Chapter 10: Gender

True/False: the transition from F->M is easier than from M->F

True

Transwoman

A biological male who identifies and presents as a woman. (p. 249)

Gay men are more similar/different to heterosexual men, and have lesser/greater sociosexuality

Similar; greater

Gender

The psychological experience of femaleness and/or maleness. (p. 234)

Describe the timeline of gender development

1 yo: Detecting gender via physical distinctions 2-3 yo: Having gender yet think that gender changes with physical characteristics 3-4 yo: Recognize gender constancy 5-7 yo: Doing gender (matching behaviour)

Is it possible to raise a child genderless? Describe the implications of a family raising a genderless child.

1. A family was raising a kid such that they didn't establish a gender and wanted the child to decide on their own 2. The marginalization to not conforming could be bad, is there a potential for harm? What are the known benefits of raising a child as genderless?

5-Alpha-Reductase Deficiency (5-ARD)

1. Affects XY individuals 2. Internal male reproductive organs (undescended testes) external female genitals 3. Masculinization at puberty when testosterone levels increase 4. Treat with surgery and hormone therapy

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)

1. Affects cortisol synthesis in the adrenal gland; most common types result in exposure to elevated levels of androgens before birth. This can lead to virilization - larger clit, partially fused labia majora, shorter vaginal length, and an incomplete differentiation of the urethra and vagina are common 2. Affects both males and females -Females may show less nurturance, empathy, less interest in infants and are more often heterosexual, but show increased same-sex attraction -Boys may show less aggression and more empathy 3. Treated with hormone therapy, surgery.

Describe the life experiences and sexual orientations of transmen and transwomen

1. Autogynephilia 2. Live a gender nonconforming childhood 3. Feel distress at puberty when there are major changes and hide physical characteristics

Intersex varies based on what 3 conditions?

1. Chromosomal variation 2. Sex hormone variations 3. Congenital issues or physical trauma (non-congenital)

Reporting biases in sex research

1. Conforming to gender norms 2. Men report having more partners than women - due to double sexual standard 3. Reports change based on what's acceptable 4. Feedback given

What are the three sex hormone variations that occur in intersex individuals?

1. Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) 2. Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS) 3. 5-Alpha-Reductase Deficiency (5-ARD)

Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS)

1. Development of typical female physical characteristics in those with XY chromosomes 2. Partial AIS - Intermediate male- and female- typical characteristics, with differing degrees of genital masculinization 3. Complete - appear as female, raised as females, and identify as heterosexual and female

What three theoretical perspectives contribute to gender and sexuality?

1. Evolutionary psychology 2. Social learning theory 3. Social structural theory

How do intersex individuals develop?

1. For some, problems with physiological development; cloacal exstrophy, penile agenesis 2. For others, physical traumas such as penile ablation

What factors shape a child's sense of gender identity and gender roles?

1. Gender socialization via observational learning and operational learning 2. Gender roles are imposed at birth; clothes, toys / blue, pink

What are the consequences of having autogynephilia?

1. Harms the transwomen community because it contradicts the subjective experience of them as women trapped inside men's bodies 2. Might be rejected treatment because they would be pathologized as transvestic

Describe the characteristics of biological sex

1. Hormones; i.e. testosterone will fuel XY development, affecting the appearance of external sex characteristics and reproductive organs. 2. Gonadal Sex; Internal reproductive organs (ova and sperm) which play a role in regulating hormones 3. Internal organs; i.e. fallopian tubes 4. External genitals; i.e. Penis/vulva 5. Sex Chromosomes XX->Female XY->Male

Why might a transgender individual choose not to undergo sex reassignment surgery?

1. Not believing there is anything medically wrong with having the physiology of one sex but identifying with the other 2. Having medical conditions that prevent surgery 3. Being from a culture that is highly accepting of people who do not fit the "binary model" of gender.

What is the difference between specificity of sexual response and sexual concordance? How do males and females differ in specificity of sexual response and sexual concordance?

1. Sexual specificity is the agreement between reported sexual attraction and arousal, whereas sexual concordance is the agreement between reported sexual arousal and actual genital arousal. 2. Males have greater sexual specificity than females and males have a higher degree of sexual con-cordance than females.

Women and men differ in sexual response to stimuli in two aspects. What are these two aspects? Describe them

1. Specificity of sexual arousal 2. Sexual concordance; Men>women. For women, might be due to sexual double standards and reporting biases

What are the challenges of coming out?

1. Transphobia 2. Cisnormativity

What are the two sex chromosome variations that occur in intersex individuals?

1. Turner's Syndrome (XO) 2. Klinefelter's Syndrome (XXY)

What are the cons to a vaginoplasty?

1. Vagina isn't self-lubricating or flexible 2. Penetration is difficult

Describe the two developmental pathways of transwomen

1. Very gender-atypical in childhood, leading to heterosexual attraction post transition 2. Not overtly gender-nonconforming and hardly any experience of gender dysphoria. Experience arousal with cross-dressing (autogynephilia); leads to same-sex attraction after transition and transition later in life

Cons of TSR

1. Waitlist is very long 2. Exp$en$ive!!!

Transman

A biological female who identifies and presents as a man. (p. 249)

Disorders of sexual development (DSDs)

A group of conditions in which the reproductive organs and/or genitals develop differently from what is expected. (p. 241)

Genderqueer

A person whose gender identification and self-presentation do not conform to gender categories. They view the world's dichotomous views as incompatible to them

Penile agenesis

A rare developmental variation in which a male child is born without a penis. (p. 241)

Cloacal exstrophy

A rare developmental variation in which the abdominal organs are exposed and the genitals develop abnormally. (p. 241)

Autogynephilia

A sexual variation in which a man is sexually aroused by the thought of himself as a woman. (p. 250)

Parental investment theory

A theory proposed by Robert Trivers (1972) that predicts that the sex making the larger investment in offspring will be more discriminating in mating. (p. 236)

Turner's Syndrome (XO)

Affects females, missing the second X chromosome. This leads to underdeveloped female physical characteristics and are treated with growth hormones. Many identify as female and intersex

Sexual concordance

Agreement between self-reported sexual arousal and genital arousal. (p. 240)

Specificity of sexual arousal

Agreement between self-reported sexual attractions and sexual arousal patterns. (p. 240)

Gender stereotypes

Beliefs about the typical characteristics and behaviours of men and women

Describe Stage 4: Gender-Affirming Surgery of TSRs for transwomen

Bottom (uses extra skin from some body part) -Bilaterial orchidectomy (remove testicles) -Labiaplasty in which a vulva is formed from penile and scrotal tissues -Vaginoplasty - formation of the vaginal canal Top -Breast augmentation surgery -Shaving of Adam's apple, raising vocal pitch, more feminine appearance

Describe Stage 4: Gender-Affirming Surgery of TSRs for transmen

Bottom (uses extra skin from some body part) -Hysterectomy (removal of uterus) -Oophorectomy (removal of ovaries) -Scrotoplasty and phalloplasty (construction of a scrotum and penis, respectively) -Metoidoplasty - enlarged clitoris freed from the clitoral hood and replicate a penile shaft Top -Bilateral masectomy (removal of breasts) -Cosmetic surgery to create male-typical chest appearance

Gender dysphoria

Distress experienced when they feel a mismatch between SAB and gender identity

Gender schemas

Frameworks of how men and women typically behave

Describe Stage 2: The Real-Life Experience of TSRs

Full transition to the social role matching their felt gender. During this time, they may face lots of discrimination that can be buffered by gender support groups

evolutionary psychology

Gender differences arise due to efforts of maximizing reproductive fitness 1. PIT; females look for men who can provide resources, are committed and males prefer female characteristics associated with fertility and express greater sexual desire 2. Those who have adapted with these traits will have those traits passed on to their offspring

Social Learning Theory

Gender differences via stereotyping result from observational learning (i.e. media). Through these means, there are perceptions that men are sex-driven, women are sexual objects, and dating is a game

Is gender transition easier before/after puberty? Give a reason why/why not it is

Gender transition is much easier with hormone blocking before puberty since there would usually be a surge in hormones that rapidly develops the male and female physical characteristics during/post puberty

Operational learning (gender)

Gender-conforming behaviours are reinforced and gender-nonconforming behaviours are punished

Two-spirit

In Indigenous cultures, those that are attracted to the same gender or both genders and/or is transgender or intersex and/or identifies with both genders. This large intersectionality leads to a lot of oppression.

Klinefelter's Syndrome (XXY)

In males, an extra X chromosome that leads to lower testosterone production, more female-like development. They are treated with testosterone supplementation and many transition to females

Sociosexuality

Individual difference in the willingness to engage in casual sexual activity. (p. 238)

Intersex individuals

Individuals whose reproductive and/or sexual anatomy develops differently from what is considered to be typical in either a female or a male. (p. 241)

You might think that trans people after surgery might regret their surgery. Is their surgery satisfactory?

Majority report satisfaction and improvement in life

de-gendering

Making "gender neutral" - eliminating references to gender or sex. This can be done via: 1. Avoiding assumptions 2. Using gender-neutral pronouns, names, and or/other terms 3. Ask them: "What pronouns do you use?"

social structural theory

Mate preferences arise from men controlling resources in the workforce; men work outside of home (agentic; dominant, assertive), while women are primary caregivers and typically stay at home (communal; submissive, dependent). This affects sexual behaviours, but not attitudes..

Describe the sexuality differences in males and females

Men show greater masturbation, erotic materials use, more frequent casual sex behaviour, and more permissive attitudes toward casual sex

What explanation serves to explain why sociosexuality is reported greater in men?

PIT - males put in more reproductive effort and lower cost of reproduction

Describe the pros and cons of hormone therapy (stage 3)

Pro: 6 months - 1.5 years; considerable change Cons: Once you stop, some changes revert back

What are the pros and cons of performing genital surely on infants or young children for the purpose of achieving gender-stereotypical genitals? How does the issue of consent from that infant or child bear on this decision?

Pros: Face less discrimination/prejudice, decreased chance of confusion and/or gender dysphoria, Cons: The infant/child can't give consent and even if child gives assent, they might not fully understand the long term implications of the procedure

Describe Stage 1: Psychological and Physical Evaluation of TSRs

Psychological; diagnosis of gender dysphoria, outlining the risk and benefits, giving them the support through the transition and connecting them with others undergoing it, and identifying barriers. Physical; to determine whether the individual is intersex

Hormonal sex

Sex determined by levels of estrogens and androgens. (p. 236)

Chromosomal sex

Sex determined by the combination of sex chromosomes. (p. 236)

Gonadal sex

Sex determined by the presence of female gonads (ovaries) and/or male gonads (tes-ticles). (p. 236)

Gender role

Societally determined expectations of one's gender identity, as formed by gender schemas, stereotypes, and norms

What are the 4 stages of transition-related surgeries (TRSs)?

Stage 1: Psychological and Physical Evaluation Stage 2: The Real-Life Experience Stage 3: Hormone-Replacement Therapy (HRT) Stage 4: Gender-Affirming Surgery

Transition-related surgeries (TRSs)

Surgical procedures to alter physical characteristics to resemble those typically associated with one's felt gender. (p. 250)

Gender-affirming surgeries

Surgical procedures to alter physical characteristics to resemble those typically associated with one's felt gender. Typically done when one has gender dysphoria

reproductive fitness

The ability to successfully pass on genes to the next generation

Biological sex

The biological condition of being male and/or female, as determined by genes, chromosomes, hormones, and physical traits. (p. 234) The combination and coordination of these factors is what leads to variation.

Virilization

The biological development of sex differences, specifically changes that make a male body different from a female body. (p. 242)

Transphobia

The fear, dislike, and/or intolerance of transgender or gender non-conforming indi-viduals. (p. 255)

Cisnormativity

The incorrect assumption that all people are cisgender—that is, have a gender iden-tity that matches the sex they were assigned at birth. (p. 255)

Gender socialization

The learning of behaviour and attitudes considered appropriate for a given gender role. (p. 248)

Gender identity

The way in which one identifies with a gender category (e.g., man, woman, nei-ther). (p. 234)

There was a study where adults observed children (didn't know gender) interacting with toys and were asked to differentiate the liking and emotional expressions of each. What was the finding?

They differentiated the liking and emotional expressions of each based on gender stereotypes

Describe Stage 3: Hormone-Replacement Therapy (HRT) of TSRs

Transmen receive testosterone injections Transwomen receive estrogen injections and androgen blockers, but also face further challenges of removing body hair

When a transman has a recreated penis, erections don't occur. How much does this matter to the transman individual?

Usually, does not matter to the individual because now the penis is part of their self-image

trans identity

When an individual's gender doesn't match the gender typically associated with their biological sex

Gender similarities hypothesis; Women and men are more similar than different for most psychological variables

Women and men are more similar than different for most psychological variables

Describe gender differences in sexual orientation

Women, more than men, are more likely to be bisexual (more sexually fluid); with more opposite sex partners, there is more engagement in same-sex activity and there is an increased sex drive associated with sexual attraction to both males and females

sexual double standard

a code that permits greater sexual freedom for men than women

Gender agreement is called ____ and disagreement is called ____

cisgender;transgender

The sex making the larger investments in their offspring will be more/less discriminating in mating (PIT)

more

Lesbian women are more similar/different to heterosexual women and show lesser/greater interest in visual sexual stimuli and value social status of partnermore/less

similar; greater; less

Assigned gender

the gender to which a child is socially assigned at birth based on biological sex (physician conflates gender and biological sex)