

More Disorders of the Respiratory System: ___________ - an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis resulting in fibroid masses in the lungs and an increase in dead space.

Tuberculosis

Gas Exchange: The partial pressures and solubility of gases affects gas exchange between the lungs and blood (external respiration) as well as the ______________ (internal respiration).

blood and tissues

Approximately 93% of carbon dioxide that enters the blood from the tissues diffuses into RBCs. Of this, roughly 23% of the carbon dioxide binds to the amino acids in the globular proteins of the hemoglobin molecules forming _______ (HbCO2).

carbaminohemoglobin.

Approximately 93% of carbon dioxide that enters the blood from the tissues diffuses into RBCs. The remaining 70% is converted to carbonic acid by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase which immediately disassociates into a hydrogen ion (H+) and a bicarbonate ion (HCO3-). The HCO3- then diffuses out of the RBC and into the blood plasma with the aid of a countertransport mechanism that exchanges intracellular bicarbonate ions for extracellular chloride ions (Cl-). This exchange is known as the __________.

chloride shift

Gas Exchange: The partial pressures and solubility of gases affects gas exchange between the lungs and blood (external respiration) as well as the blood and tissues (internal respiration). During _________respiration - in the lungs, the PO2 is high (100 mmHg) and the PCO2 is low (40 mmHg) but in the blood, the PO2 is low (40 mmHg) and PCO2 is high (45 mmHg). Therefore oxygen is forced into the blood from the lungs and carbon dioxide is forced from the blood into the lungs.

external

Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System: Begins at about week 4 of __________. By week 28, enough alveoli have matured that a baby born prematurely at this time can usually breathe on its own. The respiratory system, however, is not fully developed until early childhood, when a full complement of mature __________ is present.

gestation; alveoli

Oxygen reversibly binds to __________. The affinity of oxygen to hemoglobin changes in the lungs to stimulate loading of oxygen onto hemoglobin while the tissues stimulate the unloading of oxygen from the hemoglobin so that it can diffuse from the blood and out to the tissues.

hemoglobin

Transport of Gasses: Oxygen transport in the blood There are several factors affecting the amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin, or rather, the ___________.

hemoglobin saturation

Transport of Gasses: Oxygen transport in the blood Approximately 98-99% of oxygen in blood is transported bound to hemoglobin within red blood cells as ______________

oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)

There are several factors affecting the amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin, or rather, the hemoglobin saturation. _________- as pH decreases (more acidic), the percent of hemoglobin saturation decreases. The relationship between pH and hemoglobin saturation is known as the Bohr Effect.

pH

Gas Exchange: The _____________ of a gas is the pressure contributed by a single gas in a mixture of gases. Represented as PO2 or PCO2.

partial pressure (P)