Ch.7:

LTM - Explicit memory (declarative)

- Conscious recollection of info - In humans, can be verbally communicated - Divided into -- Episodic memory --- Wheres, whens, whats of life -- Semantic memory --- Knowledge about the world - Your first bike -- Diamondback Laser-16

Connectionism

- Parallel distributed processing (PDP) - Theory that memory involves organization of neurons, connections among them, and their activity - not large knowledge structures (schema theory)

Memory Strategies

- Rehearsal - Organization - Serial position - Extend time of remembering - Cues - Sleep - Review

Long-Term Memory

- Relatively permanent - Huge amounts of info, stored for long time - 2.8 x 1020 (280 quintillion) bits of info - Memories usually stored based on meaning, not sound -- Trying to recall "barn" --- Get "shed" or "farm" / not "yarn" or "darn"

levels of processing

A continuum of memory processing from shallow to intermediate to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory.

anterograde amnesia

A memory disorder that affects the retention of new information and events.

D) priming

A middle-school teacher places words such as "calm" and "success" on the walls of his classroom to impact the behavior and achievement of his students. What memory process is he using? A) implicit memory B) explicit memory C) mnemonics D) priming

B) anterograde amnesia.

A person who cannot create new memories has A) retrograde amnesia. B) anterograde amnesia. C) problems with explicit memory. D) has problems with implicit memory

semantic memory

A person's knowledge about the world, including his or her areas of expertise; general knowledge, such as of things learned in school, and everyday knowledge.

schema

A preexisting mental concept or framework that helps people to organize and interpret information. Schemas from prior encounters with the environment influence the way we encode, make inferences about, and retrieve information.

long-term memory

A relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of information for a long time.

script

A schema for an event, often containing information about physical features, people, and typical occurrences.

autobiographical memory

A special form of episodic memory, consisting of a person's recollections of his or her life experiences.

C) elaboration

A student is studying for a philosophy exam. She is trying to remember a list of philosophy concepts and associates each one with a personal event in her life. Which of the following is she employing? A) intermediate level processing B) imagery C) elaboration D) chunking

A) context-dependent memory

A student's class always met in room 100. However, when that student took the final exam, the class met in room 317. The student experienced memory problems at the final exam. What could account for the student's memory problems? A) context-dependent memory B) state-dependent memory C) priming D) motivated forgetting

working memory

A three-part system that allows us to hold information temporarily as we perform cognitive tasks; a kind of mental workbench on which the brain manipulates and assembles information to help us understand, make decisions, and solve problems.

tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon

A type of effortful retrieval that occurs when we are confident that we know something but cannot quite pull it out of memory.

A) She is testing recognition not recall.

Abigail has been studying for her chemistry test by reading over her notes. She has started skimming over them more as time goes on telling herself "oh, I know this." Why might this strategy be problematic for Abigail? A) She is testing recognition not recall. B) She is testing recall not recognition. C) She is relying on her visuospatial sketchpad. D) This will not be a problem for Abigail.

True

Absentmindedness is considered to be a failure of prospective memory. A) True B) False

B) teens and twenties

According to the reminiscence bump, adults have greater recall for events in their _____ than from other decades. A) first birthday until their mid-teens B) teens and twenties C) thirties and forties D) fifties and sixties.

explicit memory

Also called declarative memory, the conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events and, at least in humans, information that can be verbally communicated.

implicit memory

Also called nondeclarative memory, memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience.

connectionism

Also called parallel distributed processing (PDP), the theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons, several of which may work together to process a single memory.

sustained attention

Also called vigilance, the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time.

echoic

Auditory sensory memory is called ______ memory.

A) schema

Betsy went to a restaurant last night with friends. Though Betsy had never been to this particular restaurant, she knew how to be seated, order, eat, and pay the bill. Betsy has a _____for going to restaurants. A) schema B) photographic memory C) sensory memory D) mnemonic

A) iconic

Cailean has always wished she had a "photographic memory." She sits on the steps of one of the academic buildings and watches the people. Sometimes she closes her eyes and tries to recall everything about what she was seeing. Each time, though, the memory quickly seems to dissolve. In what kind of memory is the visual information stored while it lasts? A) iconic B) echoic C) code D) display

Improving Short term memory

Chunking - Grouping info (like words) into larger, meaningful units (like phrases, sentences, paragraphs, stories) O LDH ARO LDAN DYO UNGB EN To improve - Rehearsal -- Conscious repetition of information - Without rehearsal information fades ~ 18 sec - Maintenance rehearsal -- Long enough to use it -- Good for lists - Elaborative rehearsal -- Link new information to memories already in long-term memory (LTM)

divided attention

Concentrating on more than one activity at the same time.

2. Memory Storage

Early memory model - Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) What does this model resemble? LOOK ON PPT FOR IMAGE!!! (pg.5)

True

Episodic and semantic memory are types of explicit memory. A) True B) False

False

Eyewitness testimony tends to be accurate. A) True B) False

motivated forgetting

Forgetting that occurs when something is so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering it is intolerable.

Short-Term Memory

Holds small amounts of information for brief period - Information lost without further processing Automatic processing - Space - Time - Frequency - Well-learned information Clive Wearing - man with 30 second memory In short-term memory (STM) - New, complex information takes effort - Difficult to do several tasks simultaneously - Cognitive load Capacity of STM? - Digit span - # of digits person can remember 2 1 4 9 2 1 4 9 3 2 1 4 9 3 2 2 1 4 9 3 2 8 2 1 4 9 3 2 8 9 2 1 4 9 3 2 8 9 7 2 1 4 9 3 2 8 9 7 5

B) A script is a specific type of schema that focuses on events, whereas other types of schemas focus on a variety of experiences.

How are a schema and a script different? A) A schema focuses on episodic memory, whereas a script focuses on semantic memory. B) A script is a specific type of schema that focuses on events, whereas other types of schemas focus on a variety of experiences. C) A script is more accurate than a schema. D) A schema is related to encoding, whereas a script is related to retrieval

True

If you want to do well on a test, try to sit in the same seat every day in class. A) True B) False

B) proactive interference

In high school, a student took German; however, she decided to take Russian in college. She finds that she is having trouble learning to speak Russian because she keeps using German words instead of Russian words. What type of problem is she experiencing? A) retroactive interference B) proactive interference C) decay D) transience

divided attention

In terms of memory encoding, focusing on more than one thing simultaneously is called ________

True

Information that is processed more elaborately will be better remembered. A) True B) False

recency

It is usually easier to remember things that come at the end of a list than to remember those that come in the middle of a list. This is called the ______ effect.

C) called the serial position effect.

Jen's dad sends her to the grocery store for a few last-minute dinner items. Jen repeats the list of 10 items as she walks to the store, but can only remember the first and last three items when she gets there—she is unable to remember the four in the middle. This U-shaped pattern of recall is A) called working memory overload. B) the key indicator of attention deficit disorder. C) called the serial position effect. D) common only in women.

C) Because her father gave her the list all at once, Jen wasn't able to hold each item in her short-term memory long enough to encode it for long-term storage.

Jen's dad sends her to the grocery store for a few last-minute dinner items. Jen repeats the list of 10 items as she walks to the store, but can only remember the first and last three items when she gets there—she is unable to remember the four in the middle. Why did she forget the four items in the middle of the list? A) The items were probably vegetables, since research shows that vegetable names are difficult for most people to remember. B) Exercise tends to degrade information if it has just been learned. C) Because her father gave her the list all at once, Jen wasn't able to hold each item in her short-term memory long enough to encode it for long-term storage. D) The four middle items never entered her sensory memory.

B) Jennifer will recall the capitals and their states better than Jeff.

Jennifer and Jeff are studying for their geography exam. Jeff is learning the states' capitals by repeating them over and over. Jennifer is incorporating information she already knows about each state into the name of the capital. While Jeff is repeating "Sacramento is the capital of California, Sacramento is the capital of California," Jennifer is saying "SacraTOMATO is the capital of California" because she knows Sacramento is in the middle of a rich agricultural valley. If the levels-of-processing theory is correct, A) Jeff and Jennifer will do equally well on the exam. B) Jennifer will recall the capitals and their states better than Jeff. C) Jeff will recall the capitals and their states better than Jennifer. D) who does better has more to do with personality differences than study techniques.

short-term memory

Limited-capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for only as long as 30 seconds unless we use strategies to retain it longer.

False

Memories are stored in very specific parts of the brain. A) True B) False

procedural memory

Memory for skills.

C) deepest level

Memory is better when encoding happens at which level of processing? A) shallow level B) intermediate level C) deepest level D) elaboration level

A memory disorder that affects the retention of new information and events.

Memory loss for a segment of the past but not for new events.

sensory memory

Memory system that involves holding information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant, not much longer than the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory, and other senses.

D) 7 ± 2

Most people can keep _____ items in their short-term memory. A) 5 ± 2 B) 7 C) 8 D) 7 ± 2

False

Multiple-choice questions test a person's recall. A) True B) False

B) encoding failure.

Problems remembering something may be the result of not storing the information in memory in the first place. This phenomenon is called A) retrieval failure. B) encoding failure. C) interference. D) transience.

LTM - Implicit memory (nondeclarative)

Procedural - Basic learned actions, skills Classical conditioning - Automatic learning of associations between stimuli Priming - Activation of info that people already have in storage

1. Memory Encoding

Process by which information gets into memory storage All memory is not created equal - Some information gets into memory almost effortlessly - Some information takes work Factors that impact encoding - Attention - Processing -- Shallow (physical features) -- Deep (meaning) - Elaboration -- Linking new info to old - Imagery

True

Reading can help to prevent some of the negative effects of Alzheimer's disease. A) True B) False

prospective memory

Remembering information about doing something in the future; includes memory for intentions.

retrospective memory

Remembering information from the past.

Memory

Retention of information or experience over time Involves 3 processes 1) Encoding 2) Storage 3) Retrieval

C) chunk the digits together

Rosa is trying to memorize her school ID number. She is having trouble, because the number is 12 digits long. What would BEST help Rosa learn the number? A) repeat the digits over and over to herself B) say the digits out loud C) chunk the digits together D) read the digits to a friend

How Memory is Organized

Schemas - Preexisting mental concepts that help organize, interpret info - Influence how we encode, make inferences about, retrieve information Script - Schema for an event - Restaurant

Sensory Memory

Sensory stimulation - all senses - Retained ~ 2 seconds - Persistence of vision

proactive interference

Situation in which material that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of material that was learned later.

retroactive interference

Situation in which material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier.

B) hippocampus

Smells can evoke vivid memories because the olfactory cortex links to the _____, which is associated with memory consolidation. A) amygdale B) hippocampus C) thalamus D) reticular formation

retrograde amnesia

Steve was hit on the head by a baseball last week. He can't seem to remember that whole week but has no problems creating new memories. Steve seems to be suffering from _______

recall

Steve's teacher tells the class that she only gives essay tests. Steve's teacher is using a ________ memory task.

B) sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

The Atkinson-Shiffrin theory of memory includes A) attention, processing, and elaboration. B) sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. C) the phonological loop, visuospatial working memory, and the central executive. D) episodic memory, semantic memory, and implicit memory.

tip-of-the-tongue

The _______ phenomenon refers to the experience of a person being confident that he or she knows something, but not being able to retrieve the information from memory.

priming

The activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember new information better and faster.

False

The dual-code hypothesis states that memory is better for words than for pictures. A) True B) False

encoding

The first step in memory; the process by which information gets into memory storage.

amnesia

The loss of memory.

flashbulb memory

The memory of emotionally significant events that people often recall with more accuracy and vivid imagery than everyday events.

retrieval

The memory process that occurs when information that was retained in memory comes out of storage.

elaboration

The number of different connections that are made around a stimulus at a given level of memory encoding.

A) items stay in working memory longer.

The primacy effect is thought to occur because A) items stay in working memory longer. B) items were presented more recently. C) of long-term potentiation. D) items are less rehearsed.

encoding

The process by which information gets into our memories is _________

episodic memory

The retention of information about the where, when, and what of life's happenings—that is, how individuals remember life's episodes.

memory

The retention of information or experience over time as the result of three key processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

storage

The retention of information over time and how this information is represented in memory.

serial position effect

The tendency to recall the items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle.

interference theory

The theory that people forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember.

True

The ways in which people construct their autobiographic memories are related to their well-being and happiness. A) True B) False

Atkinson-Shiffrin theory

Theory stating that memory storage involves three separate systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

decay theory

Theory stating that when we learn something new, a neurochemical memory trace forms, but over time this trace disintegrates; suggests that the passage of time always increases forgetting.

D) Karen, because she encoded the name by elaborating on it with other information

Toby and Karen just met their new neighbor, Justine. Toby repeats Justine's name over and over to remember it. Meanwhile, Karen notes that Justine is leaving "just in time" to get dinner on the table. The following day, who is more likely to recall the neighbor's name and why? A) Toby, because it is easier for a man to remember a woman's name than vice versa B) Toby, because rote rehearsal is the most effective way to encode information C) Neither is more likely than the other to remember Justine's name. D) Karen, because she encoded the name by elaborating on it with other information

flashbulb memory

Vividly remembering the specifics of an important event (such as the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks or the assassination of President Kennedy) is called a(n) _________ .

C) speech-based information

What type of information is stored in the phonological loop? A) visual information B) auditory information C) speech-based information D) spatial information

3. Memory Retrieval

When info retained in memory comes out of storage Recall ~ serial position effect - Primacy - Recency Recall Recognition Encoding specificity principle - Context-dependent memory -- Study - scuba divers (Godden & Baddeley , 1975) Autobiographical memory - Special form of episodic memory - Reminiscence bump -- 2nd & 3rd decades Retrieval of emotional memories - Emotion -- Affects encoding, storage -- Shapes details that are retrieved - Emotion-dependent memory Flashbulb memory - Emotionally significant - Detailed, vivid - Decades later... - Adaptive? Eyewitness testimony - Not always accurate -- Traumatic -- Fades -- Altered by information at retrieval Loftus & Palmer (1974) Sleep & memory

C) long-term potentiation.

When two neurons are activated at the same time, the connection between them will increase; this is called A) parallel distributed processing. B) semantic networking. C) long-term potentiation. D) the serial position effect.

D) connectionist networks

Which theory of long-term memory organization focuses on interconnected nodes that either excite or inhibit one another? A) hierarchies B) semantic networks C) schemas D) connectionist networks

B) implicit memory

Which type of memory is retrieved unconsciously? A) explicit memory B) implicit memory C) semantic memory D) episodic memory

encoding specificity principle

Winston and Lucy have worked together for years but when Winston sees Lucy at the theme park over the weekend he can't remember her name. Winston's retrieval failure is best explained by the ______

central executive

Within working memory, the _______ integrates information from the phonological loop, the visuospatial scratch pad, and long-term memory.

STM not accurate ~ what about processing?

Working memory Baddeley proposed 3-part system: 1) Visuospatial working memory - Stores visual, spatial info 2) Phonological loop - Stores speech-based info - Decays in few secs, can rehearse 3) Central executive - Integrates info from phonological loop, visuospatial working memory, long-term memory

A) levels of processing

Yesterday, Colleen went to an interesting lecture on relationship problems. She didn't take notes because she isn't going to be tested on the lecture. Though she made no effort to memorize any of the information the speaker presented, she is able to repeat a great deal of it to a friend. In particular, she is able to remember the parts that she felt applied to her own past relationships. Which concept explains why? A) levels of processing B) Toman effect C) semantic encoding D) elaborative rehearsal

D) procedural memory

Your ability to use the mouse on computer is an example of what type of memory? A) episodic memory B) explicit memory C) priming D) procedural memory

C) semantic memory

Your memory of Civil War history is an example of what type of memory? A) working memory B) episodic memory C) semantic memory D) short-term memory

D) No, because confidence and accuracy are weakly related.

Yuriko is testifying in a court case. After she finishes recounting what she saw to the jury, the attorney asks her how certain she is that her testimony is accurate. She says that she is 99% sure. Haroun is also testifying, and when he has told his version of the story, the attorney asks him how sure he is that his memory is accurate. He says that he is 75% sure. Based solely on this information, the jury chooses to believe Yariko and not Haroun. Are they correct to do so? A) Yes, because confidence is always associated with accuracy. B) Yes, because women's memories tend to be more accurate than men's. C) No, because men's memories tend to be more accurate than women's. D) No, because confidence and accuracy are weakly related.

D) Episodic memory; semantic memory

_____ refers to a person's memories about himself or herself, whereas _____ refers to a person's memories about the world. A) Working memory; short-term memory B) Explicit memory; implicit memory C) Encoding; retention D) Episodic memory; semantic memory