Chapter 1: The First Civilizations and Chapter 2: Cultural Collision

following accurately describes Norse colonization of the Americas

Norse explorers visited present-day Iceland, Greenland, and Canada

Which of the following is a distinguishing characteristic of Paleo-Indians?

They were nomadic hunters and gatherers who tracked megafauna

In addition to the Bering Strait land bridge, what are some of the other theories of migration?

coastal route from Asia By boat across the Atlantic By boat across the Pacific

What was the name of an important northwest regional ceremony where food and gifts were distributed?

potlatch

First, define the term métis.

second generation French/Indian children

Who challenged Spanish treatment of native peoples?

Bartolomé de Las Casas

Briefly describe the role of the nation-state in spurring the Age of Exploration.

(1) the nation-state created a more sophisticated and centralized bureaucracy that could support and promote exploration; (2) the leaders of these new nations were in competition to augment their power and wealth

Of the thirty-nine men that Columbus left at the La Navidad settlement on Hispaniola in 1492, how many were still alive when he returned a year later?

0

If we estimate that the post-contact population of Native Americans in North America was approximately 500,000 people, assuming that disease and conflict killed 95% of native peoples (a possibility for virgin soil epidemics), what would the initial pre-contact population have been?

10 million people

Columbus First Voyage

1492 Left a small number of men to begin a small colony called La Navidad

Columbus Second Voyage

1493 Brought a large contingent of people¸ animals¸ and plants to start more extensive colonization

Columbus Third Voyage

1498 Came to the conclusion that he had not actually reached Asia

Columbus Fourth Voyage

1502 Explored what is today Panama, he hoped to find a sea passage through the Americas to Asia

After decades of study and controversy, what is the most current estimate of the native population north of Mexico before European contact?

2-18 million

Requerimiento

A document read to Native Americans demanding that they submit themselves to Spanish rule and accept Christianity. Which was read in a language most did not understand and was used to, again, justify taking their lands

"Kivas" were used by natives in the southwest as ________.

Ceremonial/religious structures

The traditional Bering Strait Theory has been challenged based on which of the following kinds of evidence?

Archaeological Genetic Linguistic

Discuss the conflicting interpretations of Columbus and his "discovery" of the Americas. How was his discovery interpreted in 1892? In 1992? In 2020? How do you think he will be remembered in 2092? Why do you think that these interpretations have changed? How would you personally evaluate Columbus?

Beginning in 1492, and ever since, Columbus's legacy has been contested. In 1892, at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Columbus's "discovery" of America was lauded and honored. He was portrayed as one of the founding fathers of America and praised for bringing "civilization" and Christianity to America. In 1992, the five hundredth anniversary of Columbus's expedition to the Americas was much more contested than the celebratory Chicago Columbian Exposition. While many still lauded Columbus's achievements, others focused on the negative results that followed in the wake of his arrival, including disease, conquest, and the expansion of the slave trade. Indeed, many argued that Columbus's arrival was not a "discovery" but an invasion. In 2020, Columbus's legacy became a further point of contention in the wake of protests for racial justice. There are many different possibilities to answer the question of why these interpretations have changed over time. For example, interpretations have changed in light of historical developments such as the American Indian Movement in the 1960s, which brought to national awareness issues facing native peoples as a result of the legacy of conquest.

Doctrine of Discovery

Christian explorers had the right to claim all lands they "discovered" Which justified taking native lands.

Based on what you have read in the source, how did Columbus describe the native peoples he encountered? What did he want from what he called the "Indios?" What did he think of their religion?

Columbus initially described the "Indios" he encountered as peaceful, simple, and willing to help the sailors. He writes numerous times about the Indians bringing them foods and other presents, especially cotton He wanted gold (and silver, but mainly gold) from them. He also claimed all of their lands from the Spanish king and queen (Oct. 12/15) He believed that they did not have "any religion," (Nov. 1) and that they would be easily converted to Catholicism (Oct. 12)

What are some of the problems historians confront when defining culture areas?

Culture areas were not rigidly defined; people moved in and out of each area especially on the borders. There was diversity within each discrete region depending on the climate/soil/terrain. Culture areas were not static or fixed in time; each region changed and evolved over long periods of time. Historians confront stereotypes that portray native peoples as unsophisticated; however, the peoples in each culture area were diverse, sophisticated, and interlinked by trade. Unequal information is available about the culture regions.

culture areas

During and after the Archaic period, and until the time of contact with the first European explorers in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Native American societies continued to develop strikingly different cultures, religions, and subsistence patterns based on their location and environment. In order to characterize and understand these societies, historians, anthropologists, and archaeologists often divide the present-day United States into

During what period, Native Americans encountered Europeans at different times depending on the proximity of both to oceans and interior waterways.

During the post-contact period

Why do scholars believe that they now have a more accurate estimate of the pre-contact Native American population numbers?

First, historians and anthropologists no longer see Native Americans as primitive and incapable of creating large societies. Second, scholars now know about the devastating results of European-imported diseases on native populations.

How did Bartolomé de Las Casas portray the "Indians" in his document? How did he portray the Spanish and their treatment of native peoples? How do you think other Spanish conquistadors responded to this document?

He described the Indians as innocent, simple, and "gentle sheep." He viewed them as ready to be converted to Catholicism. He described the Spanish treatment of native peoples as extremely brutal and cruel. Many others defended the actions of Spanish conquistadors as just, or, denied that abuse of natives occurred. They also claimed that his charges were over-exaggerated.

Rank the following scholars based on their estimates of pre-contact North American population sizes from highest to lowest.

Henry Dobyns Russell Thornton and Joan Marsh-Thornton Homer Aschrmann James Mooney

the Pueblo Rebellion of 1680

It occurred (among other things) because the Spanish exploited Pueblo labor and punished them harshly for practicing their religion. It was organized by a Pueblo religious leader named Popé.

the following tribes is not a part of the Iroquois Confederation

Lakota

Encomienda

Large grants of lands and Indians to work them; which took native lands and used them as slave labor

Why do some native groups reject the Bering Strait Theory (and other scientific theories explaining the origin of native peoples)?

Many native peoples refute that they came across the Bering Strait, or that their ancestors were from Asia, Europe, or Australia. Instead they argue that they have always been in the Americas. They rely on creation stories and oral traditions to explain how and where their people came to reside. Each tribe has its own origin story that places their origin in their homeland, and not in some distant land.

the following Southwest cultures in chronological order, from earliest to latest.

Mogollon culture Anasazi culture Hohokam culture

Which nation was the first to participate in the modern African slave trade?

Portugal

What evidence suggests that warfare broke out among Great Plains tribes in the 13th and 14th centuries?

Possibly due to overpopulation and drought.

why a métis might be welcome or rejected by the two cultures he/she straddled.

Some métis children grew up and became traders in their own right, using language skills and cultural practices learned from both parents. However, others grew up in between cultures, perhaps accepted by neither due to conflicting religious traditions, cultural practices, and language.

What were the reasons for European exploration of the Americas? Which do you personally think was the most important? Why?

Some of the reasons for exploration included: the desire for cheaper trade goods from Europe; the development of nation-states across Europe; the Renaissance; new technologies that aided exploration; and initial explorations of the African coast. Answers can vary about which of these is the most important, but should include a specific reason why the choice was made.

the following are true about pre-contact plains tribes

Some tribes farmed on the central and eastern plains.

What benefits do you think students of history might gain from viewing North American history from the natives' perspective?

Students may offer multiple responses to this question. Answers could include: challenging the "pristine myth" and other stereotypes associated with both pre- and post-contact native peoples.

Tenochtitlán

The Aztec capitol conquered by the Spanish

true about the Dutch empire in America

The Dutch empire rested on the fur trade and small settlements The Dutch settlements were extremely diverse

How do the Navajo believe that they came to live in the southwestern portion of the present-day United States? Why do you think that many Europeans rejected Native American origin stories?

The Navajo believe that they started out underground and moved up through five worlds until they arrived in their current home, the present-day American southwest. There is no mention of crossing the Bering Strait to reach the southwest.

What explains the difference between Spanish settlements in South and Central America on the one hand and North America on the other? What key factors determined the type of colony the Spaniards established?

The Spanish searched for gold and other sources of wealth in the Americas. They also wanted to convert natives to Christianity. Both of these necessitated large groups of native peoples to use for labor and to convert to Christianity. In their explorations into the present-day United States, the Spanish did not find gold (or other wealth), nor did they find large settlements of native peoples to exploit for labor or to convert to Catholicism. This led the Spanish to create small mission settlements in the southwest and southeast, instead of the larger settlements they formed further south.

According to the Bering Strait Theory, which of the following are true?

The ancestors of present-day Native Americans crossed from Siberia to present-day Alaska on exposed land during the Ice Age. After crossing the Bering Strait¸ people continued to move south¸ eventually arriving in South America.

reasons for European exploration beginning in the fifteenth century

The consolidation of power by powerful monarchs across Europe The desire for trade goods from the East The Renaissance The development of new sailing technology

What did you learn about Cahokia buildings, crafts, and trade from the images? Europeans and then white Americans often stereotyped Native Americans as "primitive" and "uncivilized." How do the images found here challenge these stereotypes?

The images illustrate complex buildings, mounds, and a wall around Cahokia. All of these took tremendous ingenuity, knowledge, and time to construct The images also illustrate extensive trade and the production of complex pottery and crafts They established a complicated, hierarchical political system with chiefs at the top They constructed a "woodhenge" which they used as a calendar and to follow the seasons All of the images described above illustrate that the Cahokians were anything but "primitive" and "uncivilized." They had a complicated political, economic, and social system and produced complex structures and mounds.

Pre-Columbian Hypothesis

The theory holds that syphilis was present in Europe before the arrival of Europeans in the Americas.

What factors allowed natives in present-day California and along the northwest coast to establish large permanent villages?

The year-round availability of food and a very diverse economy.

Which of the following are the characteristics of Archaic Indians?

They developed more complex societies after the end of the Ice Age They gathered plants native to their region Some started to cultivate plants in the late Archaic period They established trade networks

Why was it necessary for the natives of the Great Basin to live in structures that could be quickly taken down and rebuilt?

They followed a seasonal round that focused on hunting and gathering over long distances.

In textbooks, the Americas are often called the "new world." How would you evaluate the use of this term? Should the Americas be called a "new world?" Why or why not?

This question focuses on perspective—certainly, from a European point of view, the Americas were a "new world." From a Native American perspective, however, it was not a "new world;" rather, Europe was the "new world." Many native activists today caution that terms need to be examined from multiple perspectives.

Why did Native Californians set fires in local forests?

To protect their acorn trees; to foster a larger deer population; and to increase the growth of edible plants.

The "weroances" are ________ in Chesapeake tribal societies.

Tribal leaders

Columbia River Trade Network

Tribes from multiple culture areas traveled to present-day The Dalles and Celilo Falls, Oregon to trade items specific to their region; they brought back trade items that they could not obtain from their own area.

following scholars would be the most likely to express skepticism about archaeological evidence for the peopling of the Americas

Vine Deloria, Jr

What is the name given by historian Alfred Crosby to the process by which native peoples died from European imported diseases for which they had no natural immunity?

Virgin Soil Epidemics

What were the two names for French fur traders?

Voyageurs Coureurs de Bois

consequence of the introduction of Old World diseases to New World populations?

Widespread suffering and death Expediting European conquest and colonization Some questioned their traditional religious and cultural beliefs

Christopher Columbus's claim that the world was round was widely mocked by his contemporaries, who warned that he would sail off the edge of the world.

false

The most commonly accepted theory

first proposed in 1590 by José de Acosta and has been popular since the 1930s. According to this theory, the ancestors of Native Americans traveled from Siberia across the Bering Strait to present-day Alaska during the Ice Age. During this era, cold temperatures lowered water levels, which opened up a "land bridge" about one thousand miles wide. Around 15,000 to 11,000 years ago, the nomadic hunters crossed on this exposed land (called Beringia) following migrating herds of megafauna, and then traveled down an "ice-free corridor" that opened up toward the end of the last Ice Age Over the next several thousand years, movement continued south until some migrants eventually arrived at the southern tip of South America.

The Columbian Exchange was:

the transatlantic flow of plants, animals, and germs that began after Christopher Columbus reached the New World.