Chapter 1-4 Anatomy and Physiology

ADP

(adenosine diphosphate)

ATP

(adenosine triphosphate).

skeletal

(attached to bones).

In transcription

a section of DNA containing the instructions for a particular proteins is exposed and a mRNA is built by matching the bases to the DNA (mRNA is made from DNA)

Cofactor

a substance that may be required for the proper functioning of an enzyme, which is either a metal ion or a coenzyme

Phospholipids and glycolipids

are lipids that have phosphate-containing groups or sugars attached to them; they function as components of cell membranes

Collagen fibers

are long, straight, unbranched and are the most common type of fiber.

Fatty acids

are monomers of triglycerides.

Serous membranes

are named according to location (pleura, pericardium and peritoneum).cutaneous membranes are dry membranes covering the external surface of body (skin). It consists of stratified squamous with underlying dense CT.

Peripheral proteins

are not embedded into the bilayer but rest on the inner and outer phospholipid surfaces.

Products

are present after the reaction occurs

Reactants

are present initially.

Channels

are protein-lined paths that allow for materials to pass through the membrane.

Peptide bonds

are the bonds that form between amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

Amino acids

are the building blocks (monomers) of proteins;

Fibroblasts

are the immature cells (when they mature they are called fibrocytes).

nucleotides

are the monomers of nucleic acids.

Fibroblasts

are the most abundant of the permanent cells and they are the only cells that are always present in CT proper.

mucous membranes (mucosae)

are wet membranes that line body cavities that open directly to exterior(line all of dig, resp and repro systems and much of urinary system).

Loose connective tissue consists of three subclasses

areolar, adipose and reticular CT.

axillary

armpit

basal surface

attached surface (attached to basement membrane)

Cartilage is

avascular which means that nutrient and waste diffusion must occur through matrix. Cartilage is surrounded by= a perichondrium which is composed of an outer fibrous layer (dense Irreg CT) and inner cellular layer. The outer layer is for attachment of structures to the cartilage and the inner cellular layer produces new cells.

Epithelia are classified

based on cell shape ( as viewed in cross-section).

Epithelia are classified

based on numbers of layers into simple and stratified epithelium.

tonicity

behavior of cells in solution

The 3 types of extracellular materials are

body fluids, cellular secretions and extracellular matrix.

NERVOUS

brain, spinal cord, nerves and sensory receptors

NERVOUS

brain, spinal cord, nerves and sensory receptors carries information from one part of body to another via electrical impulses

peroxisomes

break down harmful free radicals (by-products of metabolism)

Decomposition reaction

break down of large molecules into smaller units (usually releases energy); AB or A + B

tRNA

brings in the matching anticodon and the amino acid that is attached. This amino acid is attached to the growing protein by a peptide bond and then the next codon is read. This continues until a STOP word is reached and translation ends.

Element

building blocks of matter; each element is unique in its atomic structure and has its own unique properties

Atom

building blocks or basic units of elements

Synthesis reaction

building of large molecules from smaller units (usually requires energy); A + B or AB

gluteal

buttocks

BONUS:Triglycerides are also

called neutral fats and their function is long-term energy storage, protection and insulation.

Polysaccharides are

carbohydrate polymers that are formed by dehydration synthesis that attaches many monosaccharides together.

The membrane is composed of

carbohydrates are the glycolipids and glycoproteins, which are sugars added to lipids and proteins, respectively. Together they make up the glycocalyx, which refers to the outer, sticky region of the plasma membrane. It is only on the side of the membrane facing the extracellular fluid.

Globular proteins tend to serve a wider variety of functions, including

catalysis (enzymes), molecular chaperones, transport, regulate pH, regulate metabolism and defense.

Leukocytes

function in phagocytosis& are involved in immune/allergic rxns. Platelets =function in clotting. Blood is located within the heart and blood vessels

Eryrthrocutes

function to transport O2 and some CO2.

The two structural classes of proteins are

globular proteins and fibrous proteins. Globular proteins typically function in providing structural framework & mechanical support or movement.

manual

hand

Squamous epithelium

has cells that are thin & flat and generally allow rapid movement of substances through them.

Dense irregular connective tissue

has interwoven mesh of fibers with no consistent pattern. It functions to provide strength in many directions.

Fibrocartilage

has very little ground substance. The matrix is dominated by collagen fibers which are densely interwoven. It functions in support and fusion. It is located in the pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs and menisci of knee.

Adipocytes

have large lipid droplets which squeeze the organelles to the periphery of the cell. The number of adipocytes varies from one type of CT to another and between individuals.

Liquids

have less movement of molecules and shorter distances between molecules than gases.

Solids

have less movement of molecules and shorter distances between molecules than liquids.

Reticular fibers

have same protein subunits as collagen fibers but arranged differently so that the fibers are thinner and form branching network. They provide support and strength; resist forces in many directions.

.Cephalic

head

centrioles

help form the anchor of the mitotic spindle which separates chromosomes during division..

mitochondria

produce energy (ATP); cellular respiration (break down of nutrients into carbon dioxide and water which liberates energy)

free

produce proteins to be used in the cytoplasm

membrane bound

produce proteins to be used in the plasma membrane (or endomembrane) or to be exported from cell (secreted)

Reproductive System

produces sex cells and hormones related to reproduction

Apoptosis

programmed cell death.

The stages of mitosis are

prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

ribosomes

protein synthesis

Receptor proteins are

proteins that bind to particular molecules which then alters the activity of the cell. Carrier proteins and channel proteins both function in transport of materials across the membrane.

cytoskeleton

provide structural support; maintain cell shape; faciliate movement of cell and organelles; movement of chromosomes during division

Cartilage

provides flexible support. Cartilage has a matrix that is a firm gel that contains chondroitin sulfates (polysaccharide derivative) which forms complexes with proteins in ground substance to form proteoglycans.

Bone

provides for rigid, inflexible support.

Exergonic reaction

reaction that releases energy (goes from high energy reactants to low energy products and excess energy is released)

Endergonic reaction

reaction that requires energy (goes from low energy reactants to high energy products)

control (integration) center

receives input from receptor & determines appropriate response

abdominal

region of trunk between diaphragm and pelvis

nuclear envelope

regulates flow of materials between nucleus and cytoplasm

Regeneration

repairs or replaces the damaged tissues to restore normal function. New cells migrate into area. If instead of cells of the original tissue migrating into the area, fibrous connective tissue moves in, then there is the formation of scar tissue and this step would result in fibrosis.

Each change in pH of one whole unit

represents a 10-fold change in hydrogen ion concentration.

Chemical level

represents the atoms and molecules that make up cells (Consists of Atomic level and molecular level)

Organization

restores the blood supply to the damaged area. This occurs at the same time as inflammation. Blood clot is replaced by granulation tissue.

rRNA

ribosomal RNA the RNA that forms part of the ribosome

Fibroblasts does what?

secrete the material that makes up viscous ground substance (hyaluronan (polysaccharide) + proteins = proteoglycan) and they secrete protein subunits that make up EC fibers.

. Anchoring proteins

serve as attachment points for the cytoskeleton to provide structural support and shape.

simple squamous

single layer of flat cells that are found in areas subjected to little wear and tear, which function in absorption &/or secretion.

The three types of muscle tissue are

smooth,cardiac,skeletal

The three states of matter are

solid, liquid and gas.

In prophase

the nuclear membrane breaks down, the chromosomes condense and the mitotic spindle forms. In metaphase the chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell and are attached to the spindle by their centromeres.

The membrane is composed of 2 layers

the outer parietal layer lines walls of cavity and the inner visceral covers & attaches to organs.

As H+ concentration increases,

the pH decreases. PH<7 = acidic and pH>7 = basic.

Subatomic particle

the particles that make up an atom; i.e., protons, neutrons and electrons

Hydrostatic pressure

the pressure exerted by water on a membrane

The first Structural levels of organization

the primary sequence is the linear sequence of amino acids in the chain.

Apoenzyme

the protein portion of an enzyme that requires a cofactor (or coenzyme)

filtration

the relatively unselective movement of solutes across a membrane from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure without the use of membrane carriers or energy.

tight junctions form fluid

tight seals between cells common among epithelial cells that line stomach, intestines and bladder prevent fluid in cavity from leaking into body

Dense CT functions

to provides strong attachment between structures (withstands force in one direction).

Polysaccharides are used

to store energy (starch in plants, glycogen in animals) or for structural support (cellulose in plants and chitin in some animals).

posterior (dorsal)

towards the back

anterior (ventral)

towards the front

medial

towards the midline

proximal

towards the point of attachment (limbs)

superficial

towards the surface (i.e., skin)

tRNA

transfer RNA the RNA that is hooked to an amino acid that brings the amino acids and attaches them to the growing protein

The Third structural levels of organization

tertiary sequence is the folding of the coiled chain and is a result of interactions between R groups, which means that it varies depending on the primary structure.

polar compounds

that dissolve well in water.

Holoenzyme

the apoenzyme + cofactor (or coenzyme)

Organization restores

the blood supply to the damaged area. This occurs at the same time as inflammation. Blood clot is replaced by granulation tissue.

golgi apparatus

transport, packaging and modification of proteins; produces secretory vesicles; produces lysosomes

Single covalent bonds

two atoms share 1 pair of electrons

Double covalent bonds

two atoms share 2 pair of electrons

Hydrolysis

the breaking down of polymers (large molecules composed of repeating subunits) into monomers (the building blocks ) by adding water

lysis

the bursting of a cell as a result of gaining water when placed in a hypotonic solution

In mitosis

the cell is dividing.

In interphase

the cell is performing all of its functions other than dividing.

During G2

the cell produces enzymes and other materials needed for mitosis.

In telophase

the chromatids have arrived at the two opposite poles of the cell, the nuclear membrane begins to reform and the chromosomes begin to decondense (lengthen out again).

Triple covalent bonds

two atoms share 3 pair of electrons

The thoracic cavity is further subdivided into

two pleural cavities, which contain the lungs, one pericardial cavity, which contains the

In dense regular connective tissue

the collagen fibers arranged parallel to one another.

It is separated into two subdivisions

the cranial cavity surrounds the brain and the spinal cavity surrounds the spinal cord.

Mitosis is

the division of the nuclear material and cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasmic material (which coincides with the last stage of mitosis).

Organismic level

the entire body consisting of the various organ systems.

Translation is

the formation of a polypeptide chain (protein) from a mRNA molecule.

Dehydration synthesis

the formation of polymers from monomers by removing water

CARBOHYDRATES

the monomers of carbohydrates are monosaccharides; the polymers are disaccharides and polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides are

the monomers of carbohydrates; the most common is glucose. It is used as a direct energy source.

Neutralization

the movement of pH towards neutral (occurs when an acid and base are combined).

heart, and the mediastinum, which is the central region of the thoracic cavity containing the esophagus and trachea.

...

insulin which causes the cells of the body to take in glucose, thus removing glucose from the blood and lowering blood sugar level.

...

places pressure on the cervix; the pressure of the baby against the cervix causes uterine contraction, etc.

...

urinary organs)

...

Organ system level

a group of organs with similar or common function

Organ level

a group of tissues with similar or common function

homeostatic regulation

adjustment of physiological system to maintain homeostasis

crural

anterior of lower leg (shin)

pubic

anterior pelvis

Serous membranes (also called serosae)

are found within the ventral body cavity. They consist of two layers of membrane with fluid =(called serous fluid) in between the two layers.

lateral

away from the midline

distal

away from the point of attachment (limbs)

deep

away from the surface

dorsal

back

olecranol

back of elbow

popliteal

back of knee

plantar

bottom of foot

Integumentary System

controls body temperature & protects body from environmental hazards

Nervous System

controls immediate responses to stimuli

Endocrine System

controls long-term responses in body

Frontal

coronal = separates the body into anterior and posterior parts

Lymphatic & Immune Systems

defense, immunity and returns lost fluids to cardiovascular system

Facial

face

Urinary System

filtration of blood to maintain proper water and salt balance and to eliminate waste products

digital (phalangeal)

fingers or toes

deltoid

fleshy portion of shoulder

pedal

foot

antebrachial

forearm

antecubital

front of elbow

patellar

front of knee

Digestive System

ingestion, breakdown and absorption of food & elimination of indigestible wastes

visceral pericardium

inner serous membrane surrounding heart

visceral pleura

inner serous membrane surrounding lungs

visceral peritoneum

inner serous membrane surrounding organs in the abdominopelvic region

Cardiovascular System

internal transport of nutrients, wastes, oxygen, carbon dioxide and cells

The abdominopelvic cavity

is separated into two regions, which are not truly separated from one another in the

The thoracic cavity

is the cavity superior to the diaphragm and the abdominopelvic cavity is inferior to the diaphragm.

inguinal

junction of trunk and thighs (groin)

Midsaggital

median = separates the body into equal right and left parts

receptor

monitors change in controlled condition (stimulus) and sends input to control center

parietal percardium

outer serous membrane surrounding heart

parietal pleura

outer serous membrane surrounding lungs

parietal peritoneum

outer serous membrane surrounding organs in the abdominopelvic region

Anatomical position

patient is erect, feet apart and palms facing anteriorly Cephalic = head

pelvic

pelvis

acromial

point of shoulder

sural

posterior of lower leg (calf)

Cellular level

represents the basic unit of all living things

Sagittal

separates the body into right and left parts

Parasaggital

separates the body into unequal right and left parts

Peritoneum

serous membranes lining organs in the abdominopelvic cavity (surrounding digestive, reproductive and

Pericardium

serous membranes surrounding heart

Pleura

serous membranes surrounding lungs

interactions of a feedback system

stimulus -> receptor -> input (afferent pathway) -> control center -> output (efferent pathway) -> response

Skeletal System

supports body, protects soft body parts, stores minerals, forms blood cells

The dorsal body cavity

surrounds the brain and spinal cord.

Negative feedback

the response by the effector to the initial change is to counter or reduce that change, thus bringing the system back to its "normal" state. Example When blood sugar level rises, the pancreas secretes

positive feedback

the response by the effector to the initial change is to further exaggerate the change. Example in labor contractions, the contraction of the uterus forces the baby towards the birth canal, which

Physiology

the study of the function of the body

Anatomy

the study of the structure of the body

femoral

thigh

brachial

upper arm

Cranial

upper portion of head surrounding brain

These are the abdominal cavity,

which contains primarily the digestive organs and the pelvic cavity, which contains primarily the reproductive and urinary organs.

The outer layer

which is closest to the body wall, is called the parietal layer.

The inner layer

which is closest to the organ, is

There are 3 types of special junctions

tight junctons, desmosomes and gap junctions.

2) Connective tissue proper

...

3) Cartilage

...

4) Bone

...

5) Blood

...

In a triglyceride

3 fatty acids are attached to glycerol.

stratified squamous

Many lauers; superficial cells flat; deep cells cuboidal to columnar. The deepest cells divide and shift to surface; as cells move toward surface they get farther from blood supply (underlying connective tissue); cells get dehydrated, shrunken and harder; at surface they lose junctions and are sloughed off & replaced.

dorsal body

The two major cavities of the body are the dorsal body cavity and the ventral body cavity.

properties of water

Water is polar which means that there is a partial positive charge near the hydrogens and a partial negative charge near the oxygen. The polarity of water makes it able to conduct an electrical current. It also makes it a good solvent because it can dissolve other polar molecules and ionic compounds (by separating the molecules when the charges (partial for polar and whole for ionic) on this molecule are attracted to the partial charges on the water molecule). Things that dissolve in water are called hydrophilic. Things that do not dissolve in water but are repelled by water are called hydrophobic.

Differentiation

a developmental process by which cells become more and more specialized for a particular function.

Concentration gradient

a difference in the concentration between two areas.

Tissue level

a group of cells with similar or common function

hypertonic

a hypertonic solution is a solution that has a HIGHER solute concentration than the cell

hypotonic

a hypotonic solution is a solution that has a LOWER solute concentration than the cell

Coenzyme

a large organic molecule that may be required for the proper functioning of an enzyme

Enzyme

a molecule composed at least partially of protein which catalyzes a biochemical reaction

hematopoietic stem cells

are immature blood cells (have a variety of names when mature).

Osteoblasts

are immature bone cells (called osteocytes when mature).

Chondroblasts

are immature cartilage cells (called chondrocytes when mature).

Triglycerides

are lipid polymers and are composed of a glycerol (three-carbon) backbone with fatty acids attached.

basement membrane

consists of thin extracellular layer that attaches epithelium to underlying connective tissue.

Organic compounds

contain carbon and hydrogen;

reticular lamina

contain reticular fibers & bundles of protein fibers which provide strength; it is secreted by CT

Elastic cartilage

contains numerous elastic fibers which make it resilient and flexible. It provides flexible support and maintains shape. It is found in the epiglottis, external ear, auditory tubes

Adipose connective tissue

contains specialized cells called adipocytes make up ,most of the volume of the tissue.

DNA

contains the information on how to make all of the proteins that the cell synthesizes.

Nucleus

controls all cell activities by containing instructions for protein synthesis; also contains hereditary material (DNA).

List and describe the two major types of epithelial tissue

covering and lining epithelium forms superficial layer of skin and some internal organs forms inner lining of blood vessels, ducts, body cavities forms interiors of respiratory, digestive, urinary and repro systems glandular epithelium constitutes secreting portion of glands

EPITHELIAL

covers exposed body surfaces lines internal passageways, hollow organs, body cavities and ducts forms glands

(microvilli

cytoplasmic projections that increase membrane surface area). Functions to propel fluids or particles along passageway and in secretion and absorption. It lines the stomach, intestine gallbladder and uterine tubes.

Cytosol

cytosol is the "fluid" portion of the cytoplasm; it contains water and dissolved proteins, carbohydrates and lipids; it has the consistency of jello

Atrophy

decrease in size of organ or tissue

Dense CT consists of two sublcasses

dense regular CT and dense irregular CT.

Passive transport processes require what

do not require the expenditure of energy while active processes require the use of energy.

inorganic compounds

do not.

cutaneous membranes are

dry membranes covering the external surface of body (skin). It consists of stratified squamous with underlying dense CT.

Cells that reach surface does what

either secrete mucus or bear cilia. It functions in protection, secretion and movement of mucus by cilia and is located in the trachea & bronchi

Polysaccharides are

either used to store energy (starch in plants, glycogen in animals) or for structural support.

Integral proteins are

embedded into the phospholipid bilayer and may either extend all the way or partially through the bilayer.

Well, maybe this should say 5 major classes.

embryonic connective tissue (mesenchyme),Connective tissue proper Cartilage, Bone ,Blood

Carbohydrates have two major functions

energy and structural support.

Kinetic energy

energy of particles in motion

Carbohydrates are

essentially hydrated carbon compounds (CH2O).

Respiratory System

exchange of air and delivery of blood gases to/from tissues

Exchange reaction

exchange of atoms or between reactants (may either release or require energy);AB + CD or AC + BD

surface)

exposed to body exterior or cavity or lining of organ

anchoring junctions (desmosomes)

fasten cells to one another or to EC materialcommon in tissues subjected to friction & stretching outer layer of skin, muscle tissue of heart, neck of uterus, epithelial lining of GI tract

The permanent cell population consists of

fibroblasts, adipocytes, chondroblasts, osteoblasts and hematopoietic stem cells.

Areolar CT functions

fills spaces between organs, cushions and supports epithelia, surrounds and supports blood vessels and nerves, stores lipids and provides route for diffusion (nutrients, drugs, gases, cells).

pinocytosis

fluid-phase endocytosis = endocytosis of droplets of extracellular material (which includes fluid that contains dissolved molecules

Tight junctions form

fluid-tight seals between cells to prevent leaking. These are common among epithelial cells that line stomach, intestines and bladder.

The phospholipids

form the basic backbone of the membrane and function to physically isolate the cell from its surroundings.

Reticular connective tissue

forms stroma of organs and binds together smooth muscle tissue cells.

Reticular fibers are

found forming the stroma (supporting framework) of many soft organs (spleen, lymph nodes) and forming the basement membrane that attaches epithelium to connective tissue.

Dense irregular connective tissue

found in fasciae, the reticular layer of dermis, perichondrium, periosteum, joint capsules, dura mater (outer meninge), membrane capsules around various organs (kidneys, liver, testes, lymph nodes), heart valves

Eicosanoids

function as chemical messengers that coordinate local cellular activities

Platelets

function in clotting. Blood is located within the heart and blood vessels

Leukocytes

function in phagocytosis& are involved in immune/allergic rxns.

Facilitated diffusion

movement of solutes across a membrane from an area of high solute concentration to an area of low solute concentration using membrane carriers but without the use of energy.

Simple Diffusion

movement of solutes across a membrane from an area of high solute concentration to an area of low solute concentration without the use of membrane carriers or energy.

Active transport

movement of solutes across a membrane from an area of low concentration to high concentration using both energy and protein carriers.

endocytosis

movement of substances INTO the cell by forming a vesicle (membranous sac) and expending energy; this includes phagocytosis, bulk-phase endocytosis and receptor-mediated endocytosis

exocytosis

movement of substances OUT OF the cell by forming a vesicle (membranous sac) and expending energy

vesicular transport

movement of substances across a membrane by forming a vesicle (membranous sac), which requires the use of energy and can go from high to low or low to high concentration.

Osmosis

movement of water across a membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration without the use of membrane carriers or energy.

Muscular System

movement, support and produces heat

cervical

neck

electron

negatively charged subatomic particle that resides in the energy levels (shells) of an atom

basal lamina

noncellular, adhesive that provides barrier that restricts movement of proteins and other large molecules from underlying connective tissue into epithelium; contains glycoproteins and protein filaments which are secreted by epithelium

polymers

nucleic acids).

nucleoli

nucleolus (singular)helps form ribosomes

Ionic bonds

occur when one atoms gives electron(s) to another atom. When electrons are transferred, the atom that loses electrons becomes a cation and the atom that gains electrons becomes an anion. The two atoms are then attracted to one another due the attraction of opposite charges.

Covalent bonds

occur when two atoms share electrons. Because they share electrons, the two atoms are held together.

RNA consists

of a single strand of nucleotides. It functions in protein synthesis and the formation of ribosomes.

Connective tissue is made up

of cells and extracellular matrix.

mucous membranes

(mucosae) are wet membranes that line body cavities that open directly to exterior(line all of dig, resp and repro systems and much of urinary system). The CT layer is called lamina propriaserous membranes =(serosae)are wet membranes that line body cavities not open to exterior & cover organs that lie within those cavities. They consist of thin layers of areolar CT covered by a layer of mesothelium (simple squamous). The epithelial layer secretes serous fluid.

smooth

(surrounds organs and glands),

Blood

(vascular tissue) consists of plasma and formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets).

cardiac

(wall of heart) and

serous membranes (serosae

)are wet membranes that line body cavities not open to exterior & cover organs that lie within those cavities. They consist of thin layers of areolar CT covered by a layer of mesothelium (simple squamous). The epithelial layer secretes serous fluid. Transudate is the fluid formed on surface of serous membrane. The membrane is composed of 2 layers the outer parietal layer lines walls of cavity and the inner visceral covers & attaches to organs. Serous membranes are named according to location (pleura, pericardium and peritoneum).

In an apocrine gland

, cells lose some cytoplasm as well as secretory product; apical portion of cytoplasm packed with vesicles and is shed.

In DNA replication

, each chromosome unwinds and the two strands unzip from one another. A new strand is build using each of the two unzipped strands as templates. Now each chromosome has an exact duplicate (called sister chromatid) and each chromatid consists of a new strand attached to an old strand.

In a holocrine gland

, the entire cell packed with secretory product and cell bursts open.

.

...

1) embryonic connective tissue (mesenchyme)

...

Connective tissue consists of sparsely distributed cells with lots of extracellular matrix. The matrix is composed of ground substance and protein fibers. CT is very variable in its degree of innervation and vascularization.

...

Endocrine glands are ductless glands. Secretions enter EC fluid and then diffuse directly into bloodstream.

...

Imagine drawing a cross in the abdominopelvic region with the lines intersecting at the umbilicus. These represent the quadrants. Remember when naming the quadrants and regions that right and left refer to the patient's right and left. The quadrants are as follows

...

Monosaccharides are generally burned to produce energy.

...

Now imagine drawing a "tic tac toe" in the abdominopelvic region with the umbilicus in the center of the middle square. The nine regions are as follows

...

Polysaccharides are either used to store energy (starch in plants, glycogen in animals) or for structural support.

...

RNA consists of a single strand of nucleotides. It functions in protein synthesis and the formation of ribosomes.

...

Right Hypochondriac Epigastric Left Hypochondriac

...

Right Iliac Hypogastric Left Iliac

...

Right Lower Quadrant Left Lower Quadrant

...

Right Lumbar Umbilical Left Lumbar

...

Right Upper Quadrant Left Upper Quadrant

...

Single layer of column-shaped cells with cilia.The nuclei are at varying depths and all cells are attached to basement membrane in single layer but not all reach apical surface.

...

Single layer of column-shaped cells. Contains goblet cells & microvilli & cilia in some locations

...

Tight junctions form fluid-tight seals between cells to prevent leaking. These are common among epithelial cells that line stomach, intestines and bladder.

...

Triglycerides are also called neutral fats and their function is long-term energy storage, protection and insulation.

...

Well, maybe this should say 5 major classes.

...

body.

...

called the visceral layer.

...

carries information from one part of body to another via electrical impulses

...

instructions for making all proteins within the cell.

...

interphase the cell undergoes all of its normal daily metabolism (protein synthesis, digestion, cellular respiration, etc.).

...

pseudostratified ciliated columnar

...

simple columnar

...

In a monoglyceride

1 fatty acid is attached to glycerol;

3 bases of DNA

1 word in the genetic language and represents an amino acid

In a diglyceride

2 fatty acids are attached to glycerol.

simple cuboidal

A single layer of cube-shaped cells that function in secretion & absorption and are located lining glands & ducts.

Single layer of column-shaped cells.

Contains goblet cells & microvilli & cilia in some locations

chromatin

DNA + proteins makes DNA contains instructions for making proteins and are passed to new cells and offspring during cell division (heredity); chromatin is the term used when the individual chromosomes are not distinguishable.

Describe the structure of an epithelial membrane. List and define the three types of epithelial membranes (cutaneous, mucous and serous)

Epithelial membranes consist of epithelial layer and underlying layer of CT connected to one another by a basement membrane.

Describe the structure of an epithelial membrane. List and define the three types of epithelial membranes (cutaneous, mucous and serous)

Epithelial membranes consist of epithelial layer and underlying layer of CT connected to one another by a basement membrane. Synovial membranes lack a basement membrane, often have gaps between cells, and have primarily macrophages and fibroblasts as lining cells.

(glandular epitheluim)Secretions are called hormones

Exocrine contain ducts. Secretions flow onto surface of covering & lining epithelium via tubelike ducts. Secretions include= mucus, perspiration, skin oil, ear wax, milk and digestive enzymes (sweat glands and salivary glands)

MUSCLE

In muscles movement & generation of force generates heat

Describe the three stages of tissue repair (inflammation, organization and regeneration/fibrosis).

Inflammation causes isolation of the damaged area and cleans up dangerous microorganisms. Damaged cells release chemicals that activate mast cells. Mast cells release histamine which cause increased blood flow and increased vessel permeability. This increases the oxygen, nutrients and phagocytes to the area and facilitates waste removal.

LIPIDS

Lipids are a structurally diverse group of molecules that are lumped together on the basis of their inability to dissolve in water (they are nonpolar).

Describe the structure, function and location of nervous tissue and its 2 major cell types

Nervous tissue is found in the nervous system (see objective # 2). It consists of neurons and supporting cells. The neurons conduct impulses and the supporting cells aid the neurons. We will discuss this in more detail in chapter 11.

pseudostratified ciliated columnar

Single layer of column-shaped cells with cilia.The nuclei are at varying depths and all cells are attached to basement membrane in single layer but not all reach apical surface.

stratified squamous

Primarily functions in protection and is found in the superficial layer of skin (epidermis) and lining wet surfaces (mouth, esophagus, tongue & part of epiglottis & vagina)

PROTEINS

Proteins are a functionally diverse group of molecules with very similar primary structures. They consist of amino acids bonded to one another by peptide bonds.

CONNECTIVE

Tendons, ligaments, under epithelia, blood, bone, cartilage fills internal spaces structural support & protection for other tissues tranport of materials binds organs together stores energy reserves as fat

ventral body

The organs in the ventral body cavity are surrounded by serous membranes which allow for organ movement. There are no serous membranes in he dorsal body cavity.

How do they differ from each other

They differ from one another primarily in the distance between molecules and the motion of molecules.

transitional

Transitional is composed of many layers but the appearance of individual cells changes due to stretching; Typically the superficial layer is not as flat as in stratified squamous.

A hydrogen bond is

a weak attraction between hydrogen of one molecule (or section of molecule) and the oxygen or nitrogen of one molecule (or section of molecule). Rather than holding atoms together within a molecule like covalent and ionic bonds do, hydrogen bonds typically occur between molecules or regions of a molecule. The attraction is due to the slight positive charge found on hydrogen that is in a polar covalent bond and the slight negative charge found on either oxygen or nitrogen that are also in a polar covalent bond.

The six major functions of epithelial tissue include

absorption, protection, excretion, filtration, secretion and sensory reception.

Hyperplasia

accelerated growth

Carrier proteins

actually bind to molecules and carry them across the membrane.

Recognition proteins

allow for cells to identify other cells in order to protect the body against invaders. Some membrane proteins function as enzymes to catalyze reactions that occur at the membrane surface.

The phospholipids do what

also allow very small molecules to pass through the membrane. The cholesterol molecules that are interspersed between phospholipids function to stabilize the membrane and give it some rigidity. The proteins in the membrane serve a variety of functions.

Triglycerides are

also called neutral fats and their function is long-term energy storage, protection and insulation.

centrosome

an anchor for microtubules that is located near the nucleus and acts as an organizing center for the microtubules. Centrioles are located within the centrosome.

isotonic

an isotonic solution is a solution that has the SAME solute concentration as the cell

Desmosomes are

anchoring junctions that fasten cells to one another or to the extracellular material. These are common in tissues subjected to friction & stretching (skin and heart muscle).

tarsal

ankle

The sugars in the membrane

are attached to other molecules and function in cell adhesion and recognition.

Nonpolar covalent bonds

are bonds where electrons are shared equally; there is no separation of charge.

Polar covalent bonds

are bonds where electrons are shared unequally. As a result, one side becomes slightly positively charged and the other side becomes slightly negatively charged (and we call this polar).

Cartilage cells

are called chondrocytes and are located inside hollow areas in the matrix that are called lacunae. The physical properties depend on type and abundance of EC fibers and proteoglycan components.

NUCLEIC ACIDS

are chains of nucleotides bonded to one another (i.e., monomers = nucleotides;

Columnar epithelia

are column-shaped (taller than they are wide).

Steroids

are composed of 4 interlocking carbon rings. There are a lot of different steroids with different functions. The primary functions include acting as chemical messengers (hormones) and stabilizing cell membranes (cholesterol) and facilitating fat digestion (bile).

The glycerides

are composed of a glycerol (three-carbon) backbone with fatty acids attached.

Elastic fibers

are composed of the protein elastin and are smaller in diameter than collagen fibers. They can stretch and return to original length and thus provide elasticity.

Cuboidal epithelia

are cube-shaped (approximately equal height and width) and generally function in secretion & absorption.

simple squamous

are found lining heart, blood vessels & lymph vessels (= endothelium), in the epithelial layer of serous membranes (= mesothelium) and lining the alveoli (air sacs) of lungs

Monosaccharides

are generally burned to produce energy.

The functions of proteins is variable, including

catalysis (enzymes), transport (plasma membrane proteins, hemoglobin& lipoproteins), chemical messengers (some hormones and neurotransmitters), immunity and defense.

inferior (

caudal) = away from the head

orbital

cavity around eyes

middle ear

cavity between eardrum and inner ear

nasal

cavity inside nose

digestive

cavity inside the digestive tract

oral

cavity of mouth

synovial

cavity surrounding some types of joints

effector

cell or organ that receives information (output) from control center and produces a response (effect)

interphase the

cell undergoes all of its normal daily metabolism (protein synthesis, digestion, cellular respiration, etc.).

superior (

cephalic = cranial) = towards the head

thoracic

chest

The three types of fibers in connective tissue are

collagen fibers, reticular fibers and elastic fibers.

Tissue

collection of specialized cells and cell products that perform a relatively limited number of functions

Gap junctions are

communicating junctions between adjacent cells that allow the movement of ions & small molecules to pass through pores from one cell to the next. These are present in heart and smooth muscle where ion flow synchronizes activity to generate coordinated contractions.

homeostasis

condition in which body's internal environment remains within certain narrow physiological limits

The mRNA

connects to a ribosome and is read three nucleotides at a time (one word or codon).

Collagen fibers

consist of a bundle of protein subunits wound together like rope. They are flexible but very strong when pulled from the end.

Stratified epithelium

consists of 2 or more layers and often functions in protection in areas with lots of wear and tear

Simple epithelium

consists of a single layer of cells and primarily functions in diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion & absorption.

Transverse

horizontal - cross-sectional -separates the body into superior and inferior parts

Water molecules are held together by

hydrogen bonds. These hydrogen bonds give water its fluidity. The tendency of water molecules to stick to one another is called cohesion. Water molecules will also stick to other charged surfaces; this is called adhesion. As a result of cohesion, water has a high surface tension (the force required to break the surface). As a result of cohesion and adhesion, water exhibits capillary action (the tendency to rise up a tube and flow through a tube).

Programmed cell death

idea that the timing of the death of a cell is coded in the cells genes.

The glycocalyx functions

in cell adhesion, recognition and immunity.

Nucleic acids function

in containing hereditary information, containing information about proteins and performing protein synthesis.

Dense CT IS found

in tendons (attaching muscle to bone), ligaments (attaching bone to bone), aponeuroses and elastic tissue.

Transcription occurs

in the nucleus and translation occurs in the cytoplasm (at the ribosomes)

Reticular connective tissueis found

in the stroma of the liver, spleen & lymph nodes and in the red bone marrow that gives

Areolar CT located

in the subcutaneous layer of skin, in the papillary (superficial) region of dermis, in mucous membranes, around blood vessels and nerves and around body organs.

Body fluids are important

in transporting and dissolving substances (e.g., interstitial fluid, blood, cerebrospinal fluid).

the primary functions of steriods

include acting as chemical messengers (hormones) and stabilizing cell membranes (cholesterol) and facilitating fat digestion (bile).

Type of Active processes

include active transport and vesicular transport.

Types of Passive processes

include diffusion, osmosis, filtration and facilitated diffusion.

The ventral body cavity

includes the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity.

Inclusions

inclusions are substances contained in the cell such as pigment molecules (melanin) and energy storage molecules (fats and glycogen)

Inclusions

inclusions are substances contained in the cell such as pigment molecules (melanin), stored nutrients (fats and glycogen) and various types of crystals.

Adipose tissue provides and functions how

insulation, an energy reserve, support, protection and thermogenesis (brown fat) in infants.

Ground substance contains

interstitial fluid, proteoglycans and adhesion proteins. The ground substance and fibers are secreted by the cells.

lysosomes

intracellular (inside cell) digestion; rid cell of worn out organelles; cell death (suicide)

Reduction-oxidation reactions

involve the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another. This type of reaction is often classified as a special type of exchange reaction. Marieb also describes it as a type of decomposition reaction.

Salt

ionic compound that breaks down into anions and cations in water

The plasma membrane

is a double layer (bilayer) of phospholipid molecules with proteins and cholesterol imbedded in the membrane and sugar and proteins attached to the surfaces.

Extracellular matrix

is a jelly-like substance outside of cells composed of proteins and polysaccharides. It is secreted by cells and creates a mesh that surrounds cells.

The pH scale

is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in solution. The scale goes from 0 to 14. PH : -log[H+]. PH -7 is neutral and represents a H+ concentration of 10-7.

Mucous CT

is a temporary tissue derived from mesenchyme that is similar to it. The best example is Wharton's jelly, which is supports the umbilical cord of the fetus.

The extracellular matrix

is all of the material outside the cells and consists of ground substance and protein fibers.

Matter

is anything that occupies space and has mass.

Reticular connective tissue

is characterized by having extensive reticular fibers running through it.

Mesenchyme

is embryonic connective tissue that gives rise to all other connective tissues.

transitional

is found in the urinary bladder and ureters.

Epithelial tissue characteristics

is highly cellular, which means it is composed primarily of closely-packed cells; very little space and EC material. It often has specialized cell junctions where cells bound closely together by one or more types of intercellular connections (i.e., tight junctions, gap junctions and desmosomes). It exhibits polarity such that it has apical and basal surfaces that differ from one another. Cellular organelles are often unevenly distributed between apical and basal surfaces. Epithelial tissue attaches to underlying connective tissue by a basement membrane. Epithelial tissue is avascular and must receive nutrients from blood vessels located in adjacent connective tissue by diffusion. It has high regeneration capacity since epithelium must continually repair & replace itself. It is innervated (has nerves) and often has specializations such microvilli (outward foldings of membrane to increase surface area) and cilia (hairlike extensions of membrane for movement of materials across surface).

The function of glandular epithelium

is secretion which is accomplished by glandular cells that often lie in clusters deep to covering and lining epithelium. The gland may consist of one cell or group of specialized epithelial cells

The abdominopelvic cavity

is separated into two regions, which are not truly separated from one another in the body.

Cytokinesis

is the division of the cytoplasm of the cell and it occurs during telophase.

ATP

is the energy currency of the cell. When excess energy is given off from a chemical energy, the energy is used to make ATP from ADP, which stores it for use elsewhere. When energy is needed to drive a chemical reaction ATP is broken down to ADP and the energy from that terminal bond is released.

Transudate

is the fluid formed on surface of serous membrane.

Hyaline cartilage

is the most abundant type of cartilage. The matrix contains loosely packed collagen fibers. It is tough but flexible. It functions to provide smooth surfaces for movements and joints, flexibility, support. It is found on the ends of long bones, anterior ends of ribs, nose, parts of larynx, trachea, bronchi & bronchial tubes and the embryonic skeleton.

The cell cycle

is the time from the formation of a cell until that cell finishes dividing itself. It includes interphase and mitotic phase (mitosis).

The secondary structural levels of organization sequence

is the twisting or coiling of the linear chain, which results from hydrogen bonds that occur at regular intervals along the chain.

The ground substance

is the watery (or gel-like or solid) background fluid in which cells and fibers are immersed or embedded. It fill spaces between cells & surrounds fibers.

Connective tissue characterists are

is widely distributed throughout body but not exposed to exterior. It is a binding and connecting type of tissue rather than a lining like epithelial. It has highly variable structure and function.

Synovial membranes

lack a basement membrane, often have gaps between cells, and have primarily macrophages and fibroblasts as lining cells.

Connective tissue consists

of sparsely distributed cells with lots of extracellular matrix. The matrix is composed of ground substance and protein fibers. CT is very variable in its degree of innervation and vascularization.

DNA consists

of two strands of nucleotides (at least in humans and most other organisms) that are twisted to form a helix. It functions in passing hereditary information from one generation to the next and in containing

Sometimes cells will interact directly with other cells, but often they are responding to extracellular chemicals found within body fluids (e.g. hormones & neurotransmitters). Cells also interact with surrounding chemicals to help guide them during development and repair. In both the direct and indirect interactions, the glycocalyx is involved. One group of molecules in the glycocalyx are cell adhesion molecules (CAMS) that function in embryonic development, wound repair and immunity. The glycocalyx also consists of membrane proteins that act as receptors. Some of the receptors respond to contact with other cells (contact signaling) while others respond to specific chemicals (

ligands) that bind to them. Examples of ligands include neurotransmitters and hormones. Some receptors may have a direct influence on the membrane while others use a regulatory molecule called a G protein and internal second messengers to regulate cell activities.

smooth ER

lipid metabolism

Steroids are

lipids composed of 4 interlocking carbon rings. There are a lot of different steroids with different functions.

The two classes of connective tissue proper are

loose CT and dense CT.

lumbar

lower back

Areolar tissue

may contain all the cells and fibers described for connective tissue proper. It has an open framework made up mostly of ground substance, which has a syrupy consistency.

mRNA

messenger RNA is a "transcript" of the section of DNA that describes how to make a particular protein

Catabolism

metabolic activities that result in breaking down large molecules into smaller components

Anabolism

metabolic activities that result in build large molecules from smaller components .

microvilli

minute, finger-like projections of the plasma membrane (on the exposed surface); major function is to increase surface area of the membrane; usually found on absorptive surfaces

In gases

molecules are far apart there is a lot of motion.

Dense connective tissue

most of the volume of tissue is occupied by fibers and collagen fibers predominate.

phagocytosis

movement of LARGE PARTICLES (FOOD, DEBRIS, BACTERIA ETC.) into the cell by forming a vesicle (membranous sac) and expending energy

flagella

movement of cell through medium (e.g., sperm)

cilia

movement of materials across the cell

DNA consists

of two strands of nucleotides (at least in humans and most other organisms) that are twisted to form a helix. It functions in passing hereditary information from one generation to the next and in containing instructions for making all proteins within the cell.

The accessory cell population consists

of white blood cells, plasma cells, macrophages, mast cells and microphages. Macrophages, white blood cells, plasma cells and microphages function in defense. Mast cells store and secrete histamine (inflammatory response).

Organelles

organelles are the functional units inside the cell; each has its own function to perform

Anatomical position

patient is erect, feet apart and palms facing anteriorly

Phospholipids

physically isolate the cell from its surroundings and allow very small molecules to pass through the membrane.

Proton

positively charged subatomic particle that resides in the nucleus of an atom

osmotic pressure

pressure exerted to prevent the flow of water due to concentration gradient (this opposes the hydrostatic pressure)

Adipose tissue located

primarily in the subcutaneous layer of skin and surrounding the heart & kidneys. also found in yellow bone marrow of long bones, padding around joints, and behind eyeball in eye socket.

Cholesterol

stabilize the membrane and give it some rigidity.

Potential energy

stored energy (bond energy is potential)

Histology

study of tissues

Base

substance that accepts H+ in water; OR substance that releases OH- in water

Acid

substance that releases H+ in water

Buffer

substance that resists changes in pH; composed of a weak acid and a weak base so that it can either release or accept H+ depending on conditions.

Cellular secretions include

substances released by cells for digestion (intestinal and gastric fluids) and lubrication (saliva, mucus and serous fluid).

Glycolipids

sugar attached to phospholipid; function in cell adhesion and recognition.

Metabolism

sum of all chemical reactions in the body (or cell).

rough ER

synthesis of proteins to be used in the plasma membrane or to be exported from cell (secreted)

During S (

synthesis) the cell makes a copy of each of its chromosomes DNA replication).

Negative feedback

the response by the effector to the initial change is to counter or reduce that change, thus bringing the system back to its "normal" state. Example When blood sugar level rises, the pancreas secretes insulin which causes the cells of the body to take in glucose, thus removing glucose from the blood and lowering blood sugar level

positive feedback

the response by the effector to the initial change is to further exaggerate the change. Example in labor contractions, the contraction of the uterus forces the baby towards the birth canal, which places pressure on the cervix; the pressure of the baby against the cervix causes uterine contraction, etc.

In merocrine glands

the secretion is released from secretory vesicle via exocytosis.

Nucleoplasm

the semi-solid, semi-liquid substance that resides inside the nucleus (analagous to the cytosol of the cell).

crenation

the shriveling of a cell as a result of losing water when placed in a hypertonic solution

In anaphase

the sister chromatids (exact copies of one another) are separated from one another by the shortening of the proteins in the mitotic spindle. One set of chromatids is pulled to one side of the cell and the other set is pulled to the other side of the cell.

Metabolism

the sum of all chemical reactions in the cell (or body)

Telomere clock

the telomeres, which are the ends of chromosomes, may have a way of counting the number of times a chromosome is copied and then allow for its destruction after being copied a certain number of times.

fourth structural levels of organization

the tertiary structure is the aggregation of two or more coiled chains. The 3-D shape of a protein influences its function. The tertiary sequence is critical in dictating the overall 3-dimensional shape. The surface of the molecule will contain regions for binding to other molecules; the shape of these regions is critical to proper functioning.

Codon

the three nucleotide base sequence of mRNA corresponding to a particular amino acid

Anticodon

the three nucleotide base sequence of tRNA that will be matched to the codon of the mRNA

Genetic code

the way that amino acid sequences of a protein are encyrpted or encoded in the nucleotide base sequences of DNA.

receptor-mediated endocytosis

this is endocytosis that involves specific uptake of large molecules; the key difference here is the specificity (performed by the receptor).

The thoracic cavity is further subdivided into

two pleural cavities, which contain the lungs, one pericardial cavity, which contains the heart, and the mediastinum, which is the central region of the thoracic cavity containing the esophagus and trachea.

neutron

uncharged subatomic particle that resides in the nucleus of an atom

Membranes of adjacent cells are

usually interconnected by the adhesive properties of the glycocalyx. Often, wavy surface contours can "interlock" adjacent cells as well.

Also due to hydrogen bonds,

water functions to stabilize temperature because it resists temperature changes (has high specific heat). In order to change the temperature of any substance, the molecules must move faster. To make water molecules move faster, we first have to break hydrogen bonds, which requires energy. Using the same reasoning, water also does not change to the gaseous state easily (has high heat of vaporization). In addition, because of hydrogen bonds, when water freezes there is a lot of space between molecules. This makes water in its solid state less dense that water in its liquid state (ice floats). If ice did not float, life on earth would probably not exist (at least in areas subjected to freezing temperatures because after freezing at the interface with the air the ice would sink, then more water would freeze and sink, etc. Soon the entire body of water would be frozen solid.

The inner layer

which is closest to the organ, is called the visceral layer.

The phospholipid bilayer is arranged

with the phosphate heads pointing outward and the fatty acid tails pointing toward one another.

carpal

wrist