Chapter 10-16

According to the Uri Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, which of the following is an example of a child's microsystem? a. The country in which the child lives b. The leader of the country in which the child lives c. The relationship between the child and his or her parents d. The relationship between the child's parents and his or her school

The relationship between the child and his or her parents

In Vygotsky's view, opportunities to engage in pretend play (e.g., playing "house" or "doctor") have which one of the following effects? a. They are highly enjoyable but have little impact on cognitive development. b. They can help children shed their preoperational egocentrism. c. They foster traditional gender stereotypes. d. They allow children to practice adult behaviors.

They allow children to practice adult behaviors.

Maps, matrixes, and historical time lines all help students learn by facilitating: a. Use of mnemonics b. Rote learning c. Organization d. Self-regulated learning

Organization

Which one of the following statements best describes intersubjectivity? a. Recognizing that one does not know, and ultimately never can know, everything there is to know about a topic b. The point at which a teacher understands the nature of a child's existing knowledge about a topic c. The point at which a child acquires the same knowledge about a topic that a teacher or other expert has d. A mutual understanding between two people that each one knows what the other one is seeing, thinking, or feeling

A mutual understanding between two people that each one knows what the other one is seeing, thinking, or feeling

After explaining what sines and cosines are, a high school math teacher shows students how they might use these concepts in constructing a large building. Which one of the following principles does this scenario best illustrate? a. Over time, self-talk gradually evolves into inner speech. b. Thought and language become increasingly interdependent with age. c. Acquiring the cognitive tools of one's culture enables youngsters to live and work more effectively. d. Children function more effectively when they work at their actual (rather than potential) developmental levels.

Acquiring the cognitive tools of one's culture enables youngsters to live and work more effectively.

Eight-year-old Julie lives in a rural area where many people are farmers or in some other way make their living through agriculture. After a lengthy summer drought, it begins to rain heavily one day in late July. "Thank goodness!" Julie hears her father exclaim. "Our prayers have finally been answered!" Julie makes a mental note of the cause-effect relationship her father has implied—in particular, that prayer can lead to rain. This situation illustrates Vygotsky's belief that: a. Adults pass along to children the ways in which their culture interprets events. b. Children's level of potential development is always a bit higher than their actual developmental level. c. Children acquire more knowledge and skills when scaffolding is kept to a minimum. d. Thought and language are distinct processes in the early years of life.

Adults pass along to children the ways in which their culture interprets events.

Three of the following are examples of comprehension monitoring. Which one is not? a. Annette looks at all the headings and subheadings in a chapter before she begins to read the chapter itself. b. Bruce asks himself questions about the material he is reading and tries to answer them. c. Cara stops at the end of each section to see if she can summarize what she's just read. d. After reading a chapter in a textbook, Dwayne makes sure he has accomplished the objectives presented on the chapter's first page.

Annette looks at all the headings and subheadings in a chapter before she begins to read the chapter itself.

Xavier loves to write poetry. Often he uses techniques that his favorite poets use, but typically he modifies these techniques to better suit his own style. This situation illustrates which one of the following concepts in Vygotsky's theory? a. Appropriation b. Mediated learning c. Actual developmental level d. Level of potential development

Appropriation

2. In Vygotsky's theory, three of the following would be considered lower mental functions. Which one would be considered a higher mental function? a. Learning to walk b. Adding 3 and 3 to get 6 c. Identifying appropriate foods to eat d. Finding one's way around the neighborhood

B. Adding 3 and 3 to get 6

Three of the following are examples of scaffolding. Which of the following is not? a. Modeling the correct way to perform a task b. Asking thought provoking questions c. Providing technological equipment to help with the task d. Repeatedly stating that the task at hand is difficult

Repeatedly stating that the task at hand is difficult

Kiley is having trouble learning the steps involved in using a microscope correctly. If we consider Vygotsky's description of how children can help themselves through difficult tasks, we should suggest that Kiley: a. Practice each step separately many times over b. Go through the procedure in slow motion a few times c. Talk herself through the steps d. Learn the reasons why each step is important

Talk herself through the steps

Which one of the following is the best example of a cognitive tool? a. Use of natural lighting in a studio art class b. A jigsaw in a woodworking class c. Use of country-western music in an aerobics class d. The concept pi (π) in a geometry class

The concept pi (π) in a geometry class

If you were interested in how a child's culture influences cognitive development, you would be most likely to consider _______ approach to cognitive development. a. Piaget's b. Vygotsky's c. neo-Piagetian theorists' d. information processing theorists

Vygotaky's

A community of learners can best be described as: a. A classroom in which a cooperative spirit of helping one another learn prevails. b. A small group of students that chooses a special topic it wants to pursue independently. c. A classroom in which most activities are relatively structured discoverylearning activities. d. A classroom in which most activities involve whole-class discussions and reciprocal teaching.

a. A classroom in which a cooperative spirit of helping one another learn prevails.

Intentional learning, as described in the textbook, would be most important for which one of the following learning tasks? a. Revising previously inaccurate understandings of scientific phenomena b. Learning how to spell words that violate common English letter-sound relationships (e.g., the term hors d'oeuvre) c. Learning that performance on classroom tests is usually better if one studies a little bit every night rather than cramming at the last minute d. Learning how to ask grammatically correct questions in the English language

a. Revising previously inaccurate understandings of scientific phenomena

Mr. Johansen, a sixth-grade teacher, wants to improve his students' ability to learn effectively from what they read in their textbooks. Considering research results described in your Human Learning text, which technique should Mr. Johansen use? a. Reciprocal teaching b. Community of learners c. Cooperative learning d. Class discussion

b. Community of learners

Which one of the following is the best example of an authentic activity? a. Listing four different kinds of sedimentary rocks b. Designing a bridge using principles of physics c. Putting definitions of new terms in your own words d. Discussing reasons why World War II occurred

b. Designing a bridge using principles of physics

Mnemonics probably facilitate memory in a number of ways. Which one of the following is not a potential advantage of mnemonics? a. They relate new information to what a person already knows. b. They expand the capacity of working memory. c. They help organize information. d. They provide retrieval cues.

b. They expand the capacity of working memory.

Three of the following are potential drawbacks to instructional techniques that depend heavily on student discussion. Which one is least likely to be a drawback? a. Outgoing and popular students may dominate discussions, even if their ideas and suggestions are off-target. b. Some students have trouble communicating their thoughts clearly enough for others to understand them. c. Students who believe that there is a single "right" perspective on any issue are more likely to participate than students who realize that several perspectives may all have legitimacy. d. Some students may become so focused on making a good impression when it's their turn to speak that they don't listen closely to what their classmates are saying.

c. Students who believe that there is a single "right" perspective on any issue are more likely to participate than students who realize that several perspectives may all have legitimacy.

On the average, self-regulated learners tend to: a. Perform better on a continuous reinforcement schedule than on an intermittent reinforcement schedule b. Require more of a teacher's time and attention than do other students, but this time and attention is a good investment over the long run c. Be less interested in extracurricular activities than their classmates d. Achieve at higher levels in the classroom

d. Achieve at higher levels in the classroom

When students are reading a textbook, their comprehension monitoring is most effective if it occurs: a. Before they read a passage b. Immediately after they've read a passage c. Several minutes or hours after they've read a passage d. Both immediately after they've read a passage and also at some later time

d. Both immediately after they've read a passage and also at some later time

Three of the following are beliefs of epistemology. Which of the following is not a relevant belief to the study of epistemology? a. The source of knowledge b. The nature of learning ability c. The speed of learning d. The capacity of memory

d. The capacity of memory

If you were to criticize Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development in a way that contemporary theorists sometimes do, which one of the following would you be most likely to say? a. "It ignores the effects that formal education has on cognitive development." b. "It disregards the important roles that peers play in children's development." c. "It's a bit vague in its explanations of how development occurs." d. "It places heavy emphasis on drill and practice as factors promoting development."

"It's a bit vague in its explanations of how development occurs."

Ms. Killian and her fourth graders have been growing sunflowers under various conditions—they have grown sunflowers in different kinds of soil, with different amounts of water, and in varying degrees of sunlight. Below are four statements that Ms. Killian makes related to the sunflowers. Which one is most consistent with the idea of a cognitive apprenticeship? a. "Who can tell me what photosynthesis is?" b. "How many of you have grown sunflowers at home? How many of you have moms or dads who are gardeners?" c. "This sunflower is taller than that sunflower over there. Let's consider what the growing conditions for the two flowers have been and try to figure out what might have led to the difference we see." d. "Elaine, please give each plant the same amount of water today that you gave it yesterday. Also, be sure that you keep each plant in the same location, so that the amount of sunlight it gets stays the same."

"This sunflower is taller than that sunflower over there. Let's consider what the growing conditions for the two flowers have been and try to figure out what might have led to the difference we see."

Which one of the following common expressions best reflects the idea of distributed cognition? a. "A stitch in time saves nine." b. "Two heads are better than one." c. "Look before you leap." d. "A rolling stone gathers no moss."

"Two heads are better than one."

Three of the following are accurate statements about how students' epistemic beliefs influence their approach to studying and learning. Which statement is not accurate? a. Students who believe that knowledge consists of a collection of discrete facts, rather than an interrelated set of ideas, are likely to engage in rote learning of classroom material. b. Students who believe that learning is a gradual process are more likely to use a variety of learning strategies and to persist in their learning efforts until they have mastered what they are studying. c. Students who believe that knowledge is a certain entity—that facts and ideas are definitely either right or wrong—are more like likely to jump to quick conclusions from the things they hear and read. d. Students who believe that knowledge is something that comes from authority figures, rather than being constructed by the learner, are more likely to be actively, cognitively engaged in their learning tasks.

. Students who believe that knowledge is something that comes from authority figures, rather than being constructed by the learner, are more likely to be actively, cognitively engaged in their learning tasks.

Three of the following are examples of communities of practice. Which of the following is not? a. Graduate students studying molecular biology b. Girls participating in a church youth group c. Adult males waiting for a light to change at a street corner d. Teachers working at an elementary school

Adult males waiting for a light to change at a street corner

Which one of the following is the best example of a mediated learning experience? a. Mr. O'Brien insists that students sit quietly at their desks before she dismisses them for lunch. b. Mr. James reflects on the lesson he taught earlier in the day. "I suspect that most of my students still don't understand the concepts I was trying to teach them," he thinks. c. Mr. Lucas asks his students to read Chapter 5 in their textbooks over the weekend. "You'll find that the chapter is more challenging than previous ones," he says. d. As Ms. Robinson takes a group of children hiking, she gathers leaves from maple, oak, and elm trees and points out the ways in which the leaves from the trees are distinctly different.

As Ms. Robinson takes a group of children hiking, she gathers leaves from maple, oak, and elm trees and points out the ways in which the leaves from the trees are distinctly different.

Which one of the following alternatives is the best example of a socially construction memory? a. A father is reading a bedtime story to his young son. In the middle of the story, he stops reading and makes up a different ending to the story. b. A teacher says, "Once upon a time, a young farmer ..." and then asks a student to complete the sentence. The teacher asks another student to provide a second sentence that relates to the first, asks a third student to supply a third sentence, and so on, until a complete story emerges. c. As they sip their milkshakes at a local diner, two friends recall and talk about various scenes from a scary movie they've just seen at the movie theater. d. As a boy thinks about his childhood he remembers his best friend who moved away

As they sip their milkshakes at a local diner, two friends recall and talk about various scenes from a scary movie they've just seen at the movie theater.

Three of the following examples are consistent with how epistemic beliefs typically change as learners grow older. Which one is not consistent with typical developmental trends in epistemic beliefs? a. Anna used to think that studying history involved memorizing facts— names, dates, places, etc. She now believes that studying history involves learning interrelationships among historical events—how one event led to another, and so on. b. Beatrice used to think that scientists might have different but possibly equally valid views of how the world operates. She now believes that there is probably only one correct explanation—one that scientists will eventually determine. c. Charmaine used to think that if she was going to learn a particular mathematical concept, she would learn it either quickly or not at all. She now believes that her understanding of particularly difficult math concepts may evolve slowly over time and require considerable effort on her part. d. Delores used to think that people were naturally either "good at" or "not good at" learning a foreign language. She now believes that successful learning results more from persistence and hard work.

Beatrice used to think that scientists might have different but possibly equally valid views of how the world operates. She now believes that there is probably only one correct explanation—one that scientists will eventually determine.

Which one of the following students is definitely working in his or her zone of proximal development? a. Arnold uses correct grammar and punctuation when he writes short stories. b. Berta is beginning to learn basic woodworking techniques. She has trouble hammering a nail straight into a piece of wood unless her teacher stands beside her, helping her and reminding her of what to do. c. Calvin is playing the clarinet in the band. He finds that it helps to keep the tempo if he taps the beat with his foot. d. Doreen finds it virtually impossible to solve mathematical word problems, even when her teacher gives her helpful hints.

Berta is beginning to learn basic woodworking techniques. She has trouble hammering a nail straight into a piece of wood unless her teacher stands beside her, helping her and reminding her of what to do.

. In Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development, what important role does inner speech play? a. By giving themselves directions about the things to do and in what order, children guide themselves through complex tasks. b. By using words mentally as well as orally, children develop more abstract representations of the world. c. By practicing various grammatical structures mentally, children acquire more complex language capabilities. d. By talking to themselves about what they should have done or said in a particular situation, children remember the situation more vividly

By giving themselves directions about the things to do and in what order, children guide themselves through complex tasks.

Which one of the following statements most accurately describes Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development? a. Children's cognitive growth should be judged on the basis of their actual developmental level, not on the basis of their level of potential development. b. Cognitive development progresses through four distinct stages; each stage is characterized by increasingly more complex thought and language. c. Children progress, in part, by working on difficult tasks with the assistance of more competent individuals. d. Language and thought, although closely intertwined in the first few years of life, become increasingly distinct entities

Children progress, in part, by working on difficult tasks with the assistance of more competent individuals

From Vygotsky's perspective, why do cultural differences exist in people's cognitive abilities? a. Cultures differ in the extent to which they use inner speech. b. The varying eating habits of different cultural groups influence children's nutrition and thus also influence brain maturation. c. Different cultures pass along somewhat different cognitive tools. d. Some cultures mediate children's experiences, whereas others do not

Different cultures pass along somewhat different cognitive tools

Which of the following pairs of concepts reflects the general idea that challenge is important for cognitive development? a. Disequilibrium and ZPD b. Self-talk and inner speech c. Conservation and internalization d. Working memory and central conceptual structure

Disequilibrium and ZPD

Three of the following students are using metacognitive strategies while using the Internet. Which one is not necessarily using a metacognitive strategy? a. Aiden chooses appropriate key words to search for new concepts. b. Billy actively evaluates the misinformation he is receiving from certain websites. c. Carole often changes her search criteria as she learns new information. d. Doug has multiple websites active at one time.

Doug has multiple websites active at one time.

Of the many learning and study strategies students might use, covert strategies are ultimately more beneficial than overt strategies. Which one of the following is a covert strategy? a. Elaboration b. Note taking c. Outlining d. Writing a summary

Elaboration

Researchers have found that when we human beings think about performing a particular physical skill (e.g., using scissors, dribbling a basketball), we activate some of the same brain regions that we use when actually executing that skill. Which one of the following concepts best reflects this research finding? a. Guided participation b. Intersubjectivity c. Appropriation d. Embodiment

Embodiment

Several parents who are making costumes for an elementary school play ask the young cast members to assist them with such tasks as cutting fabric, pinning pieces together, and sewing simple hems. Using the language of Vygotskian theorists, we can say that the parents are: a. Presenting tasks that exceed the students' zone of proximal development b. Encouraging the separation of thought and language c. Engaging the students in guided participation (also know as legitimate peripheral participation) d. Helping each student work at his or her actual developmental level

Engaging the students in guided participation (also know as legitimate peripheral participation)

Students in a fourth-grade reading group are reading a passage about snakes. Their teacher asks, "Who can think of a good title that summarizes what this passage is about?" After hearing several good suggestions, the teacher says, "The author says that snakes are helpful to farmers. What evidence does she give to support her statement?" If we consider Vygotsky's concept of internalization, we might predict that such a discussion will: a. Be more beneficial for students who are working outside their zones of proximal development than for students working inside their ZPDs. b. Help students develop a greater interest in learning for its own sake. c. Help students develop effective reading comprehension strategies (e.g., summarizing, looking for supporting statements). d. Be confusing and counterproductive for students who are not yet capable of abstract thought.

Help students develop effective reading comprehension strategies (e.g., summarizing, looking for supporting statements).

Which one of the following issues reflects a fundamental difference between Piaget's and Vygotsky's theories of cognitive development? a. Whether challenging tasks promote cognitive development b. Whether social interactions are important for cognitive development c. How much children require adult guidance to make cognitive gains d. Whether preschoolers are cognitively ready to handle complex, adultlike tasks

How much children require adult guidance to make cognitive gains

Which of the following most closely defines Uri Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory? a. Children learn the concept of biological systems from experience b. Adults actively manipulate children's understanding of changing systems c. Children learn about ecological systems from an early age have higher cognitive abilities d. Humans develop by participating in separate, but interacting systems.

Humans develop by participating in separate, but interacting systems.

If you wanted to take a Vygotskian approach to teaching students a new study strategy, you would be most likely to: a. Initially work collaboratively with students in applying the strategy, gradually withdrawing your support as they become more proficient in using it. b. Explain how the human memory system works and relate the strategy to effective memory processes. c. Show students how little they can remember when they use their current, ineffective strategies, thereby motivating them to learn the new strategy. d. Wait until students are at least 11 or 12 years old and thus capable of abstract thought

Initially work collaboratively with students in applying the strategy, gradually withdrawing your support as they become more proficient in using it.

Using the guidelines presented in the textbook regarding when classroom discussions are most valuable, choose the topic below that would be most appropriate for a classroom discussion. a. Learning how gravity affects the speed with which an object falls b. Studying the definitions of difficult words c. Learning the various tenses of the verb to be d. Interpreting Edgar Allan Poe's poem The Raven

Interpreting Edgar Allan Poe's poem The Raven

From a Vygotskian perspective, scaffolding serves what purpose in instruction? a. It gives children an idea of what they need to do to get good grades. b. It keeps school tasks within children's actual developmental levels. c. It lets children learn by watching one another. d. It supports children as they perform difficult tasks

It supports children as they perform difficult tasks

Which one of the following examples best illustrates the concept of distributed cognition? a. Jacquie, Linda, and DeWayne discuss various ways they might solve a physics problem. b. Mark and Jason each only complete half of their homework assignment. c. Rhonda watches her favorite situation comedy while simultaneously eating an apple and doing her homework. d. Reginald thinks about the various plots he might use in the short story he is writing and then eventually chooses one of them.

Jacquie, Linda, and DeWayne discuss various ways they might solve a physics problem.

Vygotsky proposed that thought and language are: a. Closely connected at all stages of life b. Largely independent before age two but closely connected thereafter c. Closely connected early in life and become increasingly independent with age d. Largely independent until the elementary school years and closely connected thereafter

Largely independent before age two but closely connected thereafter

In three of the following situations, interactions with peers might promote considerable learning. In which situation is an interaction with an adult (rather than with peers) more likely to be beneficial? a. Learning how to use a microscope correctly b. Contrasting different interpretations of a poem c. Identifying the pros and cons of a democracy d. Exploring various ways of solving a mathematical problem

Learning how to use a microscope correctly

Three of the following teachers should enhance the quality of notes that students take. Which teacher is unlikely to do so? a. Ms. Aguilar encourages students to reorganize and elaborate on their notes when they get home from school. b. Mr. Bakewell asks students to hold their questions until the end of class. c. Mr. Carlson writes important points on the chalkboard. d. At the beginning of class, Ms. Drew gives students an outline of the topics for the day

Mr. Bakewell asks students to hold their questions until the end of class.

Three of the following teachers are providing scaffolding to help their students learn. Which one is not necessarily providing scaffolding? a. Ms. Applegate gives her students a structure to follow when they write their first essay. b. Mr. Bernardo teaches students how to perform an overhand throw by gently guiding each student through the correct movement a few times. c. Ms. Chen gives her class some hints about how to solve an especially difficult word problem. d. Mr. Donaldson takes his students on an all-day field trip to the art museum

Mr. Donaldson takes his students on an all-day field trip to the art museum

Which one of the following is the best example of dynamic assessment? a. Mr. Thiessen asks Macy to show him how to use a microscope properly. b. Ms. Ursinas asks her students to work in 3-person groups to write a paper describing the effects of the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003. c. Ms. Vincenti gives her students 20 multiple-choice questions; she then gives 20 additional, more difficult questions to students who've done very well on the first set, as a way of assessing the upper limits of their knowledge. d. Mr. Warren observes and records how Erica's logical thinking changes over time as she experiments with a pendulum.

Mr. Warren observes and records how Erica's logical thinking changes over time as she experiments with a pendulum.

Three of the following are definite examples of scaffolding. Identify the situation in which no scaffolding is described. a. Ms. Ayotte likes to challenge her students by giving them group research projects. She puts her students in groups of three or four students each, and she gives each student a topic to research. She sends the groups to the school library to find out as much as they can about their topic, and then has each group give a report to the entire class. b. Mr. Bender is teaching a unit on beginning tennis. In the early stages of teaching a correct tennis swing, he uses an automatic ball server that serves balls with consistent speed, height, and direction. He also continually reminds students to "Keep your eye on the ball" and "Hold your arm straight." Later in the unit he begins to serve the balls himself, varying the speed, height, and direction of the serves. And he reminds students of what to do much less frequently. c. Ms. Carrera helps students solve math word problems by providing visual illustrations of the elements of the problem and by showing them similar problems that have been worked out correctly. As the weeks go by, she provides fewer and fewer visual illustrations and fewer and fewer workedout examples, until eventually the students can solve the problems without either form of assistance. d. Mr. Donaldson's students are just beginning to learn how to take notes in class. For the first few weeks Mr. D. begins class by handing out a detailed outline about the topic for the day. By December he is handing out an outline covering only the main points of the day, encouraging students to fill in the blank spaces on the sheet with ideas relative to each point. By May, students are writing down main points and relevant details on their own.

Ms. Ayotte likes to challenge her students by giving them group research projects. She puts her students in groups of three or four students each, and she gives each student a topic to research. She sends the groups to the school library to find out as much as they can about their topic, and then has each group give a report to the entire class.

Nine-year-old Ricky has recently learned how to solve long division problems, and he still struggles with especially difficult problems. At his mother's request, he helps his 8-year-old sister Lucy with the simple long division problems she must do for her math homework. From the perspective of Vygotsky's theory, which one of the following is most likely to result? a. Ricky's own long division skills will improve because he will internalize the instructions he gives Lucy. b. Ricky will gain nothing from helping his sister because doing long division is outside his zone of proximal development. c. Ricky's own long division skills will decrease, because any mistakes that Lucy makes will "corrupt" his own mathematical thinking. d. By helping Lucy with her long division problems, Ricky will be able to practice using the central conceptual structure that underlies his mathematical thinking

Ricky's own long division skills will improve because he will internalize the instructions he gives Lucy.

Mary takes care of several toddlers and preschoolers while their parents work during the day. One warm spring day, she has the children in a fenced-in area behind her home. A large dog comes running up to the fence. As the dog approaches, 2-year-old Todd looks at Mary. When he sees that she appears frightened, he immediately starts to cry. What phenomenon is Todd displaying in this situation? a. Zone of proximal development b. Social referencing c. Accommodation d. Assimilation

Social referencing

Which one of the following statements best describes Vygotsky's concept of internalization? a. As children grow older, they develop an increasing ability to think about events in abstract rather than concrete terms. b. With age, children acquire more sophisticated problem solving skills, largely because their parents and teachers give them increasingly more challenging problems to solve. c. Over time, children acquire greater self-confidence about their ability to deal with the world. d. Through their social interactions with other people, children acquire ways of mentally approaching and thinking about challenging tasks.

Through their social interactions with other people, children acquire ways of mentally approaching and thinking about challenging tasks.

Which one of the following situations best illustrates situated learning? a. Twelve-year-old Andrew bakes often at home and can easily figure out how much flour he needs when he cuts in half a cookie recipe that calls for 21 / 4 cups of flour. Yet Andrew has trouble making similar calculations in his math class. b. Ten-year-old Bernita wonders what it would be like to live on a farm rather than in the city. As she sits in class, her mind often wanders to rural locations she has visited only in her dreams. c. Sixteen-year-old Calvin has trouble understanding the process of mitosis when his biology teacher describes it in abstract terms. He still finds the concept difficult when, later, the teacher draws a diagram of the process on the chalkboard. d. Four-year-old Danetta has trouble understanding that her friend Michael has moved to a community more than a thousand miles away. She keeps insisting that Michael must only be a short car ride away and throws a fit when her mother refuses to drive her to Michael's house

Twelve-year-old Andrew bakes often at home and can easily figure out how much flour he needs when he cuts in half a cookie recipe that calls for 21 / 4 cups of flour. Yet Andrew has trouble making similar calculations in his math class.

Which one of the following students is not using a study strategy that will promote long-term storage processes? a. While his math teacher demonstrates a mathematical procedure on the chalkboard, Ed writes "Meet Pat after school" in the margin of his notebook. b. Jason creates an outline of all of the concepts he will need to know for his upcoming science exam. c. Hugh creates a flow chart to help him study for his math exam. d. Frank elaborates on what he learned in culinary class by going home and experimenting with new recipes.

While his math teacher demonstrates a mathematical procedure on the chalkboard, Ed writes "Meet Pat after school" in the margin of his notebook.

Three of the following students are showing signs of self-regulated learning. Which student does not show any evidence of self-regulated learning? a. Adam beams with pleasure when his teacher praises his English essay, because her opinion of his work is very important to him. b. Blake knows that, for purposes of college admission, his performance in math class is more important than his performance in his drama class, so he works harder in the first class than in the second. c. As Craig studies his German vocabulary words, he occasionally stops to check himself to see which words he needs to study further. d. Drew thinks to himself, "Tonight I'll skim the reading assignment in history just to get a general idea of what the chapter's all about. Tomorrow I'll read it again in more depth."

a. Adam beams with pleasure when his teacher praises his English essay, because her opinion of his work is very important to him.

Which one of the following best illustrates the concept of epistemic doubt? a. After reading two competing explanations of color vision, Stuart is beginning to wonder if science is as cut-and-dried as he has previously thought. b. Mary's teacher says that the earth revolves around the sun. Mary thinks, "How can that be? I see the sun go across the sky each day. Obviously, the sun goes around the earth, not vice versa." c. After listening to other students in her study group debate possible interpretations of a dialogue in Hamlet, Isilene wonders which of them is right. d. Randall doesn't think he has the ability to understand nuclear physics.

a. After reading two competing explanations of color vision, Stuart is beginning to wonder if science is as cut-and-dried as he has previously thought.

Which one of the following examples best shows one or more students using a procedure known as guided peer questioning (also known as elaborative interrogation) while studying? a. As LaWanda and Megan study their history book together, they take turns making up and asking each other questions about why various historical events may have happened the way they did. b. As she reads a classmate's short story, Suzette develops a list of questions that she would ask the author about why he wrote the story the way he did. c. Vance and Cindy make notations in their class notes regarding things they don't understand and need to ask their teacher about. d. As Lynette, Martin, and Fred study for a science quiz one evening, they go over the questions on the study guide their teacher handed out in class that day; they know that if they can answer all the questions successfully, they will do well on the quiz.

a. As LaWanda and Megan study their history book together, they take turns making up and asking each other questions about why various historical events may have happened the way they did.

Which one of the following definitely illustrates theory of mind in a preschooler? a. Casey asks his friend Julia, "Did you forget what I told you yesterday?" b. Although he cannot yet read, Manuel enjoys looking at picture books. c. Liza frowns and complains to her mother, "My head hurts really bad!" d. Toula tells her playmate Joey all about her camping trip over the weekend.

a. Casey asks his friend Julia, "Did you forget what I told you yesterday?"

Which one of the following examples best shows one or more students using a procedure known as scripted cooperation while studying? a. Danny and Emma are second graders who are working on their reading comprehension. Their teacher gives them a structured activity to do together to uncover the storyline of a new book. b. Ben and Will read their favorite story together. Ben reads the first half aloud and Will reads the second half aloud. c. A group of drama students read through the script of the play they are set to perform later that year. d. Elliot and Henry work on their math homework together by each completing every other problem

a. Danny and Emma are second graders who are working on their reading comprehension. Their teacher gives them a structured activity to do together to uncover the storyline of a new book.

The textbook describes many differences between good readers and poor readers— that is, between people who do and do not learn effectively from the things they read. Which one of the following is not an accurate statement about their differences? a. Good readers read more quickly than poor readers; for example, many good readers are skilled speed readers. b. Good readers are more likely to formulate questions that they then try to answer as they read. c. Good readers focus their attention on what is most important to learn; poor readers are less discriminating. d. As they read, good readers are more likely to embellish on what they read through inference-drawing and other forms of elaboration.

a. Good readers read more quickly than poor readers; for example, many good readers are skilled speed readers.

When students summarize material they are studying, they learn it more thoroughly. Which one of these students is most effectively summarizing? a. Jerry writes down the important ideas and identifies relationships among them. b. Laura writes down everything she can remember from the lesson. c. Nora writes each main point on a separate index card and then jots down all the details she can remember about each one. d. Phyllis lists the general themes of a lesson in five or six words.

a. Jerry writes down the important ideas and identifies relationships among them.

Three of the following are consistent with the textbook's recommendations for using peer tutoring. Which one is inconsistent with the textbook's recommendations? a. Peer tutoring can be used effectively to help students diagnosed as having learning disabilities. b. Tutors function most effectively when left to teach in ways that they develop on their own. c. Peer tutoring can be especially effective when the tutor is given structured activity to follow. d. Tutors are typically most effective when they themselves have mastered the subject matter they are teaching.

a. Peer tutoring can be used effectively to help students diagnosed as having learning disabilities.

. Three of the following are likely to enhance the effectiveness of a community of learners. Which one is least likely to be helpful? a. Students all try to master the same topic. b. Students focus on significant real-world problems. c. Students are taught how to present a persuasive argument. d. Students all have unique talents they can contribute to the overall class effort.

a. Students all try to master the same topic.

Given research on effective study skills, which one of the following techniques should you not recommend to a struggling student? a. Take notes on a lecture only after it's over. b. Draw inferences from the information presented. c. Look for main ideas in a lecture. d. Summarize the information presented in a textbook chapter.

a. Take notes on a lecture only after it's over.

Which one of the following scenarios best reflects the basic idea of social constructivism? a. Two students discuss possible interpretations of the proverb "A stitch in time saves nine." b. A teacher assigns a laboratory activity using cumbersome equipment that students can only use successfully by working in pairs. c. When a student borrows a classmate's marker without asking and then forgets to put the cap back on, leaving it dried out and useless by the following morning, her teacher reminds her of one of the class rules: "Respect other students' property." d. Four students in a study group divide the day's reading assignment into four sections. Each student reads a section and then teaches the material to the other group members.

a. Two students discuss possible interpretations of the proverb "A stitch in time saves nine."

To remember that the capital of Maine is Augusta, Bart pictures a lion with a gust of wind blowing through its mane. Bart's technique illustrates: a. the keyword method b. verbal mediation c. the method of loci d. an external retrieval cue

a. the keyword method

Ms. Villanueva has her students engage in a variety of activities in her middle school geography class. Three of the activities described below are authentic activities. Which one is not an authentic activity? a. Constructing a map of the neighborhood around the school b. Describing the difference between latitude and longitude c. Finding the most direct route to Chicago on a road map d. Using library resources to identify a good place to take a vacation

b. Describing the difference between latitude and longitude

In which one of the following examples is metacognition most clearly illustrated? a. Mary knows all the letters of the alphabet before she begins kindergarten. b. Fran knows how much of a book she is likely to remember a month later. c. Billy can read fourth-grade-level books when he's only 6 years old. d. Ewan has a photographic memory that enables him to remember everything he sees

b. Fran knows how much of a book she is likely to remember a month later.

Three of the following are typical elements of effective cooperative learning sessions. Which one is not typical of such sessions? a. To succeed, group members must depend on one another. b. Groups consist of several students of similar ability. c. Group members must individually demonstrate what they have learned. d. Groups work toward clear, concrete goals

b. Groups consist of several students of similar ability.

Imagine that you are a school district superintendent who wants students to develop effective study strategies before they graduate. With research about effective study skills programs in mind, which one of the following approaches would be the best one to take? a. Purchase textbooks that are about two years below students' present reading level. b. Have teachers incorporate study skills training into the specific academic courses they teach. c. Have a one-semester study skills course that all students take in middle school or junior high. d. Have a one-semester study skills course that all students take in their first or second year of high school.

b. Have teachers incorporate study skills training into the specific academic courses they teach.

Donald is studying for an upcoming exam. He does a number of things to prepare for the exam, four of which are listed below. Three of these illustrate metacognition. Which one reflects very little metacognitive activity? a. He allows himself adequate study time for the exam. b. He focuses his eyes on the first page of his textbook. c. He identifies a suitable mnemonic technique that will help him remember a difficult piece of information. d. He periodically tests himself to see if he is sufficiently prepared for the exam.

b. He focuses his eyes on the first page of his textbook.

Three of the teachers below are using strategies consistent with the textbook's recommendations for holding class discussions. Which teacher is using a strategy that is not consistent with the textbook's recommendations? a. Mr. Poston assures students that it's okay if they change their minds about an issue. b. Mr. Morris has students discuss a topic about which they know almost nothing. c. Mr. Sheehan reminds students that they can criticize ideas but not people. d. Mr. Retzlaff divides his class into groups of four students each to discuss a controversial issue.

b. Mr. Morris has students discuss a topic about which they know almost nothing.

Jenny is three years old. Which of the following beliefs about epistemology is she most likely to hold? a. Authoritative; information she learns only comes from authority figures b. Realist; information she gains from other people is truth c. Absolutist; information she hears is either true of false d. Multiplist; conflicting information she learns from different people can all be true

b. Realist; information she gains from other people is truth

8. One valuable study skill is the ability to distinguish between important and unimportant information in the material being studied. Three of the following statements are reasons that students at all levels often have trouble identifying important information. Which one is not a valid explanation of why students have such trouble? a. Students may have insufficient prior knowledge with which to make educated decisions about what is important. b. The very nature of the reading process is such that students inevitably give equal attention to every piece of information that is on the page. c. A textbook may give few if any signals about what things are most important to learn and remember. d. Students often use relatively superficial characteristics of the material (e.g., words in boldface print) as an indicator of what's important.

b. The very nature of the reading process is such that students inevitably give equal attention to every piece of information that is on the page.

Three of the following are examples of mnemonics. Which one is not a mnemonic? a. To learn the letters identifying the spaces on the treble clef (F A C E), Annabelle simply remembers the word face. b. To learn how to drive a car with a standard transmission, Bart practices the various parts of the task (e.g., steering, shifting, and braking) separately. c. To learn that the Spanish word pájaro means "bird," Corey pictures a bird wearing pajamas. d. To learn that the Spanish word navidad means "Christmas," Dorene thinks of the word nativity.

b. To learn how to drive a car with a standard transmission, Bart practices the various parts of the task (e.g., steering, shifting, and braking) separately.

Which one of the following is the closest approximation to co-regulated learning? a. Kieran takes detailed notes during a lecture in his class. b. When studying for a quiz, Malika tries to answer the questions on the study guide her teacher has provided. c. Suki is studying for a history test. She knows she has trouble with dates, so she checks herself by giving herself a short quiz after each chapter. d. Norm is preparing to take the SAT test important for admission to many colleges, so he gets an SAT preparation book from the local library and reads it from cover to cover.

b. When studying for a quiz, Malika tries to answer the questions on the study guide her teacher has provided.

Which one of the following teachers is using reciprocal teaching? a. Mr. Armando has students work in pairs, testing each other's knowledge about a topic. b. Working with a small group, Mr. Bromley gives each student a chance to ask questions of other group members regarding a section of text they are reading. c. When students ask questions about things they don't understand, Ms. Cromwell asks if classmates can answer those questions before answering them herself. d. Before a test, Ms. Dievers has each student describe the strategies he or she plans to use while studying.

b. Working with a small group, Mr. Bromley gives each student a chance to ask questions of other group members regarding a section of text they are reading.

To remember the four states that come together at a single point (Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah), Marcia remembers "CANU" (pronounced like "canoe"). Marcia's technique illustrates the use of: a. the keyword method b. a superimposed meaningful structure c. the method of loci d. the pegword method

b. a superimposed meaningful structure

Theorists have offered a number of suggestions regarding how teachers might help students develop better summaries of classroom subject matter. Which one of the strategies below do they not recommend? a. Have students identify the most important ideas and then find information that supports each idea. b. Have students look for and delete ideas that seem relatively trivial. c. Begin by having students read exceptionally difficult texts, so that they acquire an appreciation for the value of summarizing. d. Have students compare their summaries with one another and discuss their reasons for choosing some ideas as being more important than others.

c. Begin by having students read exceptionally difficult texts, so that they acquire an appreciation for the value of summarizing.

Three of the following statements accurately describe environmental influences on the development of epistemic beliefs. Which statement is not accurate? a. As students observe experts disagreeing about a particular topic, they increasingly realize that even authority figures aren't always reliable sources of what is true and accurate. b. The extent to which students accept what authority figures tell them is partly a function of the culture in which they have grown up. c. Classroom demands for word-for-word memorization increase as students move through the secondary grades and post-secondary education. d. Students who have grown up in Asian cultures are apt to believe that knowledge is the result of hard work, whereas students who have grown up in the United States are apt to believe that knowledge should come quickly and easily.

c. Classroom demands for word-for-word memorization increase as students move through the secondary grades and post-secondary education.

Which one of the following is the best example of problem-based learning? a. Learning the logic behind certain problem-solving procedures in math b. Learning history by reading detective novels set in certain historical eras c. Devising a way to move a large, heavy object using principles of physics d. Solving a series of mathematical word problems that gradually progress in difficulty

c. Devising a way to move a large, heavy object using principles of physics

1. Many children lack metacognitive knowledge. This is most directly reflected in the fact that they: a. Tend to be easily distracted from schoolwork b. Have difficulty with such mathematical concepts as proportions and negative numbers c. Don't know very much about how they can best learn something d. Don't do very well on intelligence test items requiring abstract thought

c. Don't know very much about how they can best learn something

Which one of the following pairs of students best illustrates a difference with respect to students' epistemic beliefs? a. Irene thinks that doing well in high school is important for getting into a good college, but Isabelle thinks that she can get into college with mediocre grades as long as she has high SAT scores. b. Julie likes going to school because that's where she sees her friends every day, but Janette likes going to school because of all the new things she learns there. c. Keith thinks that learning chemistry is a process of memorizing symbols and formulas, but Kareem thinks that chemistry involves trying to understand the nature of elements and compounds. d. Loren is well aware of the criteria his teacher is using to evaluate his classroom performance, but Luke is clueless about why he's doing poorly in the same teacher's class.

c. Keith thinks that learning chemistry is a process of memorizing symbols and formulas, but Kareem thinks that chemistry involves trying to understand the nature of elements and compounds.

Three of the following students are using metacognitive strategies while reading. Which one is not necessarily using a metacognitive strategy? a. Darnell always thinks about what he wants to learn from a textbook before he begins to read it. b. Josie likes to guess what an author will say before she starts reading; she continues to revise her guesses as she goes along. c. Pablo prefers to read out loud so he can hear what the words sound like. d. Keiko ignores parts of the text that don't relate to her purpose for reading.

c. Pablo prefers to read out loud so he can hear what the words sound like.

2. Three of the following are benefits of peer interaction in the classroom. Which one is not a typical benefit of peer interaction? a. Students can model effective ways of thinking for one another. b. Peer-group discussions encourage students to organize their thoughts about a topic. c. Peer-group discussions promote more rapid learning of classroom subject matter. d. Students can develop more effective ways of defending conclusions they have reached

c. Peer-group discussions promote more rapid learning of classroom subject matter.

Which one of the following best illustrates the use of base groups in cooperative learning? a. Students in a third-grade class are divided into several different reading groups based on their current reading levels. b. Students in a social studies class work in groups of three or four to conduct in-depth research projects in their local, inner-city neighborhood. c. Students in a literature class select one of four Shakespearian plays to read; students reading the same play convene for several half-hour discussions of the play. d. Students in a history class spend the last five minutes of each class session in small, semester-long groups in which they can compare class notes and help one another with sources of confusion.

c. Students in a literature class select one of four Shakespearian plays to read; students reading the same play convene for several half-hour discussions of the play.

Three of the following statements are accurate with regard to students' and/or teachers' epistemic beliefs. Which statement is not accurate? a. Students' criteria for determining the truth or validity of an idea influence the extent to which they engage in critical thinking. b. Students are more likely to develop sophisticated epistemic beliefs when they have an opportunity to study a particular subject matter at an advanced level. c. Students who believe that knowledge is fixed and simple tend to achieve at higher levels in the classroom. d. Teachers who believe that learning involves primarily memorization and rehearsal are more likely to focus on lower-level skills in their assignments and assessment practices.

c. Students who believe that knowledge is fixed and simple tend to achieve at higher levels in the classroom.

Can study skills be improved through instruction? Research indicates that: a. It is primarily high-ability students who benefit from study skills training. b. Effective study skills do not emerge before formal operations, regardless of instruction. c. Study skills training programs are effective even with students in the elementary grades. d. Only college students truly benefit from study skills training

c. Study skills training programs are effective even with students in the elementary grades.

As a teacher, you are concerned that many of your students are learning less than they think they're learning as they read their textbooks. Your best strategy would be to: a. Have them underline or highlight at least 50% of what they read b. Instruct them to read the book two or three times instead of only once c. Suggest questions that they can ask themselves as they read d. Copy difficult-to-understand sentences in their notebooks

c. Suggest questions that they can ask themselves as they read

Three of the following are strategies that good readers use to enhance their comprehension. Which one is not? a. They ask themselves questions to make sure they understand. b. They take steps to clarify possible sources of confusion. c. They read through material relatively quickly. d. They anticipate what is likely to come next in the passage.

c. They read through material relatively quickly.

With research on effective study skills in mind, identify the strategy that you should recommend to a high school student who really wants to do well in her classes but who consistently has trouble learning and remembering classroom subject matter. a. Try to organize information. b. Focus on details. c. Underline at least two sentences in every paragraph. d. Try to learn information word for word.

c. Underline at least two sentences in every paragraph.

Which one of the following cooperative groups is using the jigsaw technique? a. When attempting to solve several challenging mathematics problems, group members brainstorm various approaches to solving each one. b. As it prepares for a debate about capital punishment, a cooperative group decides which member will present each argument for the group's position. c. When studying types of mountains (volcanic, dome, fold, and block), each student studies one type and teaches what he or she has learned to other group members. d. After everyone has read Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, group members divide up the scenes of the play, and each student skims through his or her scenes for examples of symbolism.

c. When studying types of mountains (volcanic, dome, fold, and block), each student studies one type and teaches what he or she has learned to other group members.

As children develop, their metacognitive knowledge changes in a number of ways. Which one of the following is a false statement about how metacognition changes with development? a. Children sometimes use effective strategies unconsciously before they begin to use them consciously and intentionally. b. Older children engage in more comprehension monitoring than younger children. c. Younger children are more aware of their own thought processes than older children are. d. Children become increasingly adept at using rehearsal to remember something

c. Younger children are more aware of their own thought processes than older children are.

Melissa has an ingenious method for remembering the member countries of the NATO alliance. Using words that rhyme with the numbers 1, 2, 3, and so on, she forms a visual image of each country interacting with a word that rhymes with a number. For example, she pictures a huge bun (which rhymes with "1") sitting on top of Big Ben (Great Britain), a shoe (a rhyme for "2") with a tiny Canadian Mountie (Canada) perched on its toe, a tree (a rhyme for "3") with numerous Statues of Liberty (United States) growing from its branches, and so on. Melissa's technique illustrates the use of: a. verbal mediation b. an external retrieval cue c. the pegword method d. the method of loci

c. the pegword method

1. Central to Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development is the idea that children increasingly make better sense of their world: a. Through the mental processes of assimilation and accommodation b. By repeatedly encountering both pleasant and unpleasant events in their daily lives c. Through their independent explorations of their physical and social environments d. By interacting with more experienced people who mediate their understandings

d. By interacting with more experienced people who mediate their understandings

A student who has an illusion of knowing is likely to: a. Know the general meaning of material but not be able to repeat it verbatim b. Elaborate on hard-to-remember material c. Undergo conceptual change d. Express surprise about a low exam score

d. Express surprise about a low exam score

Three of the following are possible reasons that many students don't use effective learning and study strategies. Which one is not a reason that theorists have offered? a. Students believe they won't learn no matter what they do. b. Students think strategies involve too much time and trouble. c. Students have insufficient knowledge about a topic to use such strategies effectively. d. For some students, things learned at a rote level stay with them longer than things learned meaningfully.

d. For some students, things learned at a rote level stay with them longer than things learned meaningfully.

Note taking has a number of beneficial effects on learning and retention of information. Which one of the following is not an effect of note taking? a. It promotes verbal encoding of the material being heard or read. b. It promotes visual encoding of the material being heard or read. c. It provides retrieval cues for later recall of information. d. It decreases the degree to which elaboration is necessary.

d. It decreases the degree to which elaboration is necessary.

Which one of the following teachers is using the recommended approach to evaluate students' achievement in a cooperative learning situation? a. Ms. Au has students take notes on what they are learning throughout a cooperative learning session. b. Mr. Baer's cooperative groups turn in a research paper co-authored by all group members. c. Mr. Craighead's cooperative groups each elect a group "captain," who explains to Mr. Craighead what his or her group has learned. d. Ms. Donaldson gives students a quiz over the material that groups have studied; students get extra credit if everyone in their group scores high.

d. Ms. Donaldson gives students a quiz over the material that groups have studied; students get extra credit if everyone in their group scores high.

Considering trends in metacognitive development, only one of the following statements is accurate. Which one? a. Learners of all ages generally know the things they know and the things they don't. b. Elementary students have a better sense of what they do and don't know than high school students do. c. Students tend to know many things that they don't realize they know. d. Students across the K-12 grade span often think they know things that they really don't know.

d. Students across the K-12 grade span often think they know things that they really don't know.

Research indicates that study skills training is most likely to be effective when: a. Students focus on learning one specific study strategy. b. Students focus on learning facts rather than on developing higher-level thinking skills. c. Students have little or no background in the topic they are studying. d. Students are given reasons why certain study techniques are helpful.

d. Students are given reasons why certain study techniques are helpful.

Three of the following are possible reasons why classroom dialogues help students better understand classroom subject matter. Which one is not necessarily a benefit of classroom dialogues? a. Students are exposed to the views of other people—views that may be more accurate than their own. b. Students must clarify their ideas sufficiently to explain them to their classmates. c. Students may discover flaws in their own ideas and thoughts about a topic. d. Students are more likely to form visual images related to their ideas when they describe those ideas to others.

d. Students are more likely to form visual images related to their ideas when they describe those ideas to others.

Which one of the following alternatives is the best example of service learning? a. Struggling readers in a first-grade class spend three days a week with parent volunteers who provide one-on-one tutoring in basic reading skills. b. A group of young boys develop a business in which they mow the lawns of their neighbors to make extra spending money. c. Students in a fourth-grade class work in small cooperative groups to help one another make sense of challenging reading material. d. Students in a biology class collect samples of local pond water, evaluate them for bacteria content, and report their findings to the city health department.

d. Students in a biology class collect samples of local pond water, evaluate them for bacteria content, and report their findings to the city health department.

Communities of learners often create conceptual artifacts as they study a topic. Which one of the following is the best example of such an artifact? a. Students jointly write a one-act play based on a short story they've been reading. b. Students write their own, individual summaries of what they think the class has accomplished each week. c. Students jointly create a board game that puts the economic principle of supply-and-demand into action. d. Students jointly create a diagram that helps them understand the water cycle. They occasionally revise it as they learn more about evaporation and condensation.

d. Students jointly create a diagram that helps them understand the water cycle. They occasionally revise it as they learn more about evaporation and condensation.

Three of the following are potential disadvantages of a cooperative learning activity. Which one has not been identified as a disadvantage? a. Students generally have lower self-efficacy when they study with peers rather than alone. b. Students may learn incorrect information from other group members. c. Students who do more work may harbor negative feelings about students who do less work. d. Students may be more interested in completing the task quickly than in helping one another learn.

d. Students may be more interested in completing the task quickly than in helping one another learn.

Learners' epistemic beliefs can best be described as learners' views about: a. What instructional techniques are most likely to help them learn classroom material b. How researchers develop theories from the data they collect c. How long they are likely to remember the things that they learn in school d. The nature of knowledge and how it is acquired

d. The nature of knowledge and how it is acquired

Concept maps, whether constructed by students or teachers, have several advantages. Which one of the following is not necessarily an advantage of concept maps? a. They help students learn classroom material more meaningfully. b. They help teachers identify misconceptions that students may have about the material. c. They provide a means through which students can visually as well as verbally encode relationships among ideas. d. They encourage cooperative learning because they can be constructed only when two or more students work together

d. They encourage cooperative learning because they can be constructed only when two or more students work together

Three of the following are characteristics of self-regulated learning. Which one is not necessarily a characteristic associated with self-regulated learning? a. Trying to focus one's attention on the task at hand b. Figuring out how best to use the time one has to accomplish a particular learning task c. Wanting to learn something even though there is no external reward for learning it d. Working hard to achieve the instructional objectives the teacher has described

d. Working hard to achieve the instructional objectives the teacher has described

Norman is studying Chinese and needs to remember that the word for "exit" is chu, so he remembers the sentence The choo-choo train is exiting from the station. Norman's technique illustrates the use of: a. an external retrieval cue b. the keyword method c. the pegword method d. verbal mediation

d. verbal mediation